Literary Theory Myth Introduction

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Table of Contents K 11

Table of ContentsProf. Stephen Hagin K Symbolic Connections in WL K 12th edition K Kennesaw State University

iNTRODUCTION 1-3 Table of Contents

4 Ancient Civilizations Timeline5-7 Introduction to Mythology8-9 Archetypes

10-13 Duality14-22 Mythological Creation Stories

23 Background: Hebrew Old Testament 24-25 The Documentary Hypothesis

26 Pertinent Bible Terms

27-30 Genesis 1-3: Two Creation Stories31-32 READING GUIDE: Genesis 1-3

UNIT 1: The AGE of TAURUS

34-35 Unit 1 Introduction36-41 Mesopotamian Character Glossary42-51 Enki and Ninhursag

52-58 Enki and the World Order 59 The Inanna Cycle

60-61 READING GUIDE: The Huluppu-Tree 61-63 READING GUIDE: Inanna and the God of Wisdom 63-66 READING GUIDE: The Courtship of Inanna and Dumuzi

66 Planting vs. Hunting Cultures67-68 Genesis 4: Cain and Abel68-69 Ancient Underworlds

70 The Hebrew Conception of the Cosmos71-74 READING GUIDE: The Descent of Inanna

75 READING GUIDE: The Descent of Ishtar to the Underworld 76-81 Enlil and Ninlil

81-83 READING GUIDE: Nergal and Ereshkigal



22 K INTRODUCTION

UNIT 2: The AGE of Aries

85-86 Unit 2 Introduction87-95 Stars in the Sky, Gods in the Heavens

96 Precession of the Equinoxes

97-98 The Zodiac and the Ages of Time 98-102 The Ages of Man

102 VIDEO GUIDE: Graham Hancock’s Quest for the Lost Civilization 103-105 The Rulers of Lagash

105 The Real Rulers of Lagash

106-113 The Sumerian King List 114-116 READING GUIDE: Etana 117-119 READING GUIDE: Adapa 120-126 READING GUIDE: The Epic of Creation ( Enuma elish)126-130 READING GUIDE: Atrahasis 131-132 Gilgamesh Notes

133 Epic Conventions134 from Essay on Man by Alexander Pope (1688-1744)

135-152 READING GUIDE: The Epic of Gilgamesh

153-157 Genesis 5-9: Noah and the Flood158-165 Comparing the Flood Narratives: Genesis, Atrahasis, and Gilgamesh

Unit 3: Ancient Egypt

167-168 Unit 3 Introduction

169 The Egyptian Natur170-180 Egyptian Gods and Goddesses181-183 Egyptian Creation Stories183-186 The History of Creation 186-188 Alternate Stories of Creation

188-194 The Destruction of Mankind

195-197 Isis and the Name of Ra

198-199 Horus and the Eye of Horus200-245 Osiris, Isis, and Horus

246-275 The Journey to the Duat

276 Egyptian Folk Tales

276-279 The Story of the Shipwrecked Sailor 280-285 The Book of Thoth 286-287 The Story of the Green Jewel 287-288 The Wax Crocodile 288-291 The Tale of the Doomed Prince 291-298 The Tale of the Two Brothers 298-299 Genesis 39300-311 Literary Parallels to Genesis 1-3



Table of Contents K 33

Unit 4: The Far East

313 Western vs. Eastern Thinking314-318 An Introduction to Eastern Philosophies

319 The Vinegar Tasters

320-321 Taoism322-325 Voices of Taoism

326 Confucianism327-330 Voices of Confucianism

331 Buddhism332-334 The Story of the Buddha335-338 Voices of Buddhism339-340 Identifying Eastern Voices in Poetry341-345 Interpretations of Chinese Poetry346-352 Excerpts from The Tao Te Ching of Lao Tzu352-368 Excerpts from The Analects of Confucius368-380 Excerpts from The Dhammapada of Buddha381-382 Hinduism383-385 The Avatars of Vishnu386-403 READING GUIDE: The Ramayana

404-426 The Bhagavad-Gita 427 The Bhagavad-Gita: Triad of Nature’s Qualities

428-430 READING GUIDE: Siddhartha

Appendix

Reading Guides: The Power of Myth

431-435 Chapter 1: “Myth and the Modern World”436-439 Chapter 2: “The Journey Inward”440-442 Chapter 3: “The First Storytellers”443-446 Chapter 4: “Sacrifice and Bliss”447-452 Chapter 5: “The Hero’s Adventure”453-455 Chapter 6: “The Gift of the Goddess”

456-460 Chapter 7: “Tales of Love and Marriage”461-464 Chapter 8: “Masks of Eternity”

REFERENCES

465-467 General References468 Special Acknowledgement



44 K INTRODUCTION

Ancient Civilizations TimelineProf. Stephen Hagin K Symbolic Connections in WL K 12th edition K Kennesaw State University

The following timeline lists important developments in ancient civilizations, including theirliterature, religions, architecture, and farming. The years listed are all BCE (Before theCommon Era), also known as BC (Before Christ), and are approximations based on researchacross several different fields of study.

500,000 the first use of fire100,000 ritualized burials of the dead

40,000 full hunting cultures established30,000 prehistoric paintings20,000 colonization of Europe10,000 domestication of animals

8000 decline of the last ice age8000 Jericho, the first walled town, is built

8000-6000 The Great Sphinx built5000 irrigation in Mesopotamia4000 bronze casting3500 megaliths3200 civilization in Sumer3000 cuneiform and hieroglyphics formed3000 copper casting2900 union between Upper and Lower Egypt2700 365-day calendar (Egypt)2700 Gilgamesh reigns in Uruk, Sumer

2500 The Great Pyramids at Giza are built2000 Gilgamesh tablets written2000 Osiris story composed

1800-1700 Hammurabi’s Law Code 1700 Minoan Greeks

1500-1400 Hindu Rig Veda, Egyptian Book of the Dead 1250 Moses and the Hebrew Exodus1000 Chinese dictionary written containing 40,000 characters1000 United Hebrew monarchy under David1000 The Pentateuch (first 5 books of the OT) composed

1000-800 Hindu Upanishads 750-700 The Odyssey and The Iliad dictated by Homer

550 Aesop’s Fables 500 Birth of reason and philosophy worldwide500 The Age of Buddha, Confucius, and Lao Tzu500 The Analects and The Tao Te Ching 400 The Ramayana 400 The Bhagavad-Gita250 Old Testament compiled



Introduction to mythology K 55

Introduction to Mythology Prof. Stephen Hagin K Symbolic Connections in WL K 12th edition K Kennesaw State University

This class will only make sense if you understand the foundations of mythological thinking,which reveals its message through profound symbols and metaphors. The most importantlesson about reading mythology is this: never look at myths literally.

Every myth involves characters that represent other ideas (such as earth, water, evil), andthey should never be interpreted as real, as was the intention of these early cultures.Animals cannot speak your language, time cannot stop, and hearts cannot live in the pinetrees. These are all representations of something else that lives in the shadows of theseideas. We will look closely at these shadows all semester.

For example, we will soon encounter a Mesopotamian story entitled Enki and Ninhursag . We

will learn that Enki is the god of fresh water, and Ninhursag is Mother earth. In the middleof the story, Enki will make love to his wife, his daughter, his grand daughter, and his great-grand daughter. Taken literally, we can argue that Enki commits incest. However, this isnot the case at all. His children represent different aspects of vegetation, such as the grass.When water mingles with plants, the earth is in balance and life continues.

