J LITERACY FOR WORK: A COMPARATIVE STUDY OP LITBRACY CAMPAIGNS IN TARZAHIA AND ETHIOPIA

by

Ret ta 01emaye1;Ju

1. ;r ~ ~ D"ff' 0 0 ;

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A thesis submitted -to the Faculty of Graduate Studies and

Research in part~al fulfilment of the requirements for the

degree of Master of Arts in Comparative Education

Department of Administration and

Policy Studies in Education

McGill University

Montreal, Canada

© November 1984

U.~C 11JfZi '}.9'"= 1

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ACKNOWLEOGEMENTS

This research would not have been a sueeess wi thout the

support and encouragement of professors, colleagues 1 fr ~ends

and family members. The author owes a debt of grat~ tude

partie ular ly to the '~-nany professors and colleague s here in

North Amer ica as weIl as in Afr ~ca, especlally E:thiopia and

Tanzania, for their Invaluabi e help.

Very special thanks go, first of aIl, ta Professor

Thomas O. Eisemon, my advisor él'hd thesis supervisor, whose

patience, dedica ted guidance and genuine encouragement espe-

cially during times of momentary despair and cris is demon-

strated the qual~ty of a true educator. He took the pains to

go thDl,)ugh my extraord~narily long drafts, 'even during hlS 1

vacat~on and weekends. l am, therefore, grateful not only for

the concrete and heIpful suggestions and gUIdance he prov Ided

throughout my research work, but also for the kindness he and

,his family have sh9wn ln shar ing sorne of my personal problems

during my stay in McGi 11. Work~ng wi th him was indeed a

pleasure and a pr Ivilege.

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Those who ga~ a helping hand in the completion of this

research aZ"e many. The Fa6ulty of Graduate Studies and

Research at McGill University provided the necessary funds for

a round-trip air ticket to F!thiopia and Tanzania. Addis Ababa 1

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University was kind enough to provide a grant to cover the

researcher' s maintenance expenses while conductl.ng his

research ln Ethiopl.a. UNICEF-Addis Ababa and the Fard Faunda-

tl.on Reglonal Offl.ce for Eastern' and Southern ! .. frlca (Nairobl.)

made some funds available to caver the researcher' s mainte-

nance and research expenses dur1ng h1S stay ln Tanzanl.a. The

Ethioplan and Tanzanlan Mlnistrles of Educat10n allawed the

researcher to use thelr Ilbrar1es and granted access to

arch1ves and government documents related to the study. The

researcher expresses hlS utmos t gra tl tude ta aIl thos,e instl.-

tutions and their respective offlcials.

The author would also 11ke to ackno\o{ledge the fact that

he was able, thanks to the cooperation of the persons in-

volved, ta l.ntery lew over 40 Tanzanian and Ethioplan offi-

c ials, li teracy campaigners and participants who were in one

way or another i nvol ved in the on-going Na tlonal -, Ll teracy

Campaigns (NLC' 5) ln bath countries. Al though thel r names

could not be listed' in this thesis, the author would ll.ke to

register hi5 sincere thanks for their kindness in sharl.ng

valuable informatl.on and experl.ence related to thlS study.

Dr. Aklilu Habte, Director of Education in the \vorld

Bank and Dr. Eva Ra thgeber, Programme Coordinator in the IDRC'

(Canada) were kind enough to provide important materials on

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1 ~ te.racy- 'and adul t education prepared by thelr respective , ,

instltutlons. Mr s. Sue L1.gget te'l Programme Of flcer for the

Institute of Internatlonal Educat1.on (New York), was of spe-

:'1 c~al help throu,ghout ~he ent.lre prograrrune. Dr. Marga,ret

G~llett and Dr. \Kelth Jobllng, Professors at t"lcGlll, and Dr. l,

Isobel Wnght of the Montreal Chlldren' s Hospltal prov~ded

valuable ass ~ stance ta th,e :author, especlally dur1.ng the 1n1-

t1al perlod of hlS study. The author would, therefore, l~k~

ta acknowledge hlS indebtedness to aIl of these l<ind and

respons ~ ble l.ndl vl.duals.

Finally, l am indebted to my wife E. Shewaferaw, who,

on top of the lonellness she sometlmes felt in l\er new North

American enVlronment, took the trouble ta type the first draft

of my thesls. Last but by no means least, l would ll.ke ta

extend my paternai thanks to my daughter, Bruktawlt, for put-

t ing up wi th her fa ther' s lnab.lll. ty durlng the last two years

of study and research, to give h~r the close attention she

deserved. Her happy and warm welcom.lng smiles as weIl as her

hugs (the only means of support she could offer) did indeed

enllven the author 1 s spirit after long and t~rlng days of

study and research.

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ABS!RACT

Christian mlSS ionar ies were the first to \

introduce

Western education into Afr l.ca. Later on, ~peir lnitlatives

were supported by the colonial powers who sought skilled

labour for colon1.al adrn1.n1.strat1.on and for plantat1.on agrlcul-

ture. However, Afrlca st1.ll tralls behlnd the rest of the

world wlth 1ll1.teracy rates at between 75 to 85 percent.

Tanzanla and Ethiopla are among those Afrlcan countrles which

have shown sorne degree of awareness of the problem of mass

illiteracy and which are trying to solve it. The national

Il teracy campalgns ln these countrles were started w1.th

poli tlcal zeal and enthuSlasm. Tanzanla's 11teracy campalgn

benefltted from an effort to artlculate literacy educat1.on

with rural economlC and pollt1.cal development. Ethlopla' S

nat 10nal 11 teracy campaign, which made much prog ress 1.n the

first few years, has suffered from a lack of polltical and

flnancial commitment at the national level, as weIl as from fi

the country's continuing polltical and economlC crlsis.

Name: Retta Alemayehu.

Tit1e of Thesls: Literacy for Work: A Comparative Study of Literacy Carnpaigns ln Tanzan1.a and Eth1.opia.

Department: ~,

Degree:

Adm1.n1.stra tlon and Policy Studies tlon. 1

in Educa-

Master of Arts ln Comparatlve Educat1.on

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RÉsUMÉ

Les missionnaires chrétlens ont été les premi~rs à

introdulre l'éducation occldentale en Af rique. Pl us tard, les

ini tiati ves furent appuyées par les pUlssances coloniales qui

cherchaient de la main-d'oeuvre qual i f lée pou·r l' adminl s tra-

tion colon iale et pour l' agr lcul t ure des plantations. Toute-

fois, l'Afrique traîne derrlère le reste du monde avec des

taux d'analphabétisme entre 75 et 85 pourcent. La Tanzanie et

l'Éthiopie sont parmi les pays afrlcalns qui révèlent un cer-

tain degré de conscience du problème de l'analphabétlsme des

masses', et qui essalent de le résoudre. Dans ces pays, des - ~---

campagnes nationales pour l'alphabétisat1on ont débutés avec

un zèle ~t enthousiasme pOIl t1que. La campagne de l'alphabé-

tisation en Tanzanie a bénéficlé de l'effort d' artlculer

l'alphabëtisation avec le _dév~llJpp-em_el'1~o11 tique et écono------------------mique rural. La campagne d' alphabétlsatlon en Éthl0pie QUl a

fait tant de progrès dans les premières fnnées,

financler ~litique

a souffert

d'un manque de compromis au niveau

nationale, et aussi de la continuelle crise politique et

économique du pays.

Titre de la thèse: L'Alphabétisation pour le. travail: une

...

étude comparative des campagnes d'alphabé­tisation en Tanzanie et Éthiopie.

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TABLE OP CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................ i

ABSTRACT ............................................... i V

. . RES UME •...•• .•. ., ••••••.•••••••••••••••• ~ • .. • • • • • • • • • • • .. • v

INTRODUCTIO~1 1

CHAPTF.R ONE: F:DUCA'::'Imr At10 DEVF.LOp~nTT IN AFRI-::A ...•. 4

Traoi tional Eouca tion ................... \. . . . . • • 4 Western Educat10n ana Its Paradoxes •........•.• 6

. Li teracy and M1SS lonarv F:ouca t 10n in the , Colon1al and Independence' Per10ds ..... ;.... 9 Qu~st.lons o~ DevelopJ'T1ent in Indepenoent i\frica. 13 The Developr.1ent of Ec'lucat10n ln Contemporary

Africa .•...............•............•....•• 15

CHAPTER TWO: HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES ON LITERP-.CY

1------------ EDUCATION •••••••••••••••••• -•••••••• -••• ,,-.-- -:--2-t-

Literacyand Its Defin.lt10n . •..... .•..........•• 21 'Literacy and Power............................. 24 Literacy ln Socialist Countrles ... ...•...•..••• 28 'Li teracy and Unesco ..••.....•.......... . . . . . . . . 32 The Effects of L1 teracy ....••.............•.•.. 37

CHAPTER TRREE: THE ORIG INS AND EVOLUTION 0F THE ,!"l\,!rZl',NL''.!'l LI'!'EHACY CAHPAIG:" ••..•..•••• 40

Introduction •........•........................• 40 ObJectives, Organlzat10n and Adminlstratlon'

of the NLC ••••.••. • ••.. . • . ... • • .... . .•.• • . • 43 Financial and Material Resources •.............• 52 Curriculum Development and Material Production. 54 Lanquage of Instruction .....•....•..........•.. -58 Support, Pos t-Ll teracy and Fo llow-up Procrrammes 59 Supervlsion and Evaluation. . . . ... . . .... . . ... . . . 66 Recrui trnent and 'T'rainino of '::'eachers ...•.•..... 70 S urnma ry ...................................... 7 2

CHAPTFR FOUR: 'l'HE ORIGINS A.ND PVOLUTION OF THP ETHIOPIAN LITERACY CAMPAIGN ....•...••.• 75

Introduction ••..•...••••.•.••....•.....•....•.• 75 The Ethiopian Revolut~on and Its Impa~t on

Li teracy Education ••....••...••.........•.. 82 The Philosophy of "Ethlopla T~kdem"

(Ethiopia Firs t) .•.•....••.........•....... 84 Financing of the National L1teracy Campalgn .•.. 89 The Organization and Adm~nistration of the NLC. 90

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Curriculum Development and Material Production. 95 Language of Instruct~on •....•• ,................ 98 Support and Post-Li teracy Material sand

Programmes .....•........•.................. 98 Superv1510n and Evaluation ..•....•............ ' 102 Recrul tment and Trainlng of Teachers ........••. 104 Summary .........•...........•..••.......••....• 107

CHAPTER FlVE: COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVES ON THE TANZANIAN AND ETHIOPIAN LITERARY CAMPAIGNS ••...•.•...••.•.•••...•••..••• 109

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Finance, Its Sources and Management .. :......... 113 Programme Deslgn ......•.....•...•.• ' •....••..•. , 115 Training of Llteracy Instructors ...•....•...•.• 118 Language of Instructlon .....•...........•...•.• 120 Partlclpatlon of t-lass Organlzatlons .....•...... 122 The Ro le of Goverrunent and POIl tlcal Organlza-

tlons ln the Promotlon of Llteracy Educatlon 123

BIBLIOGRAPHY

APPENDIX 1:

APPENDIX 1;.1:

...... " . . . .. .. . . . . . ... . . . . . . ................. . The Eth1.opic "Ge' ez" Alphabetic Chart with Engllsh Transllteratlon of ' Consonants, Vowels and Diphthongs .•....••

The Organizatlonal Structures of the Departments of Adult Educatlon in Tanzan1.a and Ethlopia .••.•••••....

ENDIX III: The F1.rst Lesson in The Tanzanian Primer for Cotton Growlng With Engllsh Translatlon ..........••..••......••...•

APPENDIX nI: Pass?ige from the Ethopian Primer for Heal th and Family Linng \'lith English Trans la tion ..... ~' .•...•••.••..•...••..••

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INTRODUCTION·

In the 1960 ' s, Unesco projected that illl.teracy would be

complet;,ely eradl.cated -by the year 2000. Unfortuna tely,

according to one project.1.on, there wl.ll be at least one

~illl.~:m l.llüe~ates by the ~ear 20001 de;~ite enormoUs progress

in school expansion and literacy edu'tl.On (IDRC, Canada, ~.,..,-

1979,5).

Experience in national literacy programmes hap shown

that suc cess i5 highly dependent upon two key factors: the

firs-t; and, decisive one is poll.tical. A strong politl.cal

commitment by the government concerned and popular participa-

tion in the literacy campaign are ne-cesSaly for l.ts ,success.

The second related factor is the abl.l.1.ty to coordinate and

mobill.ze the necessary human and mater l.al resources and their

use in an efficient and eCOnOffil.C manner.

In the early 1960 ' s-' many African çountrie5 obtained

thel.r independence. The leaders' of th,e newly independent

Afrl.can states rea'lJ..zed that political, independence alone

\ * Thl.S author was directly invol ved in the Et1liopian National

Li teracy Campa.1.gn activities as Central Committee Member of th e Na tl.ona 1 Li teracy Campaign Coordina ting Commit tee (NLCCC) and the Executive Body 1 As sistant Dean of the College of Continu.1.ng Education of Addis Ababa University, Member of the National Revolutionary Development Campaign ,and Central Planning' Supreme Council (NRDC & CPSC), and Chairman of the Conunittee which develop~d the Curriculum for a Farmers 1 School in EthiopJ.a.

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would not rnean much to the great majority of poo~ and illiter­

ate Africans unless accompanied by "liberation from mass illit­

eracy and pov~rty. Eduaation was viewed as a soluùion to the

prevailipg sociai and economic problems. Tanzania and

Ethiopia were arnong the African countries that placed great

importance orî li teracy education. Li teracy 1 they believed,

was instrumental for developing the political consciousness of \ .....

the masses 1 for irnproving the quality of the hurnan resources 1

for creating a new socialist political culture • 5ince. the ..

launching of li teracy campaigns in these countries 1 Il. teracy

-has been increased to about 80% in Tanzania and 60% in

Ethiopia.

'The primary objective of the thesis i5 to analyse the

organization of li ter~cy campaigns in Ethiopia and Tanzanla

with particular reference to their articulation with the

political, -50ci~1 and economic progra~ of the two govern-

ments. In Ethiopia, înformatiqn was collected from various

organizations involved in,the National Literacy Campaign: the

National Revolutionary Developrnent Campaign and Central PIan-I , , ning Supreme Council (NRDC & CPSC); the Commission for the Or-

(il ganiza;tion of the Party of Workers of Ethf'opia' (COPWE): the

Department of Adult and Literacy Educatl0n (Ministry of Educa­-c)

tion); AddlS- Ababa Uni verSl tYi the Ethl0pl.an Orthodox (rrewa-

hido) Church; the All Ethiopian Trade unions (AETu)i the ~ " - /

l{evo-

lutionary E;thiopl.an Youtl;1 Associati9'Îl (R A) i the J

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RevoIuti0l1ary Ethiop~an vJomen 1 s Association (REWA) i Urban '\

\ OweIIers Associations (KebeIes) and Çi ty Counciis or Addis

Ababa, the provlncial towns of Dire Dowa (ln the eastern part

,.of the country) and of Worre1Iu (in the northern part of the

countr~r. Intervlews were conducted and many Ilteracy classes

were aiso observed in areas surrounding the urban c~n.ters

vi.sited by the researcher.

In Tanzania, data "las collected from Chama Cha . ,

Mapinduzi (formerly TANU) regionai offices; the Directorate of

Adult Education (Ministry of National Education) i the Insti-,

tute of Adult Education, Dar-es-Salaam UniversltYi the Nation-

al Litera~y Center at Mwanza where the r~searcher visited the

Production Uriit for ,Li teracy Materlals and Book.~, the Rural

Newspapers, Mass Nedia, Rural Librarles as weIl as lts tra1n-

ing sections. The author aiso had the opportunl ty to V1S1 t

the Folk Development College (FDC) at Missungwl and the

Department of Educatlon wlthln the Town Council of Mwanza.

Interv1ews were~:~ted to eIlclte lnformatl0n regardlng the

administration and intra-governmental coordlnat1on of the

lil:.eracY programme in the urban centers of Dar-es-SaIaam,'

Mwanza, Arusha and the surrounding rural areas.

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CHAPTE"R ONE

EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT IN )RlCA

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, Traditional Education

Until quite recently, many historians treated Africa as

a continent with an educational history that bega~ only after

the colonial powers and missionaries arrived. However, Afri-

can societ~es developed their own methods of transmi tting

knowledge from one generation ta the next. As education is

part of the social organization of any society, there was a

system of tradit10nal educat10n 1n pre-colonial Africa.