Definitions: Understanding Myths

myth — a traditional story dealing with supernatural beings, ancestors, or heroes thatinforms or shapes the world view of people, as by explaining the aspects of the

natural world or outlining the customs or ideals of a society. Most of the maincharacters that we will read about are intended to be manifestations of nature andthey act in ways that teach us to understand our own behaviors and our relationshipto the eternal. Since some myths are also epics (such as Gilgamesh and The

Ramayana), you should know the following distinction:

myth — a story in which the protagonist is a godepic — a story in which the protagonist is a human

personification — applying human qualities to a nonhuman entity (inanimate objects, animals, elements, etc.), such as talking animals

metaphor — a figure of speech in which a word or phrase that designates one thing is applied to another in an explicit comparison (such as a sunrise representing new life and a sunset implying death or finality)

symbol — an icon or picture that represents something else by association, resemblance, orconvention; a material object representing something invisible:

K



66 K INTRODUCTION

motif — a recurrent thematic element in a work of literature or film (such as a speech delivered in the voice of a 1930s announcer, a Woody Allen film in black and white,the color red used on different objects, the shape of the mesas in the movie ET, etc.)

archetype — a symbol, often referred to as a “primordial image” that is the basis for thesymbolic meaning of myth. These symbols are universal in that they appear in mythsin all ages and cultures, manifesting themselves in differing ways according to thespecific culture where they originated. In literature, characters, images, and themesthat symbolically embody universal meanings and basic human experiences,regardless of when or where they live, are considered archetypes, which are infinite, and a single example may have hundreds of different examples. For example, Jesus is a manifestation of the “savior” archetype, which can also be seen in Marduk ( Enuma

elish), Horus (Osiris, Isis, and Horus), and Krishna (The Bhagavad-Gita). Commonliterary archetypes include stories of quests, initiations, scapegoats, descents into theunderworld, and ascents into heaven.

Definitions: Spiritual Terminology gods — any being considered to be divine; a person or thing made into the object of supreme

devotion

religion — from religio, “to reattach a ligament, to link back”; the rituals and procedures of a formally followed spiritual tradition

philosophy — the science of dealing with the general causes and principals of things;personal attitude

Definitions: Understanding Dualism

duality — the state of being twofold; existence divided equally between opposing attributes;necessary opposites

transcend — to go beyond (a boundary, condition, form)

dæmon — The original word daemon actually is defined as an “intermediary between gods and man.” We’ll see many examples of this later, especially in the Adam and Evestory, where we will see the serpent as the demon ... although a necessary dark force that helps us to understand Yahweh by combining it together with the light forces.

evil — that which causes harm, misfortune, or destruction, marked by anger or malice; thequality of being morally reprehensible or wicked; extreme selfish behavior (Far East)

Sources:http://www.argonautica.us/dictionary/index.htm http://www.bedfordstmartins.com/literature/bedlit/glossary_a.htm



Introduction to mythology K 77To reinforce these ideas, I read an old fable, originally from the Far East, called “The Oak and the Reed.” The following version of this fable was revised by 17th century French author Jean de la Fontaine, and translated by James Michie:

The Oak and the Reed

One day the oak said to the reed,“You have good cause indeedTo accuse Nature of being unkind.To you a wren must seemAn intolerable burden, and the least puff of windThat chances to wrinkle the face of the streamForces your head low; whereas, I,Huge as a Caucasian peak, defyNot only the sun’s glare, but the worst the weather can do.What seems a breeze to me is a gale for you.Had you been born in the lee of my leaf-sheltered ground,

You would have suffered less. I should have kept you warm,But you reeds are usually foundOn the moist borders of the kingdom of the storm.It strikes me that, to you, Nature has been unfair.”

“Your pity,” the plant replied, “springs from a kind heart,But please don’t be anxious on my part:Your fear of the winds ought to be greater than mine.I bend, but I never break. You, till now, have been able to bearTheir fearful buffets without flexing your spine,But let us wait and see.”

Even as he spoke,From the horizon’s nethermost gloom,The worst storm the North had ever bred in its wombFuriously awoke.The tree stood firm; the reed began to bend.The wind redoubled its efforts to blow —So much so,That in the endIt uprooted the one that had touched the sky with its head,But whose feet reached to the region of the dead.

Notice that this story is filled with metaphors. The oak really doesn’t speak to the reed —their actions are personified , and their behaviors are metaphorical. When we read mythology,we must always fight our instincts to take the characters and their actions literally. Wewill read several stories where one character kills another, but they may represent agricultural symbols or seasonal metaphors that simply explain the process of the harvest.Once we understand the mythological and cultural contexts, we will see the wisdom andlogic of these messages. Be patient and ask lots of questions! When approaching theunfamiliar, try to act more like the reed than the oak — be adaptable and open-minded.



88 K INTRODUCTION

ArchetypesProf. Stephen Hagin K Symbolic Connections in WL K 12th edition K Kennesaw State University

Definitions of “Archetype” Archetypes are universally understood symbols, and all myths use them. Archetypes aresymbols, which means that they must be tangible (we can touch them, see them, etc.). Most archetypes are Nature symbols, since all cultures live on the same earth. The sun and moon are popular and obvious archetypes, each representing different ideas: sun represents light,life, male, while the moon suggests darkness, death, and mutability.

Archetypes, however, are more than symbols, since all cultures should be able to understandthe archetype in similar terms. A sunset, for example, is universally viewed as a representation of death, or at least the end of something. Very few people would consider a

sunset representative of life, although it is a valid metaphorical interpretation. The nextlogical question might have to be, “What is the difference between the image of the sunrise and the sunset, especially if we cannot tell the difference?” This is why archetypes areimportant to mythology, since the mere presence of them speaks volumes.

Mythologist Joseph Campbell has expanded the traditional definition of archetype to includestock characters, personality types, and other behavior patterns. Campbell explainssomething called the “archetypal hero” as a character in a myth who leaves his home,experiences life-changing adventures, and then returns to share his wisdom and help hispeople. As a beginner, however, you should be looking for tangible things, such as earth,water, trees, birds, serpents, etc. Here are several definitions of archetype to assist you:

archetype: (är´k∂*típ), n. 1. The original pattern or model of a work; or the model fromwhich a thing is made or formed.

archetype: (literature) The first, prototypical and quintessential expression of a theme,character type, style, genre, etc.

archetype: A symbol, often referred to as a “primordial image” that is the basis for thesymbolic meaning of myth. These symbols are universal in that they appear in myths in all ages and cultures, manifesting themselves in differing ways according to the specificculture where they originated. Archetypes are infinite, and a single example may havehundreds of different examples. For example, Jesus is a manifestation of the “savior”

archetype.

archetype: A term used to describe universal symbols that evoke deep and sometimesunconscious responses in a reader. In literature, characters, images, and themes thatsymbolically embody universal meanings and basic human experiences, regardless of when or where they live, are considered archetypes. Common literary archetypes includestories of quests, initiations, scapegoats, descents to the underworld, and ascents toheaven.



archetypes K 99(är´k t p´´) [Gr. arch=first, typos=mold], term whose earlier meaning, “original model,” or

“prototype,” has been enlarged by C. G. Jung and by several contemporary literary critics.A Jungian archetype is a thought pattern that finds worldwide parallels, either incultures (for example, the similarity of the ritual of Holy Communion in Europe with thetecqualo in ancient Mexico) or in individuals (a child’s concept of a parent as both heroic and tyrannic, superman and ogre). Jung believed that such archetypal images and ideasreside in the unconscious level of the mind of every human being and are inherited fromthe ancestors of the race. They form the substance of the collective unconscious.Literary critics such as Northrop Frye and Maud Bodkin use the term archetypeinterchangeably with the term motif, emphasizing that the role of these elements in greatworks of literature is to unite readers with otherwise dispersed cultures and eras.

archetype: A universal model or prototype held in the collective unconscious and existing inliterature in the form of recurring symbols or motifs. The term was first elaborated byPlato (e.g. Beauty, Truth) and more recently by psychologists Jung and Freud. Jung describes archetypes in myths as “mental forms whose presence cannot be explained by anything in the individual’s own life and which seem to be aboriginal, innate, and

inherited shapes of the human mind.” Archetypal characters and patterns of action orplot exist in literature, such as the stock characters of femme fatale and evil villain.

the Serpent: Archetype of Life

Although you may have learned differently in Sunday School, a snake or serpent is an archetype, but it usually does not represent evil in mythology. The serpent is a universalsymbol of life and rebirth. Physically, it contains both the male (phallic) and female (water,slithery) attributes, so it is the perfect symbol to represent a unified duality. Its presence in a story usually suggests fear, not evil, as we will soon see, and it becomes the perfect

intermediary to characters who face changes. The serpent also sheds its skin (and then oftenconsumes it), re-emerging as a new creature, changed in some way from its previous form.