Before the advent of European co1on1alism, ch1ldren learned

informally how to assume respons1bil1ty at home or on the farm

from the1r fathers, rnothers, elder brothers, s1sters or any

other elderly membet ln the faml1y (Wllson, J., 1963, 17).

,,;_.Pres1dent Nyerere, ln h1S treatise on "Educatlon for Self-

Reliance Il remarked that 1n those socletles 'which did not have

school systems, learning was quite pos~{ble through l1ving and

doing:

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The fact that pre-colonial Africa did not have 'schools' - except for short perlods of lnltla­tion in sorne tribes d1d not mean that the children were not educa ted. They learned by living and doing. In the homes and on the farms they were taught the skills of the soclety, and the behaVlour expected of i ts members. They learned the k1nd of grasses wh1ch were SUl table for Wh1Ch purposes, the work wh1ch had to be done on the crops, or the care wh1ch had ta be given to anlmals, by J01nlng w1th thelr elders in th1S work. They learned the tr1ba1 hlstory and the tr1be' 5 relat10nshlp Wl tn other trlbes

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and with the spirits, by listening' to the stories of the eIders. Thrbugh these,means the values of the society were transmitted. Education~'S thus 'informaI'; every adult was a teacher to a greater or lesser degree. But this lack of f rmality did not mean that there was no education, "nor did i t affect i ts importance to the society.' Indeed, i t may have made the edu­cation more directly relevant to the society in which the child was growing up. (Nyerere, J.K., 1979, 17-18).

Wal ter Rodney, a historian and poli tical scientist stresses

the't relevance of the pre-colonial tradi tional African educa-

tion in comparison to the education transplanted by Europeans:

The rnost crucial aspect of pre-colonial African education was its relevance to Africans, in sharp contrast with what was later introduced. The following features of indigenous African education can be considered outstanding: its close links wi th social life, botli in material

,and spiritual sense; its collective nature; its rnany-sidedness; and its progressive development in conformity with the successive stages of physical, ernotional and mental development of the child. There was no separation of education and productive activity or any division between

--------:Omanual and :i:ntellectual education. Al together, through mainly informaI means, pre-colonial African education rnatched the realities of pre­colonial African society and produced well­rounded personalities to fit into that society. (Rodney, W., 1976, 262).

Education was impa16ed by institutions created for that pur-

pose in sorne parts of Africa. In most rs lamic socl.eties of

Northern, Western and Eastern Africa, reading and writing were

taught in Madrasas, Koranic schools. There was also a

Christ.lan school system in the eastern part of Africa in · .... hat

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is now Ethiopia (former ly Abyssin~a). Accord~ng to Teshome

Wagaw:

The full curr~culum consisted of the (3é 'ez and Amhar~c languages and l~terature, poetry, church music, world history, mathemat~cs, ph~losophy, Biblical exeges~s and history, doctr~ne, h~story of church, l~turg~cs, civil and canon law, Chr~st~an ethics, and pastoral theology. Not every student' completed the course, and those who did had to spec~al~ze in certain f~elds. The two preliminary stages were d~vided into the e lementary and the secondary. (Te shome Wagaw, 1979, 11-12).

Li terate cul tures developed in North. Africa, along the

Nile Valley and in Western Sudan on both the East African

)oast and West Africa "long before European colon~al powers had

a foothold there. (Curt~n, P. & etc., 1978, 532-6). Eth~o-

pia, for example, not only developed a I~terate culture and ë.

formaI educational system, but also had, unl~ke roany soc~et~es

in sUb~SaharaJ Africa, developed wr~tten languages of ~ts own.

A higher forro of educat~on comparable ta that offered in the

medieval univers~ties of Europe was also ava~lable in the

monast~c schools of Abxss~nia which surv~ve to the present

day.

Western Education and Its Paradoxes

What we calI modern education in the African context is

not the result of the natural evolution of traditional Africa

into modern Africa and, therefore, when we talk df modern

educat~on in Africa we are referr~ng to the educat~onal system

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developed in Africa lrby Europeans to serve the political and

economic interests of the colonial powers/ and naturally that

system was used as an instrument for the cultural enslavement

of Afrkcans. The purpose and content of western schoo1ing did

not reflect the aims, aspirations and the indigenous cul tures'

of Afrkcan peoples.

School~ng int.roduced by co10n~al powers in many parts

of Afr~ca was intended to pre}lare Africans to enter < the

European-dom~nated modern economy. It was used mainly to

inculcate a subordl.nate relat~onshl.p to the Euro.f:Jean comrnun.~-

ty. It ~s still used for th~s purpose· in present day South

Afn.ca:

We should not give the natives an academic edu­cation, as sorne people are too prone to do. If we do this we shall 1ater be burdened wi th a number of academically trained Europeans and non-Europeans, and who is going to do the manual labour in the country? l am in thorough agreement with the view that we shou1d so con­duct our schoo1s that the native who attends

. those schools will 'know that to a great extent he must be the labourer in the country (quoted in Unesco, 1972, 33).

Access to education in the co10n~a1 per~od was very re-

stricted: a consequence of the po1icy of separate educat~ona1

deve10pment for nat~ve peoples and correspond~ngly 10w 1evels

of publ~c expendi ture on African educat~on. In 1935, for

instance, "of the total revenue collected from tax~ng Afr~cans

in French West Africa, only 4.03% 'Has utilized on educat~on.

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In the British colony of Nigeria, it was only 3.4%. In Kenya,

as 1ate as 1946 only 2.26% of the revenue was spent cn African

education." (Rodney, W., 1976, 265). In Uganda, as late as

1959, the expepditure for the education of a single African

child was only fIl while tl:le expenditure for Asian and Euro-

pean children was f38 and ;.t;186 respecti v_ely. (Rodney, W.,

1976, 267).

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As a resul t of the smaii sum of m~ney expended on the

education, of Africans, few African children ~ad the opportuni-

ty to attend colonial schools. For exarnple, in the whole of

what was known as French Equatorial Africa, which included

present-day Chad, ~ the Central African Republic, Gabon and

Congo- Brazzaville, only_ 22,000 school children attended

schools in 1938. In that year, the number of school-goers in

the entire region of French l'lest Africa was only 77,000 out of

a total population of 15 million. (Rodney, W., 1976,265). In

Tanzania, out of a population of S, 242,167 Afr~cans in 1945,

only 2% went to school. (Mbilinyi, ~.J., 1980, 265).

Those Africâns who obtained schooling during the colo-

nial era were "s killeç literates" educated to work as menial

workers in governrnent department5 and in agricultural, commer-

cial and religious establishments. (Mbilinyi, M.J., 1979,

248) . Julius Nyerere comments ~n this connection that "colo-

nial educatiort' was na part of a deliberate attempt to effect a

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revolution in the societYi to make it into a colonial society

which accepted its status and which was an efficient adjunct

to the governing power." (Nyerere, J.K., 1979, 18-19) •

• Th,roughollt most of the colonial era, secondary educa-

" tion for Afr~cans was deliberately restricted. Other forms of

higher education were 'virtually non-existent until shortly

before ~ndependence. In the Belg~an Congo, colonial~sts

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rational~zed the neglect of higher education w~th the argument

that "no 'highly educated Africàn would be able to serve his

own people"; it would suffice to "c~v~l~ze" the Afr~can nat~ve

only gradually, and tha t introducing secondary or an,x other

form of higher education for an African was tantamount to

"asking a yr:>ung child to chew meat when he should be eating

porridge". (Rodney, W' I 1976, 268). At the time of the

Congo's independence in 1960, the colony ~ad only 16 graduates

of institutions of h~gher education from a population of over

13 million.

Literacy and Missionary Education in the Colonial and Independence Periods

Christian missions were Africa 1 s first western educa­J

tors and continue to be important in prov~d~ng schooling.

(Wilson, J., 1963, 22). European missionaries came to Afr~ca

in the 16th century. Soon after the~r arr~val the y real~zed

that prov~s~on of li teracy and basl,c educat~on to the local

people was necessary to speed-up the growth in the number of

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new converts. A li terate congregation could learn the Bible

faster and participate in religious activities with m re

enthusiasm than an illi te rate one. Li teracy was viewe as a

means of imparting Chris.tian beliefs and rudimenta y educa-

tion. While the central a1m of mission educatio as been one

of facilitating conversion, its other feature as the prepara-

tion of students for manual labour. Thi meant that students

in most mission school s were engag in productive labour.

Students acquired training in ag~lture, carpentry, crafts­

manship and masonry in pa~yro fulfil the needs of mission

stations for such "skill/éd labour". Therefore, Just as the //

European educationa~stems i~troduced in Africa by the colo-

nial governments-<"nad the limi ted obj ecti ve of stimula ting

higher productivity of the African labour, schooling provided

by most of the missionary inst1 tutions in Africa did not go

much beyond imparting rud1mentary practical skills and prepar-

ing native catechists and pastors who would preach Chr1stiani­i

ty.

In 1806, a missionary group known as the Church

Missionary Society came to Sierra Leone followed, six years

later, by the Wesleyan Methodist Mission. Missionary schools

were established in Gambia in 1826, in Basutoland in 1833, 1n

Nigeria in 1842, in Uganda in 1877 (Wilson, J., 1963, 22).

Several other missionary schools came Ï'nto being in East,

Central and Southern Africa as weIl. In Ethiopia, for

- 11 -

instance, the Jesuit Missionaries organized a school for boys

as soon as they entered that country in the sixteenth century.

ùater, the Lutherans in 1634, the Swed~sh Evangelical Mission

in 1866 and several other m~ssionary groups established

schools in this "land of Orthodox Christianity." By 1905, 100

students were attend1ng mission schools in Ethiopia (Teshome

\tlagaw, 1979, 22-3).

l10dern education in Africa was mainly the domain of

European-based Christian rnissionary groups and societies. ~

-~

David Livingstone of Britain who arrived at Cape Town ori Ha.rch

14, 1841 was perhaps the most influential of aIl Christian

missionaries before him or since. According ta Hirji, he was

the "inspirational architect of (European) miss10nary endeav-

our" in Africa who drew the rnap of Africa to depict a conti-

nent sa "dark." and full of ?uffering souls that i t needed a

helpJ..ng hand from Europe to save i ts peoples. His tools of

salvation were "commerce as weIl as Chr1stianity". (Hirji,

K.F., 1979, 192-3). It had cultural d1rnensions as weIl.

German missionar1es' in East and Central Africa, for example,

saw themselves as tak.ing:

an active part in the realization of a national colonial programme; in other words, they should not restrict their activities to mission work but should help to establish German culture and German thought in the colonies. (Kaniki, M.H.Y., 1979,203).

o - 12 -

Many other missionaries and missionary organizations empha-

sized the importance of their work for colonial administration

and for the propagation of European political and cultural

traditions, ~ore generally.

That literacy education prov~ded by miss~onaries had

political as well as religious and cul tural objectlves is

perhaps best illustrated in the work of Frank Laubach" who

---------------­organized the f~rst li teracy C_alTlE51ign_s _in_~~a -and Africa-and --

recognized the~r importance for promot~ng a Western pOIl tical

culture. Like other Christian missionaries, Laubach felt that

literacy was necessary to knowing Christ:

If we act like Jesus 1n our love and tell people about Him, they are wide open to receive Him. What hungry illiterate people want is not the­ology, but a friend who loves them and can help them. When they see Jesus in our actions and hear about Him from our lips, this is what they want. This is the way we can witness winsomely and winn1ngly. ,(Laubach, F.C., 1970, 414).

But he also understood the political uses' of literacy.

Laubach fel t tha t l~ teracy training could be used to develop

pol~t1cal values ~nim1cal to Commun~sm. He wrote pr~mers on

Commun1sm and Chrlst~anlty to be used ln Ilteracy classes and

advocated the~r use in Ind1a, Tanzania, the Phillipines and ~n

many other countries where he thought widespread illlteracy

could foster cond~tions favourable to the sprea~ of Cornmunism.

Laubach 1 s literacy pr~mers were translated into hundreds of

,

- 13 -" ------

languages and are still in use in many parts of the world.

Questions of Developrnent in Independent Africa

Ta this day, there is no un~ versally accepted defini-

tian of development. The capitalist, soc~alist, underdevel-

oped Third Horld countries and the developed countr~es "h~---;--------­

each defined development in __ line with -what they bell.eved to be - - - ---

I_---------~eir social, economic, and cultural reality. tn the conti-

nent of Africa, for example, there are numerous and var~ed

definitions of development. Even African countries sharing a similar culture, language, and historical background define

development differently because of differences in their ideo-

logical orientations.

For African countr~es like Tanzanl.a "development" /

the build1.ng of, Il self-rell.ant" rural UJanuna v~llages Ân the

predom~nantly agr~cul tural countryslde where peopl work and

li ve together. For other countrles, developme appears to

/

mean the importing of up-to-date luxury mmod~ t~es from

/// abroad, the introduction of faster figh er'::'planes and the

/ creation of vanant. of the consume~/?oc>eHes of Western

// Europe and North America. However, ~nless a country has the

capacity to enhance knowledge, la~he foundatlon for develop­

ment ~n science and technOlOgy/'nd employ thdse for the wel­

fare and weIl belng of the ~rity of the ~nhabltants ~n that

country 1 it can hardlvlall ~ tself developea: Vevelopment

/ / ,

----

\ \

- 14 -

should always be understood to mean a process of l~berating

human beings from miser~es of aH kinds, and part~cularly

those of a soc~al, econom~c and polit~cal nature. The welfare

of human beings should be at the heart of _any developmént

process. Tpe_ term -- "deve lo-ping" to denote Thlrd \'lor Id' coun-

tries is both misleaâ~ng and amblguouS. It lS m~slead~ng

because' lt suggests that aIl Th~rd World countr~es are ln the

process of satisfying human welfare and needs. It ~s amb1-

guous because ~t lrnplles that technologlsally developed coun­

tr~es have ceased develop~hg any further, and that 1t ~s only

Third World countr~es that are developlng. Following is a

more universal def1.nitiori of development provi~'lbY Ishumi:

It is an advance from the lower, less sat~sfy­

ing, less peacefui stages of being to higher, sat.isfying, emanc1pating conditions It should be observed, however, that object~vely',

development is a process and not an end. As an integral 'end' 1t cannot be achieved and will not be achieved. It is rather a subjective optional picture of ·the reality man 1S str1ving to achieve, a subjective mental construction of a good and promising future associated with, or represented by, the partial materla,l and, educa­tional achievements that further act as fnotiva­t~onai symbols for a still better future. (Ishum1, A.G.M., 1978, 4-5).

------------

----­The maJority of Afr~can countrles are, theref~_ ei-t-her---~---------------- . ------------ ' _f - ------~-

developed or uo_der-devei.uped--by thl.S def.~ni tl.on. ------- .~~-----------------

.There is sorne histor1cal eV1dence which shows that

education is a maJor, lof not a decisive, f;ctor l.n determin1.ng

'development or underdevelopment. Transforml.ng the Soviet

- 15 -

1

1

Union from a backward, largely ~gricultJral co~~ L-------.-/

industrial ~power wëH,~-ror-e-xample, possible "1argely because -----concentration on education". 5) •

Afr~ca must be able to find ~ays and means of prov~d~ng basic

hea1th care, improving the ~echniques of agriculture and fu11y i

harness~ng its human and material resources. 1

This can,not be

done without better education.

The Development of Education in Contemporary Africa o

1

" African coùntries which declared their independence

from cOloAialism in the 50' sand 60 'Is soon entered an era" of

as neo-highly sophisticated cOlonialisml better known

colonialism which Edward Hyams def~nes as the continuing

influ'ance of metropolitan countries on the economy and polit Y

of new1y independent states (Hyams, E., 1973, 117).= Abdou o

Moumouni emphasizes the influence of neo-colonial~sm in the

educatlonal sphere:

. .• the 1 neo-bourgeoisie' in our countries is, ____ bound hand and foot to imperialisin, French, ___ -----English, German and American. The_ goverrrDig c1ass ta1k a great de~l about expanding scho01-

.ing, the batt1e against i11iteracy, mass educa­tion, and economic and social development in the country it leads. Its policy, however, ignores ~eal popular aspirations, by prolonging the economic and political domination of imperialism in the forro of neo-colonialism, and by respond­ing only to the narrow interests of the leading class and the entire apparatus it utilises to maintain itse1f in power. Thus, its concept of education is one which would restr~ct its bene­fits to children in the upper layers of society. (Mouroouni, A., 1968, 147-8).