Joseph Campbell calls this being “twice born,” and Christians call this concept “born again.”Mythologically speaking, we are constantly being born again, as new phases of our livesprovide us the impetus for changes, yielding our more complete understanding of something after living through these new experiences. We will see many creatures become “twiceborn,” and many will become born again, and again, and again, etc. Sure, you may stillconsider the serpent to be evil in the Garden of Eden story if you’d like to, but you will bemissing the metaphors and archetypes that hold a deeper meaning than any literalinterpretations can provide.

Sources:http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Archetypehttp://www.audiotheater.com/glossary.htmlhttp://www.argonautica.us/dictionary/index.htmhttp://www.bedfordstmartins.com/literature/bedlit/glossary_a.htmhttp://bartleby.school.aol.com/65/ar/archetyp.htmlhttp://www.millenniumlibrary.co.uk/millib/reference/notes.php?entry=Archetype&fromdb=1



1100 K INTRODUCTION

Duality Prof. Stephen Hagin K Symbolic Connections in WL K 12th edition K Kennesaw State University

duality — the state of being twofold; existence divided equally between opposing attributes;necessary opposites (one side needs the other, by definition, in order to comprehendits existence — what does on mean if there is no off ?)

● good/bad ● on/off ● yes/no● day/night ● fire/water ● giving/receiving ● life/death ● young/old ● success/failure● man/woman ● firm/yielding ● clarity/confusion● active/passive ● order/chaos ● self/others

Yin/Yang

The most familiar symbol of duality is the yin/yang symbol from Taoism. This symbolillustrates the interaction between opposing forces (hence, a duality ). In mythologicalcreation stories, opposing (but necessary) concepts of creation, such as the interaction of opposing forces (dualities), are the building blocks of everything (metaphorically speaking).Taoism uses the yin/yang symbol to represent the need for two forces to come together inthe act of creation. The yin and yang promote two sides (a dark side and a light side),commingling in a circular boundary. Each side contains a tiny speck of the other side’ssubstance, demonstrating the interconnectivity between both sides.

The yang is known as the male force, while the yin represents the female force of creation.Keep in mind that these two sides do not refer to men and women, but rather opposing forces in nature that contain inherent qualities, called the masculine and feminine forces. Theyin/yang table does not intend to infer that men are hot and women are cold, for instance.The combination of heat and coolness makes living as men and women possible. All peoplecontain combinations of both male and female forces, although we lean in one direction morethan the other, in general.

YANG YINactive passive

light dark

hot cold

fire water

sun moon

heaven earth

firm loose

strong weak

male female



Duality K 1111Dualities in Motion

The yin/yang symbol is not supposed to be understood as a static icon. Rather, it is intendedto be a snapshot of a single moment in its perpetual motion. If we were to animate thissymbol, we would comprehend its intended message more clearly:

Taoists believe in constant change, so they would never look at anything with a sense of permanence. People have inconsistencies in their personalities, and seasons don’t lastforever. The sun is in constant motion, as is the wind, the waves on the water, and theindividual molecules of water in a stream. As soon as one thing comes around, there issomething else to displace it. Records are meant to be broken, right? Although this is a

specific reflection of one Eastern philosophy, we will find that most of the myths contain theinteraction of these opposing forces in a similar fashion.

Transcending the Dualities

Look for the consistent interplay between male and female forces in each of the initialcreation stories. Each Creator builds the world by assimilating, commingling, or accepting these dualities into one transcendent manifestation (a combined pair). In other words, wesee male creator gods create by injecting their seed into the receptacle (the form, thefemale). The male forces (actions, movements, inseminations, etc.) cannot create anything

unless they meet the female forces (water, soil, egg, and other “building blocks”).

These stories do not tell us the secrets of where all these things came from, but they showhow the pre-existing entities must come together in order for a third entity to be created.Several stories show creatures springing forth from cracked eggs or rocks, and thencombine their creative ideas with their shells (forms) to create the first beings. These beingsthen take over the creation themselves. Many interpretations exist, but they all follow thesame pattern: male + female = life.

Remember that we are looking at the metaphors in these stories. Metaphors ask us totranscend (to look/go beyond) their physical forms. Joseph Campbell suggests that theconcept of “god” cannot be understood by limiting him/her/it to our world of dualities. Godmust exist beyond our forms (language, symbols, words), and it is our job as readers of worldliterature to find these concepts beyond the dualities. In mythology, the universal conceptof “God” therefore cannot be either “male” or “female,” and it is rarely depicted as being purely “good” with no trace of “bad” (the dots in the yin/yang). Mythological gods musttranscend these physical limitations, and can only be appreciated by acknowledging theunification of these pairs of opposites. We will see dozens of examples this semester.



1122 K INTRODUCTION

The ancients understood that living in a world of duality forces us to have compassion aboutone side, but confusion regarding the other. For example, humans generally fear death,mainly because we have no first-hand experience about what a dying person experiences. If life is represented by the light side of the duality, then death occupies the dark side. If weonly understand one-half of reality, however, then how can we be wise? How do we know

that death is necessarily “bad”? We don’t. We mostly make assumptions about unknownconcepts based on fear and ignorance. However, once someone understands both sides of a duality, then that individual can understand God. Myths show us how the two sides worktogether to provide all the beautiful — and horrible — things in life.

The ancients idealized the concept of perfection (or godliness, eternity, truth, etc.) as theunity if the dualities. We humans are stuck in this world of dualities, which causes most ourconflicts. When discovering something brand new, we tend to place these new things intodual categories: “I like brunettes, I don’t like asparagus, I prefer football to baseball,” etc.Within five seconds of meeting someone new, we cast a series of judgments on this newperson — Is she cute? Is he stable? Is she worried? Is he distracted? Most of these

answers fall into yes/no categories — dualities.

But can we both enjoy and dislike something simultaneously? Yes we can, and this has long been fodder for jokes: “Men/Women — Can’t live with them; can’t live without them!”Understanding the dual natures of things allows us to become wise about the world, and thisis a simple form of transcending these dualities. Many dualities, however, cannot ever betruly transcended by humans. A man, for example, has no credible understanding aboutwhat it is like to live in a female body. If he cannot experience this first-hand, then he reallycan’t know how to unite this and other dualities. That wisdom belongs to the realm of thegods who transcend the dualities by definition of their existence. It is what gives them theirpower in the first place.

Examples of Dualities

Amongst some of the more interesting ideas in the first set of creation stories is the use of dualities in the Melanesian story of Qat, the Banks Islands Creator God. In this tale, Qatmust find a way to create night (rather than light). He does this by exchanging a pig fornight, trading with a neighboring island. This shows how cultures exchanged material goods as well as ideas. It also demonstrates the need for unified dualities.

It seems odd to many to see Qat teach his brothers how to fall asleep, but this representsthat they were not in touch with their natures until the balancing force of night wasintroduced to their environment. In fact, we see that the duality of order/chaos or society/Nature is also a male force/female force duality. The word “cosmos” is the ancientGreek word for “village,” which is opposite from “chaos” (a Greek word meaning “yawn,” orindifference to order). Qat, by attaining night, allows the village to be created and bettermanaged (day — sleep — day, etc.).



Duality K 1133In another creation story that we will read later, Atum, the Egyptian creator god, is said tohave “self-created.” Atum is a primordial god who was sometimes referred to as “The GreatHe-She,” because he owned the qualities of both male and female (although was primarily addressed as a male figure). He used his own body to create his children, combining the male and female forces together to spawn creation. Myths reflect a consistent sexual theme,

mainly because human beings strive to understand the world in terms that humans can bestunderstand. Sexuality presents a strong and beautiful example of dualities, since it is both the method of creation and an expression of love.

Dæmons (Intermediaries, MESSENGERS)

The story of the “Earth Diver” shows us that we sometimes have difficulty separating dualities. In this creation story, both “god” and “man” are depicted as two identical blackgeese. They are different in many ways, but they appear in the same form. If these twobirds were to fly overhead, which one would be God and which man? By looking at them, we

could not tell. We would have to examine their actions, not their appearances (a lesson thatwill be emphasized in the last unit on the Far East)! In the “Earth Diver” story, man is alsocalled “devil,” which tends to confuse many readers. If “Man” is “devil,” but “Man” looksexactly like “God,” then does that imply that “God” and “devil” are one in the same? Inmythological terms, yes, and here’s why:

The ancient Greeks looked at “the devil” very differently. The original Greek word used toexplain this concept was “dæmon,” which we have shortened to “demon.” However, insteadof representing something evil or bad, a dæmon actually is defined as “an intermediarybetween gods and man.” It is also understood as a “middle man” or a “go-between.” We’llsee many examples of this later, especially in the Adam and Eve story from Genesis, where

we will see the serpent as the demon — although it is a necessary dark force that helpsthem to understand God and His world. We have many things to learn before thisinterpretation will become clear.