" " " " " " " " " ... }'" "

" " " "

,. r-l " " " "

l' " l'

" " ,. "

" ,."

l' l'

--

1 (

).

s

..

- 16 -

" The purposes of schooling during the colonial era was to pr@-

duce wor~er for missi~nary activi~y and subordinate staFf fo~

colonial ~\

ministration. While schooling is now seen to have .'

broader ,evelopmental functions as an 1nve,st.!neq.t in human

~ap~tall thè organization of G instruction, curricu1a and

~ethodl of selection i~ many African countries has not changed . \'

grea-t'ry since the colonial period. Access to education," espe-

di~1ly' ,ta secondary and higher educat~on", is still restricted,

al though m~ny universities and prepara tory institutions have , \

be?n established. And most African countries are still

o reliant to varying degrees On foreign training and ex.pë\:~riate

assistance notwi thstanding the educational expansion that has

taken place .• •

A great- majority of Africans have not been able ta J" ~I

,change their modes of life, as their techniques of production

have na{· changed substantiëil1y for cehturies. Most Africans

" are "1nvolved \ in a life-and-deqth struggle for survival by

maintaining a subsistence levei of' agricul tur'al production

which is mostl'y cqrried out in much the same way as it was

,d'one before the arrivaI of Europeans. The cumulative resul t ...

o!fi ;'African underdevelopment is, according ,t_O_PI"osser ---- -" -- -.------\ ' -'

•. ~ low real income per head of the POPulation, ~w agricultural yields, low industrial produc­tivity, jew hospitals, schools and training

~ center per head, 10'.117 calorific food consumption, inadequate housing, insanitary conditions of lïving, unemployment ,and low expectation of iife. (Prosser, R., 1970, 48).

v,

17

/: .~

/ .

\

17

Ph~l1p G. Altbach has Dstudied how neo-colonialism

opera tes in the Third World and provldes enlightening analysls

of neo-colonialism as it relates to the educatlonal system and

'Z th~ intellectual atmosphere ~n the developlng countries. Th~s

is what he has to sayon how global patterns of knowledg~

dissemination affect

ThirJ World:

the distrlbutl0n of knowledge j

irt thé

Knowle~ge is not a cornrnodity like oil or wheati yet it is traded in the international market­place. Like other commodi ties, knowledge is subject to var\ous pressures of supply and demand and political or -' economii power. The dissemina tion of knowledge is a/ highly complex matter, involving the mass m~dia, publishing firrns, educational institutions, and other ele­ments. Third World nations ,find themselves in a pituation of scarcitx when' it cornes to knowl­edge, as <? is als0 true in other areas of the economy. ,The m~ans of dissemination' tend to be controlled by the industriali'Zed nations for j{ variety of reasons 1 and i t is not surprising that those who are ln control use their power over ideas and technology for the~r own lnt~r­ests in many cases. The internat~onal nl:t ork of knowledge d~str~butlon is based ~n~the l dus­trialized n~tl0ns, who are at the center 0 the' world's ~nte~lectual, research, and techno OglC-

ft-l' currents. The Thlrd World flnds lts~lf at _~~ the perlphery and [thus] finds lt dlffiiult to

catch up. (Altbach, P.G., 1978, 322).

The effects of neo-colonialism on the intellectual and cul-

tural deY"ëlopment of Third World countries are pervasive. ~

Africa, for example~ trails behind other developed and under-(\ .. , ~ ,

developed areas with respbct to several indicators of informa-

tion production and circul~tion. Table l presents data

rèlating to book prodtlction, circulation of {

·+

18

distribution of radio and television receivers as compared to

the distribution of such facilities in the rest of the devel-

oping as well as 'the developed parts of the world.

\

J

..

•

19 -

'l'ABtI 1

DfS'l'RIBUTIOli OP l"ACILITIES FOR CULTUJU!! AIJD COMMUIfICATIOIi IN AnUCA IN ULATION TO TBE REST OP 'l"HE WORLD FOR 'l'BE YEAR 1981

WORLD TOTAL DEITELOPED DEVELOPING A.FRICA ETHIOPIA TA.NZANIA COUIITRlf:S COUNTRIES

~'ul"her of popul a t~on 4,508,000,000 1,177,000,000 3, 331, 000, 000 484,000,000 32,158,000 18,510,000 ( 1981 est~l'1~tes \

'!'ot~l n-lrnher of 729,000 576,000 153,000 14.000 150 hook ,productlon t~t1es (lO,500)

"ul"ber of book tltles per :"1111ion 162 '" 489 46 29 5 l nhab~ tants (29 ) --'lumber of c lrCllla t~on :lf da~ly newllpaper 134 324 3S /'20 2 ner l, 000 lnhabl tant. (14 ) 'data avallable on1y for 1979 )

!'lur.lber of r~d~o bro~d-'4 cast.lne tr~nsml tters 29, "100 22,000 7,700 950

(720) ~:ul'1ber of radIO -recelvers per l, JOO 293 835 10 89 8 "nhab::. t.ants (74 )

, "u!'1ber of te1evlSIon

I~ ~rans"'l.t.t.?rs 41,000 38,800 2,300 290 - -1

(160 ) "umber of te1evlSlon

1

recelvers per 1,800 121 394 24 17 1 lnhahltants (10)

C:ources: Unesco. Stat~st~ca1 Yearbook, 1983, pP. 1-7 anrl 13-15, V1-ll-l~""'4: 1,.')-22 37, 151, 156, IX-5, ", 13-14, 30-31 ~ 'Jn l ted Na !.lons, DemoqraphlC Yearbook, 19 -, 0";' p. 105: 1975, p. 139: 1980, p. 1-3; 1981, p. 163.

Note: The flgures ln brackets are lntended to show the qrave Slt.uatl.On in sub-Sa"haran Afrl.ca. r

512

29

11

15

28

0.4

f

- 20 -

Africa 1 s share in the world 1 s production and circulation of

knowledge and inforrnatlon materials is very low. In 1981, for

instance, out of the wor1d 1 s total book production, Africa 1 s

share was only 1.9%, yie1ding a per capita ratlo of 1:34,571,

compared to 1:2,043 for. developed countries and 1:21,771 for

aIl developing countries. Moreover, if ~rab States in Africa

are excluded, per capi ta book production in sub-Saharan Afrlca

i s mu chI e 5 5 • l : 46, a 9 5 . For Ethlopia and' Tanzania, for 1n-

stance, it i6 1:214,386 and 1:36,152 respectively. The find-

ing5 are sirnilar insofar as the cl.rcu1ation of newspapers and

the distribution of radlo receivers l.S concerned. The average

circulation of newspapers and the nurnber of radl.o receivers

per 1,000 inhab1. tants 1.S 35 and 101 respect1. vely for develop-

ing countries. For Afnca as a 'w'hole, 1.t 1.5 only 20 and 89

III respectively, (and rnuch lèss for the entire sub-Saharan Afr1.ca

14 and 74; for Ethiopia 2 and 8; for Tanzan1.a Il and 28 ln

tha t order). These data provide sorne indlcatlon of the pre-

valence of 1.111teracy in sub-Saharan Africa WhlCh African ,

countries have proml.sed to eradicate by the year 2000.

(Greenough, Richard, 1962, 42).

-

..

." ' fT " ,

- 21 -

CHAPTER TWO

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES ON LITERACY EDUCAT~ON

Literacy and Its Definition

According to Pa ttison. the two basic problems which the

literacy researchers face are (a) the problem of defining what

is meant by literacy, and (b) dec~d~ng what ev~dence to use to

estab1ish the existence or absence of l~ teracy. (Pa ttison, R.,

1982, 119). Al though wri t ten languages appeared as ear ly as

1500 B.C. (Patt~son, R., 1982, 40-55), not only has each

society defined "1~teracy" in its own way, but the definition

o .. f l~teracy has continually changed. The Greeks, the Romans,

and the Egypt~ans had their own def~n~tion of literacy.