In the Mesopotamian unit, we will see a king named Etana be lifted into the sky so that hecan visit Anu, the sky god. Etana is flown to the heavens on the back of an eagle, whomEtana had nursed back to health. In this story, the eagle serves as the intermediary , becauseEtana could not reach the heavens without him. The eagle, however, had committed heinous acts against his neighbor, and was serving his penalty before Etana saved his life. The eagleunderstood both the sacred and the profane during his life, making his the perfectintermediary to assist King Etana.

Also, in a popular Buddhist story, Siddhartha (a spiritual wanderer) will be escorted across a river by an old ferryman, Vasudeva. Siddhartha must cross the river to have his adventure,so he owes a debt to his intermediary , the ferryman, who serves as a catalyst to Siddhartha’sspiritual journey. The symbolic crossing of the river likewise shows the need forintermediaries (demons) in our lives to help us along into the next chapter of our lives.



1144 K INTRODUCTION

Mythological Creation StoriesProf. Stephen Hagin K Symbolic Connections in WL K 12th edition K Kennesaw State University

The Creation of the Universe (Taoist) The Taoist account of creation makes reference to three ideas important in Chinese thinking— the theme of the yin and the yang , the female and male principles that in alternationexpress and govern the rhythm of events in the universe, and ch’i, here translated “material-force,” but signifying the dynamic spirit or breath of life in living beings and in the cosmos.

Before heaven and earth had taken formall was vague and amorphous. Therefore itwas called the Great Beginning. The GreatBeginning produced emptiness and

emptiness produced the universe. Theuniverse produced material-force, which had limits. That which was clear and lightdrifted up to become heaven, while thatwhich was heavy and turbid solidified tobecome earth. It was very easy for the pure,fine material to come together butextremely difficult for the heavy, turbidmaterial to solidify. Therefore heaven wascompleted first and earth assumed shapeafter. The combined essences of heaven and

earth became the yin and yang, theconcentrated essences of the yin and yangbecame the four seasons, and the scatteredessences of the four seasons became the

myriad creatures of the world. After a longtime the hot force of the accumulated yangproduced fire and the essence of the fireforce became the sun; the cold force of theaccumulated yin became water and theessence of the water force became themoon. The essence of the excess force of the sun and moon became the stars andplanets. Heaven received the sun, moon andstars while earth received water and soil.

Source: Bary, William T., Wing-Tsit Chan, and B. Watson, eds. Sources of Chinese Tradition. Vol. 1. New

York: Columbia UP, 1960. Rpt. in Smart, Ninian, and Richard D. Hecht, eds. Sacred Texts of

the World: A Universal Anthology . New York: Crossroad, 1994. 293.

Questions for The Creation of the Universe

1. Describe the universe before creation.

2. How were heaven and earth created?

3. Describe the qualities of yang and yin in this story.



Mythological Creation Stories K 1155

The Brotherhood of Beast and Man(Bushongo, Central Africa)

In this variation, the world is created, not by a majestic fiat, but by a divine regurgitation.

In the beginning, in the dark, there was nothing but water. And Bumba was alone.

One day Bumba was in terrible pain. Heretched and strained and vomited up the sun.After that light spread over everything. Theheat of the sun dried up the water until theblack edges of the world began to show.Black sandbanks and reefs could be seen. Butthere were not living things.

Bumba vomited up the moon and then thestars, and after that the night had its own lightalso.

Still Bumba was in pain. He strained again and nine living creatures came forth: theleopard named Koy Bumba, and Pongo Bumbathe crested eagle, the crocodile, and one littlefish named Yo; next Kono Bumba, thetortoise, and Tsetse, the lightning, swift,steady, beautiful, like the leopard, then thewhite heron, Nyanyi Bumba, also one beetle,and the goat named Budi.

Last of all came forth men. There weremany men, but only one was white likeBumba. His name was Loko Yima.

The creatures themselves then created allthe creatures. The heron made all the birds of the air except the kite. He did not make thekite. The crocodile made serpents and theiguana. The goat produced every beast with horns. Yo, the small fish, brought forth all thefish of all the seas and waters. The beetle

created the insects.

Then the serpents, in their turn, madegrasshoppers, and the iguana made thecreatures without horns.

Then the three sons of Bumba said theywould finish the world. The first, NyonyeNgana, made the white ants; but he was notequal to the task, and died of it. The ants,however, thankful for life and being, wentsearching for black earth in the depths of theworld and covered the barren sands to bury

and honor their creator.Chonganda, the second son, brought forth

the marvelous living plant from which all thetrees and grasses and flowers and plants in theworld have sprung. The third son, ChediBumba, wanted something different, but forall his trying made only the bird called thekite.

Of all the creatures, Tsetse, lightning, wasthe only troublemaker. She stirred up somuch trouble that Bumba chased her into thesky. Then mankind was without fire untilBumba showed the people how to draw fireout of the trees. “There is fire in every tree,”he told them, and showed them how to makethe firedrill and liberate it. Sometimes todayTsetse still leaps down and strikes the earth and causes damage.

When at last the work of creation wasfinished, Bumba walked through the peacefulvillages and said to the people, “Behold thesewonders. They belong to you.” Thus from

Bumba, the Creator, the First Ancestor, cameforth all the wonders that we see and holdand use, and all the brotherhood of beast andman.

Source:Eliade, Mircia. Gods, Goddesses, and Myths of Creation. New York: Harper & Row, 1974. 91-92. Rpt. in

Leeming, David Adams. The World of Myth: An Anthology . New York: Oxford UP, 1990. 29-30.



1166 K INTRODUCTION

Questions for The Brotherhood of Beast and Man

4. What was the original element in the universe?

5. How does Bumba create the universe?

6. Which creatures picked up the slack of creation?

7. How was Tsetse a troublemaker?

8. What burden does her banishment place upon man?

Questions for An Earth-Diver Narrative (on the next page)

9. Describe the primordial shape of God and Man

10. What aspect of God’s power rescues man from the devilish waters?

11. How is the land raised from the water?

12. Describe God’s reaction to Man’s hiding earth in his mouth.




An Earth-Diver Narrative (Siberian-Altaic)

This sacred narrative illustrates the motif of creation with the aid of the earth-diver. Thesenarratives are quite extensive, appearing among circumpolar peoples, in eastern Europe, andin North America. The standard elements in the narrative are that the gods are situated

above a primordial body of water, the creator deity needs earth from below the water butcannot enter the water himself, and must use the services of another figure, the diver. Thediver, here the “First Man,” gathers the earth, but always tries to conceal a small amountfor himself. These sacred narratives always suggest some tension or dualism between thecompeting creators, with the diver’s creation always turning out flawed. Look carefully atthe way that both God and Man are portrayed in this story.

In the beginning, when there was nothing but water, God and the FirstMan moved about in the shape of twoblack geese over the waters of theprimordial ocean.

The devil, however, could not hidehis nature, but endeavored ever to risehigher, until he finally sank down intothe depths. Nearly suffocating, he wasforced to call to God for help, and Godraised him again into the air with thepower of his word. God then spoke:“Let a stone rise from the bottom of the

ocean!”

When the stone appeared, “Man”seated himself upon it, but God askedhim to dive under the water and bringland. Man brought earth in his hand and

God scattered it on the surface of thewater saying: “Let the world take shape!”

Once more God asked Man to fetch earth. But Man then decided to takesome for himself and brought a morselin each hand. One handful he gave to

God but the other he hid in his mouth,intending to create a world of his own.

God threw the earth that the devilhad brought him beside the rest on thewater, and the world at once began toexpand and grow harder. But with thegrowing of the world the piece of earth in Man’s mouth also swelled until hewas about to suffocate, so that he was

again compelled to seek God’s help.

God inquired: “What was yourintention? Did you think that you couldhide earth from me in your mouth?”

Man now told his secret intentionsand, at God’s request, spat the earth outof his mouth. Thus were formed theboggy places upon the earth.

Source:Holmberg, Uno, trans. Finno-Ugric, Siberian Mythology . Vol. 4 of The Mythology of All Races. Boston:

Archaeological Institute of America, 1917. Rpt. in Smart, Ninian, and Richard D. Hecht, eds.Sacred Texts of the World: A Universal Anthology . New York: Crossroad, 1994. 345.



1188 K INTRODUCTION

The Origins of Night and Sleep(Banks Islands, Melanesia)

Here the Creator, Qat, seeks to create darkness as a respite from relentless light.

When the Melanesian people in the BanksIslands see the shadow of a cloud movingswiftly over the face of the sea, they say “Thereflies Qat.” Qat created men and pigs and food,they say, and if a pig runs into the house, theydrive it out with the words “Qat says stayoutside.”

Qat himself was born on Vanna Lava, thevery center of the world, and of what happenedbefore that there is no tale.

Qat was born from the bursting of a stone.His mother was a great stone that split in twoand Qat came forth and named himself. He had

no father; but he had eleven brothers.

Qat began to make things right away; men and pigs and plants and stones — or whateverhe thought up.

But he did not know how to makedarkness. It was light in the world all the time,without dimness or dark or rest. The eleven brothers did not like the world this way.

“Look here, Qat! It’s too light,” they said, or“There’s nothing but light all the time, Qat!” or“Qat, can’t you do something?”

Qat searched around and one day he heardthat there was something called night over atVava in the Torres Islands. There he bought, in exchange for a pig, a piece of night from Qong,Night, who dwelt in that place.

At any rate, Qat returned to Vanna Lavabearing night and bringing also various birds and

fowls to make a clamor when it was time forday.

Qat showed the brothers how to constructbeds of coca fronds and spread them on thefloor and how to lie down for rest. Then he letloose the night.

The brothers looked out and saw the sun moving down the west. “It is departing,” theycried to Qat. “Will it come back?”

“What is happening is called night,” Qat toldthem.

“What is spreading and covering the sky?”cried the brothers.

“This is night,” said Qat. “Lie down andkeep quiet.”

The brothers lay down, and in the dark theyfelt strange and dreamy; their eyes grew heavyand closed.

“Are we dying?” said the brothers.

“This is sleep,” said Qat.

Only the birds knew how long the nightshould last; so when the night had lasted as longas the night should last, the cock crowed andthe birds began to call and answer.

Qat then took a piece of red obsidian for aknife and cut a hole in the night. The first lightthat showed through was red, and soon all thelight the night had covered shone through onceagain. The brothers opened their eyes andstarted the work of the day.

This is the way mankind lives now:

day — sleep — day.

Source:Codrington, R. H. The Melanesians: Studies in Their Anthropology and Folklore. Oxford: Oxford UP,

1891. 156-158. Rpt. in Novak, Philip. The World’s Wisdom: Sacred Texts of the World’s

Religions. New York: HarperCollins, 1994. 337-338.




Questions for The Origins of Night and Sleep

13. How was Qat born? How can he be fatherless?

14. What does Qat not know how to make?

15. How does Qat acquire night?

16. What seems to be the need for darkness to be created?

17. Why do you suppose that birds alone know the length of night?

The Churning of the Milky Ocean (Hindu)

The earliest Hindu scriptures were the Vedas, which introduced one of the most importantconcepts in Indian metaphysics — the principle of dharma (or sacred duty). It is the rule of law or action that literally holds the universe together. In the Vedic conception of the

universe, this principle is expressed in the delicate balance of opposing forces, exemplified bythe gods in their struggle against the demons. Thus good and evil, light and darkness, andcreation and destruction are all integral parts of this dharmic process. The dynamics of ourevolving universe are expressed in the tensions of the conflict between these forces.

Over the great cycles of time the dharma begins to degenerate, and the balance between theforces of light and darkness becomes lost. The demons, ever watchful for an opportunity togain the upper hand, seize the moment and chaos reigns in the upper and lower kingdoms.As a result of this disorder, things of great value are lost, the most important of which isamrita, the cream of the great Milk Ocean, whose absence threatens the very existence of theuniverse. After complaints from Indra, warrior king of the three worlds, to Brahma, thecreator, the god Vishnu is called to restore the dharma and the cosmic order.

This myth begins with the devas (the gods)losing battles against the asuras (the demons).The devas asked Bali, the king of the asuras , tocall a truce and to help churn up an elixir of immortality from the Sea of Milk. If the godscould gain immortality, the asuras could bedefeated, but the demons could not drink the

elixir (or the plan would fail). The asuras agreedto help.

The devas then asked the great god Vishnuto help them. Vishnu, the Preserver, devised aplan to restore order and set the mighty axis in motion and churning once more. By insisting on



2200 K INTRODUCTION

the co-operation of both the gods and thedemons, his plan was to activate the dynamicequilibrium by churning the great Milk Ocean using Mount Mandara as a churning stick. Mount Mandara, the king of the mountains, wasuprooted and moved to a position where it

could serve as the pivot for the churning.

However, the weight of the mountain wassuch that it began to sink into the soft bed of the Milk Ocean, and so Vishnu assumed theform of the Tortoise, Kurma, whose curvedback became the stable support and pivot upon which the churning stick could rest. He then called on the cosmic naga (serpent) Vasuki whoconveniently wrapped himself around MountMandara’s axis as a churning rope. The devas positioned themselves at the head of the snakeand the asuras at the tail. Together they began to churn the Sea of Milk. Eventually, the elixiremerged, but neither side could stop churninglong enough to drink it. The asuras began tosuspect the plan and attacked the devas .

Following a ruse by Vishnu, which convinced the demons that the gods desperatelywanted to hold Vasuki’s head, the asuras became irate and insisted that they should takethe head and the gods the tail. Thus the demonsand the gods took opposite ends of the cosmicserpent, and the churning process began again.

Unbeknownst to the demons, as the churningprogressed, Vasuki’s breath became hot, and outof his mouth came poisonous fumes which suffocated the demons, while the gods at thetail were refreshed by cool ocean winds.

As the churning of the Milk Ocean continued, treasures began to appear in themanner as butter might emerge from thechurning of cream. In the churning of the ocean many wonderful treasures that became theprototypes for their earthly and heavenlycounterparts were brought up from the depths:

(1) Candra, the moon; (2) parijata , a beautiful andfragrant tree now planted in Indra’s heaven; (3)the four-tusked elephant, Airavata, Indra’smount; (4) Kamadhenu, the cow of plenty; (5)Madira, the goddess of wine, who becameVaruni, the wife of Varuna; (6) Kalpavrksa, the

wish-fulfilling tree; (7) the apsaras (nymph)Rambha; (8) the celestial horse Uccaihshravas;(9) the goddess Lakshmi, who became the wifeof Vishnu; (10) Pañcajanya, Vishnu’s conch; (11-12) Gada, Vishnu’s mace, and Dhanus, his magicbow; (13) ratna (various gems); and (14)

Dhanvantari, the physician of the gods, whorose up out of the waters carrying in his handsthe supreme treasure, the amrita , the nectar of immortality.

When the asuras dropped Vasuki’s head, ithit the rocks, and he vomited forth poison thatthreatened to fall into the ocean andcontaminate the amrita . The demons reached itfirst and made off with it, but they began toquarrel over which of them should be first todrink. Meanwhile, the god Shiva consumed thepoison in order to save the world. The poison was caught in Shiva’s throat, which turned his

neck blue, but it also purified the serpentVasuki, which Shiva thereafter wore as hisgirdle.

As they argued, there appeared among thema girl named Mohini, the most beautiful woman they had ever seen. Having been enchanted byher charms, the demons asked Mohini how toapportion the amrita , and promised to abide byher decision. Mohini pointed out that since thegods and demons had labored equally to

produce the amrita , that the gods were alsoentitled to a share. Reluctantly, the demonsagreed, since they had made a promise.