Bor~ng, for example, defines l~teracy as "the ab~lity of an

ind~vidual to make any use of wr~t~ng as a tool for the satl.S-

fact~on of normal soc~al, business, or pol~t~cal requirements,

however great or small". (Boring, T.A. 1979, 1). lJ

Jonathan Kozol, who has been highly inf1uenced by Paulo

Friere 1 S work (see Freire, P., 1970 and 1981) in Brazil and by

the Cuban 1 i teracy campaign, suggests tha t the defini tion of

literacy ought to reflect not only the ideology of the nation

embarking upon a literacy campaign, but also, and most impor-

tant1y, the needs and goals of the illi terate adul t who .,

- 22 -

~ecomes the object of such a campaign. Kozol cautions against i

using all-embracing definitions of literacy. He describes the

view of the futurists thus: "Contemporary 1iteracy, they say, ..

if we are speaking of a nation such as the United States

rather than a nation such as Cuba, imp1ies a leve1 of sophis-

tication in the use and comprehension of words, numbers and

symbols that cannot be achieved by the mere competence to read

and write and do ar~thmetic." (Kozol, J., 1980, 59). Such a

v~ew, he notes, diverts our attention from whatever l~ttle we

can do ta improve our societ~es, especia1ly those of Afrlcd,

Asia and Latin America:

... It i5 a1so •. , an excellent way of obviating issues of injustice. Once we begin to redefine a literate person in such lofty terms, not just the poor, the blacK, the economica11y deprived, but ev en the rich may calI themselves "illit­erate." (Kozo1, J., 1980, S9).

The utilization of highly Sophlsticated electronics for educa-

tion and productive processes nowadays is radically changing

what is meant by a l~terate persan. But on the ot~er hand,

such a high leve1 of literacy cannat be achieved without the

prior mastery of the three R's.

Convent~onal aXl0ms supporting the need for l,iteracy

education (which Pattison reduces to the "American - real1y an

international dogma") are the f0110wing:

- 23 -

(l) li teracy is equivalent to skill in reading and writingi

( 2 ) individuals W"ho are literate by this dard are more cul tured or Cl. Vl.I1Zed those who are not i

stan­than

( 3) the skl.lls of readl. ng and wr i ting shou Id be propagated among poor peoples as a first step in their economl.C and social develop­ment;

(4) th.e skills of reading and writl.ng should be preserved and expanded at home as a chief means of protecting democracy, moral values, rational thought, and aIL 'Ile hold dear. (Pattison, R., 1982, VI).

In contrast to these premises, Pattison puts forW"ard a differ-

ent, more widely accepted set of prOpOSl.tlons:

(l) literacy is foremost, [a] consciousness of the problems posed by language, and second­arl.ly sk11l 1n the technologl.es, such as rhetorlc and W"rlting, by which thl.S con­sciousness is expres5ed;

(2) different cultures may have dl.fferent con­cepts of language and different technologies to express the5e concepts; thus there can be no unlversal standard of ll.teracy;

(3) economic and social development depends on a / pragmatl.c concept of the uses of language// shared among the leadershl.p of the evolvi-r{g communi ty, and therefore the imposi t1.9n/ of narrow Western ideas about lite;:-a:êy on developing populations at home or/~broad 15 not automatl.cally beneficl.ali / \//

// (4) literacy changes in steP wlth changlng

notl.ons about languag~/~nd 'Ill th new tech-nologl.es (Pattl..s'on, R., 1982, VI-VII).

/

/////// /

For Pattison, ll.terSicY i5" .as weIL, the manlpulatlon of lan­/

guage accordipif/to the need of a society at a partl.cular

/////

/

( )

-' 24 -

per iod in time.

Definitions of llteracy will continue to differ sa long

as each nation defines li teracy accèrding to what i t percelves

to be' its spec~fic and immediate needs. However, most na tlons

~-to accept th-e defTn~-tion provlded by Unesco. .. --- According

to Unesco' s 1948 definltion, "literacy" was understood ta mean

"the ability ta read and write a simple message". In 1951,

Unesco defined a "1 1 terate person" as one "who can, with

understanding, both read and write 'a short, simple statement

on his everyday life." In 1962, Unesco revised its definition

and emphasized the continu~ng use.s of Il teracy:

A person is literate when he has acquired the essential knowle~e and skills which enable him to engage in aIL those activ~ties in which li teracy is required for effective functioning in his group and community and whose attainments in reading 'and wr~ting and ar~thmetic make it possible for him ta continue to use these skil1s toward hlS own and t.he communi ty' s development. (Unesco, 1965a).

Li teracy and Power

Li teracy has always been an instrument of those who

wield power in society, be they individuals, groups, polltlcal

parties, or social classes. In ancient Egypt, for example,

1 i teracy was employed in the service of author i ty and i ts

possession was .restricted to those' exercising splritual and

secular power:

- 25 -

ln Egyp t, wr i t ~ng mad e an accommoda t~ on w ~ th the existing h~erarch~cal soc~al arder, with the result that a small segment of the populat~on used it to explolt the masses. ~Jrltl.n<j bec ornes a tool of authorltarl.anlSffi, and ~ts d~ssem~na­tian is rlgorously cont.rolled by those ~n power, who fear for their pOSl tions lf the Skl11 should become cornrnonplace. (Patt1.son, R., 1982, 63).

Literacy has also contrlbuted ]'~ to the world-wlde spread ef--/~

religions such as Chrls~~ani t , Islam, and Buddh~sm and, of

cOJ.!~se, _ofpolit1.cal ldeologies as we.ll. Marx, Engels, and

after them, Lenin, 5talin, and Mao, could not hav,e succeeded

in popula.ri~ing COnuTIunlSm bath w~ thin the lnternatlonal work-

ing class movement- and within thelr societies had it not been

through the use of the wri t ten word.

Chrlst~anlty is somet~mes called a "rellglon of the

book 11 for 1. ts doctrl.nes and moral pract~ces are cornprl.sed ln

the b~blical text. Durlng the tlmes of Jesus Chnst, llteracy

was thought to be unlmportant by the followe,rs and d~sç:lples

of ChristI for l t had been employed as a tool for rellg~ous

oppresslon and persecut~on under the ear ly Greco-Roman rulers.

(Pattlson, R. 1 1982, 70). Jesus 1 llke Socrates, dld not em-

ploy the written word to popularl.ze his teachlngs. But real-

izing the 1mportal}ce of sacred text 1 Chr l.st 1 s disc1ples la ter

used the wrl tten word to spread hl.s teachings. Since then,

aIl Christlan denoInl.nations have used l~teracy for the purpose

of popularising and propagating the~r respective creeds.

I_~~ __ ~--.L.--

1

- 26 -

//

Because of its ability to control the written word, the

Roman Church left a marked impâ'ct on European c~vilizat~on.

The control which the Church had over wr~t~ng also gave it

supreme authority over aIl soclal ~nstitutions for many centu-

rles. But educat~ng the faithful to become literate was not a

concern of the Church unt1.1 recent ---------t1mes ~~-,-----rJ1e need ' -~ /

for universal educatlon was recognlzed only-in the 19th centu-

1 \,

ry at the outset of the lndust.rial revolutîon in Eltrope.

Robert Owen, the Brlt~sh utopian soclalist, and John ~ ~ -----------

Stuart Mill were regarded as ploneers of mass unlversal educa-

tion. Robert OWen declared his bellef ln mass univer5al

'educatlon ln 1813 and bu~lt model towns w~th both schools and

factor les ta test h1.S 1.deas. (Encyclopaedla Br~tannlca, 1975,

pp. 800-802 ; Pat t~son, Robert, 1982/;' 147-8). In the 18th /

//

century, only 30 percent of the Rfi tlsh population was able eto

read and wr ~ te, and by the end of the 19th century, Brita~n \

had adopted univers al primary educatlon and 1.t was est~m_ated

-'

that 90% of the population was able to read and.,. wri te.

/ (Patti50n, Robert, 1982, 148). Yet even today w1'ien post-

primary educat1.on has been made compulsory and educat1.onal

attainment 15 lncreasing, llilteracy ~s felt to be a nat~onal

p

The Adult Literacy Campa~gn (today) 15 regarded al' one of the most important developments in adult educatlon 1.n Unlted Kingdom. 1t 1.S un~que in the sense that adult 1iteracy has been found to be a problem ~n a developed ~ndustrial SOCle­ty where aIl adul ts under the age of 65 recel ved at least elght years of compulsory educatlon. (Charnley, A.H. and Jones, H.A., 1979, 1).