Then Mohini insisted that the gods anddemons face each other in two long rows. Shebegan to pass down the row of gods, giving each a drink of the amrita . But as she reached theend of the row of devas , she suddenly vanished,and the cup of amrita vanished with her, leaving

none for the asuras . Mohini was none otherthan Vishnu in a female incarnation. A fightimmediately broke out between the gods and

the cheated demons, but the gods, strengthenedby the amrita , won an easy victory. Vishnu leftwith the elixir to keep it safe and to free theworld of greed. Indra was crowned king of thegods to rule with joy.

Source:http://www.mc.maricopa.edu/dept/d10/asb/anthro2003/archy/angkor/churn_myth.html




Questions for The Churning of the Milky Ocean

18. Vishnu is called “The Preserver.” What does he preserve?

19. What is significant about the gods and demons cooperating to achieve one goal?

20. The asuras represent the forces of chaos. What kinds of chaos do they create? Whatcauses it?

21. If the devas represent order, then why does Vishnu resort to trickery to succeed in hisplan? Is playing a trick a good or bad action?

Questions for the Rig Veda (located on the next page)

22. Describe the world before creation.

23. Is this version of creation masculine or feminine?

24. What is the purpose of the cord that stretches? What does it connect?

25. How certain is the author about his story?



2222 K INTRODUCTION

The Rig Veda (Hindu)

India has many ancient creation myths found in the Vedas, Brahamanas, Upanishads, andepics of the Hindus. The story here comes from the Rig Veda (c. 2000-1700 B.C.E.). Creationstories from this culture contain many familiar motifs: the creator god Brahma (or Prajapati),

creation by the “spilling” of the creator god’s seed, the sacrifice of a single being into two,the cosmic egg, the cosmic eye, the primal waters, and many others. Their dominant themeseems to be that of the emergence of reality as Mind (manas) or Soul (atman) fromnothingness.

Source:Eliade, Mircia. Gods, Goddesses, and Myths of Creation. New York: Harper & Row, 1974. 110. Rpt. inLeeming, David Adams. The World of Myth: An Anthology . New York: Oxford UP, 1990. 29-30.

1. Then 1 even nothingness was not, nor existence.2

There was no air then, nor the heavens beyond it.What covered it? Where was it? In whose keeping?Was there then cosmic water, in depths unfathomed?

2. Then there were neither death nor immortality,

nor was there then the torch of night and day.The One3 breathed windlessly and self-sustaining.4 There was that One then, and there was no other.

3. At first there was only darkness wrapped in darkness.All this was only unillumined water.5 That One which came to be, enclosed in nothing,arose at last, born of the power of heat.6

4. In the beginning desire descended on it —that was the primal seed, born of the mind.The sages who have searched their hearts with wisdomknow that which is, is kin 7 to that which is not.

5. And they have stretched their cord across the void,and know what was above, and what below.Seminal powers made fertile mighty forces.Below was strength, and over it was impulse.8

6. But, after all, who knows, and who can saywhence it all came, and how creation happened?The gods themselves are later than creation,so who knows truly whence it has arisen?

7. Once all creation had its origin,

he, whether he fashioned it or whether he did not,he, who surveys it all from highest heaven,he knows — or maybe even he does not know.

NOTES:

1. In the beginning.

2. Asat nor sat

3. Tad ekam, “That One,” who“breathes without air.”

4. Svadhã, energy, intrinsicpower which makes self-generation possible.

5. Fluid ( salila) andindistinguishable (apraketa).

6. Tapas, an archaic word which also defines those human austerities or techniqueswhich, like this cosmic heat,

generate power.

7. From “bond” (bandhu).

8. This stanza is obscure. The“cord” (rashmi) implies thebond of the preceding stanza; thought measuresout of the distance betweenthe non-existent and theexistent and separates themale and female cosmogonicprinciples: impulse (prayati)

above and energy ( svadhã )below.



Background: Hebrew old testament K 2233

Background: Hebrew Old TestamentProf. Stephen Hagin K Symbolic Connections in WL K 12th edition K Kennesaw State University

A Timeline of Hebrew History 2000-1550 BCE (the Middle Bronze Age) — The Holy Land was primarily occupied by Semitic

Amorites from the northeast.

1550-1200 BCE (the Late Bronze Age) — The Holy Land was also dominated by the Egyptians and Hittites before the Hebrews.

1250 BCE — Moses leads the Israelite slaves from Egypt and establishes the worship of Yahweh onMount Sinai (formerly sacred to Sin, the moon god); the Israelites entered andoccupied Canaan.

1200 BCE — The Cretan Philistines invaded Canaan, establishing five city-states on the southerncoast.

1020 BCE — Israel’s King David conquered the Philistines, making this land known since as theLand of Israel.

1020-922 BCE — The tribe of Judah settled south of Jerusalem, becoming a powerful force in theregion, supported by the leadership of the great kings of Israel: Saul, David, andSolomon. Prophesy suggests that the Messiah would come from this tribe.

930 BCE — The Ten Lost Tribes of Israel (Asher, Dan, Ephraim, Gad, Issachar, Manasseh, Naphtali,Reuben, Simeon, and Zebulun) formed an independent kingdom of Israel in the north,while two other tribes formed the kingdom of Judah in the south (Judah andBenjamin).

860-840 BCE — The prophets Elijah and Elisha denounce Canaanite influences and promote Yahweh

alone.850-750 BCE — The E Source of The Torah is compiled by a northern Israeli storyteller.

721 BCE — The Assyrians (under King Shalmaneser V) conquered the northern kingdoms, assimilating the ten tribes amongst other cultures, and thus disappearing fromhistory. Several cultures lay claim as descendants of the Ten Tribes, including the Nestorians, Mormons, Afghans, Ethiopians, American Indians, and Japanese.

621-609 BCE — The first edition of the Deuteronomistic History (Joshua through 2 Kings) iswritten.

587 BCE — The kingdom of Judah thrived until this date, when the Babylonians carried off the Jewsinto exile.

550-400 BCE — Legal and ritual codes are inserted by the priestly writers (P) into J and Enarratives, preserved in parts of Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers.

538 BCE — The Persians conquered Babylonia. Their king, Cyrus the Great, allowed the Jews toreturn to their homeland.

Sources:Michael Grant. The History of Ancient Israel. 1984.



2244 K INTRODUCTION

The Documentary HypothesisProf. Stephen Hagin K Symbolic Connections in WL K 12th edition K Kennesaw State University

Most biblical scholars agree that the Hebrew Bible contains writings of four major strands,written by four distinct authors (or groups of authors), woven into a patchwork thateventually became the Hebrew Bible.

The first official compilation of the Hebrew Bible may have occurred around the thirdcentury BCE in Alexandria, Egypt. Legend says that 72 Hebrew scholars were appointed totranslate the Scriptures into kione Greek. After working for 72 days, they produced 72identical versions. In reality, this landmark translation (known as the Septuagint) tookmore than two centuries to complete.

Yahwist Source (J)• YHWH (YAHWEH) — in Hebrew, the name of God as revealed to Moses

(eventually became “Lord”); translated as “He Brings into Existence WhateverExists” (Yahweh-Asher-Yahweh).

• The four-letter name YHWH is called the “tetragrammation.”

• The divine name became increasingly believed to be too sacred to utter,eventually replaced in the synagogue rituals by the Hebrew word Adonai (“MyLord”).

• This is the oldest strand, perhaps originating in Judah, written by a member of aninner royal circle between the years 950-850 BCE. The text begins with Genesis 2:4, and runs intermittently through Numbers.

• In Genesis 2, Yahweh is immanent (operating within a limited realm of physicalreality). He is more anthropomorphic (possessing a human shape and form,walking through Eden, enjoying the sweet savor of sacrifices, andencompassing human emotions, such as love, compassion, and anger).

Elhoist Source (E)

• Eloah — the more common noun, meaning “god,” used to demonstrate theuniversal sovereignty of Israel’s God over all others (plural = Elohim).

• Elohist source presents God as an abstract concept that is not accessible directly.

• The source starts with Abraham and provides different versions of patriarchaltales. The Elohist source prefers prophesy as the medium of God’s revelation,thus treating Abraham and Moses as prophets.



The Documentary hypothesis K 2255• The second oldest strain, Elohist texts were produced in the northern kingdom of

Israel between 850-800 BCE.

• In Genesis 1, the Elohim appear as omnipotent, invisible creative forces,transcendent of physical space.

• After falling to the Assyrians in 722 BCE, the E traditions were carried to Judah and combined with the Yahwist texts.

Selected Comparisons Yahwist Source (J) Elohist Source (E)God’s name Yahweh ElohimMoses’ father-in-law’s name Reuel JethroMountain’s name Sinai HorebPalestinians’ names Canaanites Amorites

Deuteronomist Source (D)

• An early version of Deuteronomy appeared about a century after the E strain, andprovided a more theological interpretation of Hebrew history. This thread isprimarily the source for the books of Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, 1 & 2Samuel, and 1 & 2 Kings.

• This text uses a distinctive vocabulary and style that calls for Israel’s conformityto the laws of Yahweh’s covenant, and stresses Israel as the chosen people.

• This text was composed between 650-621 BCE, and later revised in 587 BCE.

Priestly Code (P)

• Contributed to Genesis 1:1-2:3, most portions of Leviticus and Numbers, as well asExodus 26-40, and detailed genealogies.

• This Code was produced by Temple priests and completed during the years 550-400 BCE, during which the Temple was rebuilt in 450 BCE (it had beendestroyed in 586 BCE). Its intention was to establish a kingdom of priests andholy people.

• The creation story stresses the perfection and order of nature, culminating in theSabbath, a rest after all things have been put into their places (perfection).

• The Priestly Code promotes the theme of restoration and perfection through theproper sequencing of nature.

Sources:Michael Grant. The History of Ancient Israel. 1984.Stephen L. Harris. Understanding the Bible. Fifth Edition. 2000.



2266 K INTRODUCTION

Pertinent Bible TermsProf. Stephen Hagin K Symbolic Connections in WL K 12th edition K Kennesaw State University

Canaan — ancient Palestine and Syria (or the land to the west of the Jordan River), oftenreferred to as “the Promised Land” by the Israelites.

Cherubim [from Akkadian karabu, meaning “to pray” or “to bless”] — a celestial winged being with human, animal, or birdlike characteristics that serves as a “throne bearer” of God.

Devil [Greek] — accuser, slanderer.

Gentile [Latin gens, meaning “nation”] — is often used as an antonym for Israel. Another antonym is “Adam” (Israel is Adam’s counterpoint, the other model for Man).

Hebrew — from the word Ivri, meaning “to cross” (from the eastern side of the EuphratesRiver)], also associated with the name Ever, the grandson of Shem (“Shem” is the root of

“Semite”).

Henotheism — the worship of one god while not denying the existence of others.

Jehovah — a Judeo-Christian name for God, derived from YHWH. When the Masoretesreproduced the original texts of the Hebrew Bible (600-1000 CE), they replaced thevowels of the Hebraic name (YHWH) with the vowel signs of the Hebrew words “Adonai” and “Elohim,” thus creating the artificial name “Jehovah” (YeHoWaH).

Messiah [Hebrew] — “the anointed one.” This term designates a king or priest from ancientIsrael who had been consecrated by having his head smeared with holy oil, setting him apart for a special role. King David is the model for Yahweh’s anointed ruler, and all of

his descendants who ruled over Judah were Yahweh’s messiahs (2 Sam. 7:1-29; Ps. 89:3-45). Afterward, various Hebrew prophets applied the promises that were made to theDavidic dynasty to a future heir who would eventually restore the kingdom of David (Ps.2; Ps. 110; Dan. 9:25-26). This future messiah is to be a human, not a god.

Satan [Hebrew] — obstacle, opposer, adversary (emanated from Yahweh) (Isa. 46:5); also “thesatan” appears as a prosecutor in the heavenly court among “the sons of God” (Job 1-2;Zech. 3:1-3) and only later as a tempter (1 Chron. 21:1; 2 Sam. 24:1). ( NOTE: There is nomention of Satan in the Hebrew Bible until after the Persian period.)

Torah [Hebrew] — means “law,” “instruction,” or “teaching,” it refers to the Pentateuch, thefirst five books of the Hebrew Bible. It is regarded as the direct oracle from Yahweh.

Zion— the easternmost of the two hills (Ophel) of ancient Jerusalem. Mount Zion is the placewhere Yahweh dwells, and will be the place of Yahweh’s Messianic salvation.

Sources:Michael Grant. The History of Ancient Israel. 1984.Stephen L. Harris. Understanding the Bible. Fifth Edition. 2000.



Genesis 1-3 K 2277

Genesis 1-3: Two Creation StoriesNew King James Version

Prof. Stephen Hagin K Symbolic Connections in WL K 12th edition K Kennesaw State University

Genesis 1

1 In the beginning God created the heavensand the earth.

2 The earth was without form, and void; anddarkness was on the face of the deep. Andthe Spirit of God was hovering over theface of the waters.

3 Then God said, “Let there be light”; and therewas light.

4 And God saw the light, that it was good; and God divided the light from the darkness.

5 God called the light Day, and the darknessHe called Night. So the evening and themorning were the first day.

6 Then God said, “Let there be a firmament in the midst of the waters, and let it dividethe waters from the waters.”

7 Thus God made the firmament, and dividedthe waters which were under thefirmament from the waters which wereabove the firmament; and it was so.

8 And God called the firmament Heaven. Sothe evening and the morning were thesecond day.

9 Then God said, “Let the waters under theheavens be gathered together into oneplace, and let the dry land appear”; and itwas so.

10 And God called the dry land Earth, and thegathering together of the waters He calledSeas. And God saw that it was good.

11 Then God said, “Let the earth bring forth grass, the herb that yields seed, and thefruit tree that yields fruit according to its

kind, whose seed is in itself, on the earth”;and it was so.

12 And the earth brought forth grass, the herbthat yields seed according to its kind, andthe tree that yields fruit, whose seed is in itself according to its kind. And God sawthat it was good.

13 So the evening and the morning were thethird day.

14 Then God said, “Let there be lights in thefirmament of the heavens to divide theday from the night; and let them be forsigns and seasons, and for days and years;

15 and let them be for lights in the firmamentof the heavens to give light on the earth”;and it was so.

16 Then God made two great lights: the

greater light to rule the day, and the lesserlight to rule the night. He made the starsalso.

17 God set them in the firmament of theheavens to give light on the earth,

18 and to rule over the day and over the night,and to divide the light from the darkness.And God saw that it was good.

19 So the evening and the morning were thefourth day.

20 Then God said, “Let the waters aboundwith an abundance of living creatures, andlet birds fly above the earth across theface of the firmament of the heavens.”

21 So God created great sea creatures andevery living thing that moves, with which



2288 K INTRODUCTION

the waters abounded, according to theirkind, and every winged bird according toits kind. And God saw that it was good.

22 And God blessed them, saying, “Be fruitfuland multiply, and fill the waters in the

seas, and let birds multiply on the earth.”

23 So the evening and the morning were thefifth day.

24 Then God said, “Let the earth bring forth the living creature according to its kind:cattle and creeping thing and beast of theearth, each according to its kind”; and itwas so.

25 And God made the beast of the earth

according to its kind, cattle according toits kind, and everything that creeps on theearth according to its kind. And God sawthat it was good.

26 Then God said, “Let Us make man in Ourimage, according to Our likeness; let themhave dominion over the fish of the sea,over the birds of the air, and over the

cattle, over all the earth and over everycreeping thing that creeps on the earth.”

27 So God created man in His own image; in the image of God He created him; maleand female He created them.

28 Then God blessed them, and God said tothem, “Be fruitful and multiply; fill theearth and subdue it; have dominion overthe fish of the sea, over the birds of theair, and over every living thing that moveson the earth.”

29 And God said, “See, I have given you everyherb that yields seed which is on the faceof all the earth, and every tree whose fruityields seed; to you it shall be for food.

30 Also, to every beast of the earth, to everybird of the air, and to everything thatcreeps on the earth, in which there is life,I have given every green herb for food”;and it was so.

31 Then God saw everything that He hadmade, and indeed it was very good. So theevening and the morning were the sixth day.

Genesis 21 Thus the heavens and the earth, and all the

host of them, were finished.