,

Y' /

- 27 -

The United States of Amerlca lS one of the world's most

advanced natlons ln terms of i ts scientiflc and teehnological

achievemen ts; and yet 1 there too, wldespread cy has

been reco Kozol has elalfned that-- n in ---------------------1970, the percent~~lllterates .,. Was three

----------------times

-----------~ _-- that ln the Sovlet Unlon." (Kozol, J. 1 1980, 1). In 1977, . "

--~

Oliver Patterson, in a study sponsored by the U.S. Offlee of

Education, pOl~ted out that "lf ab11lty to read and unde~stand

the _flew.?paperls used as the cr 1. ter ion of 1 i teracy, a conser-------vative estimate [of adu1t ililterates] would be approxlmately

twenty mill1.on." (Patterson, Ollver, 1978, 71-81).

Whatever the' exact number, a sizaole proportion of the

American adult populatlon lS "

educatlonally dlsadvantaged·. - l ,

-~, Hunter and Harman, ln a study carr1.ed ou:' for the Ford Founda-

tion, analyzed lll1.teracy ln the context of the soclo-economic

conditlons of the educatlonally d1.sadvantaged. They observed

that ill1.terates

are often the same persons who suffer from one or more of ~he other maJor social disadvan­tages - poverty, unemployment, racial or ethn1.c discrim1.nation The greater the number of those disadvantages, the more serious the suffering for members of our soc1.ety in WhlCh one' s worth is judged by one' 5 job, possession9 and eredéntials. (Hunter, C. and Harman, D., 1979, 56).

In their opinion,

/

---

,.

,.

/

.. - 28

,It at many millions among the 54 to American adul ts who are 16 years, of

age or older, out of school, and wi thout a high school diploma suffer significant disadvantages

___ ~_--~---,-'oecause of their lim~ted education. Indeed, studies of functional competency suggest that

. one in five American adults has difficulty with many tasks required in daily living and that more than one-third have trouble wi th sorne of those tasks. (Hunter, C. and Harman, D., 1979, 103) . -

The findings of Hunter and Harman indicate that so long as

economic ineq~alities exist, a large segmept of

population will be "functi}mally illiterate".

the American

A very high

level of scien tific and technologica l development does not -<::

nec..essarily lead to eradication of ill1teracy, which is itself

a resu1 t of the socl0-economic and political conditions pre-

vailing in a partlcular society.

LLteracy in Socialist Countries

In most socialist/ countries, /

literacy (or for that

matter, educatlon of ,any kind) is fashioned to serve as a ..

pol i tical -tool for" the construction of a communist society.

In these countries, the main objective of education is to

create a "new (socialist) man" gUlded by the collective values

J qf his society. Socialist countries do not subscribe to the

view that education shou1d be free from political control and "

ideological guidance. (Grant, N., 1979, 177). In these coun-

~Fiesl we

/';' li teracy

find a different form of relationship between

and power".

..

The Soviet Union was th,e first country which virtually

eradicated ill i teracy. Sorne authors contend tha t the notion

tha t Il everyone has the r ight to read and wr i te Il was by no

means an invention of the Soviets. According ta Laubach, for

examp1e, that notion came out of the Protestant Reformation

which emphasized the church' s role in educating adherents ta

read the gospe l s, hymns, sunday school journa1s and prayer r

books by themse1ves. (Laubach, F.C., 1970,16-17), David

Harman suggests that Lenin borrcMed the idea of mass li teracy

from the Prote~J:ant Re formation and empIoyed it Il not in this

case ta read the Gospel, but to read technica1 manuals and

pol i tical posters in o.rder ta be effective parbisans of the

Soc ialist State Il • (Kozol, J. , 1978, ~)'. But Lenin' s ratio-

nal e for univer saI li teracy gees furt.her than tha t.

remarked that "without teaching there __ J.s---nO know1edge, and

-----------.------- .

without know1edge there is Communism ". (Grant, N., 1979, .

25) • Thi s is the gover ing pr incipl e of educa tioh in the

Sov iet Un ion after the ommunists took power in the Bol shevik

revol ution ,of Oc tober 917. Nigel Grant emphasizes the unique

int-erpreta tion whi the Soviet government has given to the

purposes of edu

The m 55 character of Soviet education is clear-1y reflection of its social airns (of building' a communist society.) .. , education has to rai se he entire population to as high a level as

possible, or the training of' specialists i5 bound to prove futile in praètice. Hence the unrernitting assault on illiteracy throughout the Soviet period, and the continuaI efforts. ta . raise the 'c;ul tural level' of the people through

l,

( . 1

...

. ,

, , Œ

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the schools, mass communicaerons,\ and every other method that could be pressed irlto service.

Th~\. Soviet regime, à'ïms higher thaQ. mere passive acquiescence, so that for positive political commitment among the masses, and mass education is imperative. 'An illiterate

'person l, Lenin remarke~_ 1 stands outside [politics] i he must first bè1 taught the ABCs. Wi thout this, there can be n~1 poli tics i wi th9ut this, there are only rumours, gossip, tales, prej udices; but" no poli tics 1 • Li teracy and the highest development of general education are thus regarded as a poli tical nece§.S.,i ty for the gover~ent and a civic dut Y for the individual. (Grant, N. 1 1979, 32-33). \~--

('

TheGSoviet literacy campaign, which began in 1921 and endeç in

1941, was the first of its kind undertaken.' Even Laubach, a

'well-known anti-communist, adr~tits that the Soviet ljpteracy

campa~gn was a re$ounqing success:

Russia under the Czars was far behind other \

European nations in literacy. In 1920, her literacy was given as 31.9 percent i~~overnrnent reports 1 bùt l'ess than ,9 percent really were able to read intelligentlYI as they now confesse This illiteracy ran directly across Lenin's idea of government by the masses. On every occasion

\he placed l,i teracy amonc:t the first nec'essi ties for a communist governm~nt ••.• In 1922, they made education free for everybody, irrespective of 'race or col or ...• Two and a half million "cul tural soldiers" (workers), were recrui ted to teach wi thout pay, and these were commanded by' hundreds of t.ho~ands of 0 specially paid teach­ers. School chi~$!ren were organized into "Down wit1: illiteracy è"Scieties", which surveyed their

, 1;own's 'to find out how many illiterate adults ~here were. After August, 1931, illiteracy

became a 1egal offence In 1933, Stalin announced that 90 percent of the U.S.S.R. could read and write •..• (Laubach, F. C., )970, 20-22)' .

...

r--,

1

31 -

. Taday, th~ Soviet Union 'is among the leading nations of the

~ warld ~n terms of having the highest rate of literacy within

its society. According to the 1atest UNESCO Statistica1 Year-Q \.

the rate of li teracy, in the Soviet Union within book '( 19 B 3 ) 1 -' the age group "of 9-49 for the year 1979 was 99.8%. the highest

of any industrialized country.

r The literacy ,campaigI). that Cu'ba launched in 1961 has

. d h \ . f . l' , ., rece~ve muc attent~on rom econom~sts, po ~t~cal sc~ent1sts, f

saciologists and educationists. J

In the same wa':( that Lenin

and Stalin were the rallY1ng figures in the struggle of the , "

Soviet people against 11li teracy, President Fidel Castro has

guided his country 1 s educational developrnent. Castro stood

before the U.N. General Assernbly on Septernber 26 , 1960 and

declared that "Cuba will be thé first country of America which

••. will be able ta, say' it does not have one pers on who re-

mains ill1terate." (Kazol, J., 1978, 4). There is ample evi-,

dence to show that Cuba's 11teracy campaign (which, along with

irnprovernents in health care and land reforrn, were the main ,

objectives of the National Democratie Revolution) was carried

out successfully.

According to a 1953 Cuban census, 1,032;849 Cubans (or

nearly 26%) out of a total 'population of slightly aver 4

million were unable ta read and write. (Kazal, J. r 1978, 5).

The illiterates were, for the most part, peasants who l1ved fin

(.1

•

- 32 -o '

'\

scatter.ed and isolated villages away from the principal towns

and cities. According to Kozol 1 when Castro called for liber­

~ting the peasants from ignorance, over 100,000 Cubans betwe'n

ten years of age and sevehteen vo1unteered to teach i11iter-

ates. As a result of the 1961 Cuban literacy campaign, Cuba's

illiterate population declined in the mid 1960' s. to about· 5

percent. Later on, with fOllow-up programmes and compulsory

elementary education, the percentage of illitera,cy was brought

down to less than 2 percent, these being "the sick, the aged,

whose so-1e language remained Hai tian" • and those Cubans

(KàZO~J., 1978,

tant watershed in

54'). Cuba 1 s 1iteracy carnpaign is an impor-

'" literacy education. Its" osuccess has, no

doubt, given stimulus to similar efforts in many deve10ping

countries.