2 And on the seventh day God ended Hiswork which He had done, and He restedon the seventh day from all His workwhich He had done.

3 Then God blessed the seventh day andsanctified it, because in it He rested fromall His work which God had created and

made.

4 This is the history of the heavens and theearth when they were created, in the daythat the LORD God made the earth andthe heavens,

5 before any plant of the field was in theearth and before any herb of the field had

grown. For the LORD God had not causedit to rain on the earth, and there was noman to till the ground;

6 but a mist went up from the earth andwatered the whole face of the ground.

7 And the LORD God formed man of the dustof the ground, and breathed into his

nostrils the breath of life; and man became a living being.

8 The LORD God planted a garden eastward in Eden, and there He put the man whom Hehad formed.

9 And out of the ground the LORD God madeevery tree grow that is pleasant to thesight and good for food. The tree of lifewas also in the midst of the garden, and



Genesis 1-3 K 2299the tree of the knowledge of good andevil.

10 Now a river went out of Eden to water thegarden, and from there it parted andbecame four riverheads.

11 The name of the first is Pishon; it is theone which skirts the whole land of Havilah, where there is gold.

12 And the gold of that land is good. Bdelliumand the onyx stone are there.

13 The name of the second river is Gihon; it isthe one which goes around the whole landof Cush.

14 The name of the third river is Hiddekel; itis the one which goes toward the east of Assyria. The fourth river is the Euphrates.

15 Then the LORD God took the man and puthim in the garden of Eden to tend andkeep it.

16 And the LORD God commanded the man,saying, “Of every tree of the garden youmay freely eat;

17 but of the tree of the knowledge of good

and evil you shall not eat, for in the daythat you eat of it you shall surely die.”

18 And the LORD God said, “It is not goodthat man should be alone; I will makehim a helper comparable to him.”

19 Out of the ground the LORD God formedevery beast of the field and every bird of the air, and brought them to Adam to seewhat he would call them. And whateverAdam called each living creature, that wasits name.

20 So Adam gave names to all cattle, to thebirds of the air, and to every beast of thefield. But for Adam there was not found ahelper comparable to him.

21 And the LORD God caused a deep sleep tofall on Adam, and he slept; and He tookone of his ribs, and closed up the flesh in its place.

22 Then the rib which the LORD God had

taken from man He made into a woman,and He brought her to the man.

23 And Adam said: “This is now bone of mybones And flesh of my flesh; She shall becalled Woman, Because she was taken outof Man.”

24 Therefore a man shall leave his father andmother and be joined to his wife, andthey shall become one flesh.

25 And they were both naked, the man and

his wife, and were not ashamed.

Genesis 3

1 Now the serpent was more cunning than any beast of the field which the LORD

God had made. And he said to the woman,“Has God indeed said, ‘You shall not eat of every tree of the garden’?”

2 And the woman said to the serpent, “Wemay eat the fruit of the trees of thegarden;

3 but of the fruit of the tree which is in themidst of the garden, God has said, ‘Youshall not eat it, nor shall you touch it, lestyou die.”‘

4 Then the serpent said to the woman, “Youwill not surely die.

5 For God knows that in the day you eat of ityour eyes will be opened, and you will belike God, knowing good and evil.”



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6 So when the woman saw that the tree wasgood for food, that it was pleasant to theeyes, and a tree desirable to make onewise, she took of its fruit and ate. She alsogave to her husband with her, and he ate.

7 Then the eyes of both of them were opened,and they knew that they were naked; andthey sewed fig leaves together and madethemselves coverings.

8 And they heard the sound of the LORD Godwalking in the garden in the cool of theday, and Adam and his wife hidthemselves from the presence of theLORD God among the trees of the garden.

9 Then the LORD God called to Adam and said

to him, “Where are you?”

10 So he said, “I heard Your voice in thegarden, and I was afraid because I was

naked; and I hid myself.”

11 And He said, “Who told you that you were naked? Have you eaten from the tree of which I commanded you that you should

not eat?”

12 Then the man said, “The woman whomYou gave to be with me, she gave me of

the tree, and I ate.”

13 And the LORD God said to the woman,“What is this you have done?” The woman said, “The serpent deceived me, and I ate.”

14 So the LORD God said to the serpent:“Because you have done this, You arecursed more than all cattle, And morethan every beast of the field; On yourbelly you shall go, And you shall eat dustAll the days of your life.

15 And I will put enmity Between you and thewoman, And between your seed and herSeed; He shall bruise your head, And youshall bruise His heel.”

16 To the woman He said: “I will greatlymultiply your sorrow and yourconception; In pain you shall bring forth children; Your desire shall be for yourhusband, And he shall rule over you.”

17 Then to Adam He said, “Because you haveheeded the voice of your wife, and haveeaten from the tree of which Icommanded you, saying, ‘You shall not eatof it’: “Cursed is the ground for your sake;In toil you shall eat of it All the days of your life.

18 Both thorns and thistles it shall bring forth for you, And you shall eat the herb of thefield.

19 In the sweat of your face you shall eatbread Till you return to the ground, Forout of it you were taken; For dust you are,And to dust you shall return.”

20 And Adam called his wife’s name Eve,because she was the mother of all living.

21 Also for Adam and his wife the LORD Godmade tunics of skin, and clothed them.

22 Then the LORD God said, “Behold, the man has become like one of Us, to know good

and evil. And now, lest he put out hishand and take also of the tree of life, andeat, and live forever”

23 therefore the LORD God sent him out of the garden of Eden to till the ground fromwhich he was taken.

24 So He drove out the man; and He placedcherubim at the east of the garden of Eden, and a flaming sword which turnedevery way, to guard the way to the tree of

life.

Source: The Bible Gateway: http://bible.gospelcom.net



Genesis 1-3 K 3311

Reading Guide: Genesis 1-3Prof. Stephen Hagin K Symbolic Connections in WL K 12th edition K Kennesaw State University

archetype — a universal symbol, image, or pattern that appears in art, literature, and legendsGenesis = to be born [Greek]Eden = delight (also plain, steppe) [Hebrew]Paradise = park, garden [Greek, from pardez (Persian)]Adam = man [Hebrew]Eve = mother of all living things [Hebrew]

1. List God’s main creation during each of the six days of creation:

Day 1 — Day 4 —

Day 2 — Day 5 —

Day 3 — Day 6 —

How can we answer the following questions if we interpret them from the philosophicalcenter? What interpretations can we make about these events that go beyond literal,physical narrative descriptions? What is the significance of the following events orcircumstances?

2. Why are gold and gemstones mentioned when the rivers are described (Gen. 2:11-12)?

3. Why is woman born from man in this story rather than man born from woman? Whydoes God create woman from a man’s rib?

4. How old are Adam and Eve?

5. After being confronted by God, Adam blames Eve for his own wrongdoing (Gen. 3:12).Why does he not confess that he made a mistake?

6. Why does Eve then blame the snake and its beguiling ways (Gen. 3:13)?

7. To whom does God speak in Genesis 3:22?



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Word Play: Although every translation of this story uses different words, contemplate thequotes words and phrases in the statements below. What messages, ideas, or impressionsare evoked with the following concepts?

8. Why does God place man in the Garden to “till it and keep it” (Gen. 2:15)?

9. God warns Adam that if he eats the fruit from the Tree of knowledge of Good and Evilthat he will “die” (Gen. 2:17). How does Adam die?

10. The serpent is described as being “subtle” (Gen. 3:1). What does this mean?

11. The serpent claims that “knowing good and evil” will open Eve’s eyes and allow her to“be like God” (Gen. 3:5). What does this mean?

12. When Adam’s and Eve’s eyes are “opened,” they first notice that the other is naked.Why is acknowledgement of their sexual differences their first realization?

13. Describe the “sound of the Lord God walking in the garden” (Gen. 3:8).

14. Why is Adam “afraid” to be naked (Gen. 3:10)?

15. Why does God punish with “enmity” and “pain” (Gen. 3:15)?

16. To whom do the words “us,” “our,” and “them” refer in the following passages:

“Let Us make man in Our image, after Our likeness, and let them have dominion …” (Gen. 1:26)

“Behold, the man has become like one of Us, knowing good and evil …” (Gen. 3:22)

Literary Theory Myth Introduction

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