Literacy and Unesco

Until the founding of Unesco in 1946, there was no

international poli tical '(rganization that i'nterest'ed i tse1f in ~

the fight against i11iteracy on a global level. Unesco's con-

cern with i1literacy as a world-wide problem increased after

many of the colonies under the rule of Britain, France,

Holland, Be1gium,· and the Un~ ted States obtained their inde-, 0

pendence and joined the United Nations Organization. Most of

the new1y independent states viewed ill~teracy as a maJor

impediment in the~r struggle for soc~al justice and economic

dev~lopment. (Jeffenes, S.e., 1967, 9-10). Many of these

"

,k

33

countries sought Unesco' f3 technica1 and financia1 assistance

in their attempt to combat il1iteracy. A1though Unesco

express~d a wi1lingness to help in such ventures from the out­

set, no large sca1,e and we11-coordinated programme was imp1e- .

mented until '1965.

In 1965, Unesco announced a plan to start 12 work-.

oriented adu1t liter~cy pilot projects and 8 micro ventures in

18 Third World nations which incorporated many features of

Cuba' s successful literacy campaign. The General Conference

of UNESCO at its l3th Session passed a ·resolution recommending

that the World Congress of Ministers of Education on the

Eradication of Illiteracy, which was to take place in Teheran

in September 1965, should consider:

a) the problem of rnass i11i teracy which conti­nues to irnpede social and economic progress in many parts of the worldi

b) National plans .for the eradlcation of mass illiteracy widespread, preparation

c) the manner cation of contribute and to the Development

in countries where' i.t is still and exchange of experience on the and execution of such plansi

in which sucn plans for the eradi­illiteracy can more effectively to social and economic progress objectives of the United Nations Decadei

Çi) how natlonal supplemented actioni and

efforts to this end can be by intensified international

e) how to ensure the fullest support of public opinion and the active participation of the people of ail countries in a World Campaign for the Eradication of Illiteracy. (Burnet, M., 1965, 5).

•

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In October 1963, Mr. Rene Maheu, theh Director General of

UNESCO, pointed out that "the existence of mass illiteracy

constituted not only a denial of a fundamental human r~ght -

the right to education - but also a major obstacle to economic

development and a threat to peace". (Burnet, M., 1965, 5-6).

Several other studies carried out for Unesco ~n the 1960' s

aiso emphasized the contribution of illiteracy to mass pover-

ty. One noted, for example, that:

The map of hunger and the map of il li teracy in the world are the same. The regions where people do not have enough to eat are aiso those where they c~not read, and this is no accident. For progress is ~ndivisibIe, people cannot eat more unless they produce more, and they cannot pro­duce more wi thout being taught. (Unesco, 1963, 2 ) •

After considering such research results, Unesco set as~de

,$32,000,000 in the late 1960's to launch 11 pilot proJects

mainly in Afr~ca and Asia. The venture was later cons~dered a

"complete fa~lure" by promlnent area experts and by Unesco

itself. (UNDPjUnesco, 1976). In Algeria, for lnstance, after

two years of operatlon, the programme wh~ch intended to enroll

100, 000 studen ts reg istered only 1,400 adul ts. In Mali, out

of a projected enrollment of 110,000 only 20,000 participateq.

In Tanzania, actual enrollments were one-fifth of what was

anticipated and about the si tuation in Eth~opia, Unesco con-

cluded that "the entire effort is' now considered to [beJ a

waste". (Kozol, J.,. 1978, 73). Kozol adds about the rest of

--

)

35 -

the projects:

Sirnilar reports [of failureJ carne from Madagas­car, Nigeria, Ecuador, Syria, Ind~a and Mali

In three successive papercover volumes on the progress of its efforts (liJeracy 1965, 66, 69), Unesco failed to come out wi th the fact that nothing it had tried had met with measur­able success and that in simple truth, it was throwing good money after bad. (Kozol, J., 1978, 73) •

F011ow-up studies revealed that eighty percent of those who

participated in the programme dropped out before the end of • the campaigns. Out of those who finished, fifty percent lost

what they had learned in a single year. (Kozol, J., 1978, 76).

The failure of the projects was acknowledged by Unesco; the

pilot proJects for functional l~teracy were lia start1ing and

shocking waste in almost aIL respects". (Kozol, J., 1978,

74) •

,The failure of these pilot projects, however, could be

explained by the poor attempt made by Unesco to understand the

psychology of adult llteracy ln the Third World, as weIL as by

i ts hast y dec is~on to launch the programmes in aIL the 11

countries ln almost a simllar way wi thout tak~ng note of the ,~

, "

cultural, economlC and polltical peculiarlties'o~ the natlons

involved. In an intervlew given to Jonathan Kozol in 1976,

David Harman po~nted out that Unesco overlooked what the Cuban

educators, for example, recognlzed as a cruclal precondl tion

for 1aunching a successful literacy programme:

7' .. ~ -

~

36 -

Education of adult illiterates without sorne parallel forrn of socio-econornic transformation is unthinkable. It has to be accompanied by food and land and heal th care and the rest.

'Wi thout these i terns no endeavors of this kind has ever yet achieved even ..a marginal success .

. (Kozol, J., 1978, 74).

Cuba 1 S success in its literacy campaign, in contrast, can in

part be attributed ta broader political initiatives of the

fair distribution of wealth (land) and the expansion of social

services, health and education included. Therefore, the major

responsibility for the failure of the pilot projects may lie

not with Unesco, but with the governments of the individual

countries where the projects were conducted. Most were unwil-

ling or incapable of carrying out necessary political reforms

that would have persuaded illiterates of the usefulness of

literacYi in brief, of conferring on the new literates the

economic and social opportunities which they were prevl.ously

denied.

Despite the overall fal.lure, the pilot projects still

had sorne posi ti ve impact in the countr ies invol ved. They

provided considerable technical training to li teracy educa-

tors 1 espec ially in the preparation of li teracy mater ials

oriented to rural conditions. And they laid the groundwork

for future literacy carnpaigns. Lessons were drawn f,rorn the

failure of the projects regarding the administration and

organiza tion of li teracy campaigns 1 the. need to co-ordinate

- 37 -

training wi th a wide range of social programmes, and the

necessity of continuing superv~s~on and evaluation.

The Effects of Literacy

According to Goody (1968) , /

\ the perception and thought

of illi terate people about the world undergoes a radical

change as a result of literacy education. Bhola, has sug-

gested in this connection that the characteristic qual'ities

which result from literacy include: Il objectivity, holding

individual opinion, capacity for logical analysis and context

independent abstract thinking, a sense of history and uni-

versal~sm" • (Bhola, H.S., 1981, 27). The Industrial Revolu-

tion in 19th century Europe might not have been possible had

i t not been preceded by Jonn Gutenburg 1 s discovery of the

technology of printing in the 16th century. (Cipolla, C. M. ,

1969, 62-99). The acqu~sitlon of the technology of literacy

has had a tremendous impact on the development of other tech-

nologies. The pOSl tlve impact of l~ teracy educatlon can be

measured in an individual's day-to-day performance in carrylng

out his task. It is not very d~fficult, for instance, to tell

whether one is literate or not by looking, for example, at the

methodology the lndividual is applylng in accomplishing a

certain work asslgnment, be i t in agricul ture or industry.

(Cole 1983; Eisemon 1984). In the rural areas, new Ilterates

have been shown to be qu~ te keen in using economlC lnsti tu-

tions such as agr~cul tural extenslon serVlces, rural banks,

- 38 -

marketing or consumer services cooperatives. (Cole 1983). In

the urban areas, literacy education has enabled individuals to

obtain higher incorne, better job security, as weIl as fostered

political .p~rticipation, including rnernbership in trade unions

protecting their econornic lnterests.

Although literacy cannot guarantee people the capabili-

ty to fully parti-cipate in political activities, there is

still ample evidence to show that literacy abllity often

results in increased participation of new literates in poli ti-

cal organizations. In rnost Third World countries, i11iterate

members of society often have a special respect for the liter-

ates simply b~cause those with literacy are the on es who con-

trol the direction of development of that society. If illit-

erates liberate thernselves from illiteracy" they are likely ta

obtain freedom from dependence upon literate members of socie-

ty in aIL matters that requlre the skilis of reading and

writing. Recognizing the pOSl tl ve raIe tha t Il teracy educa-

tion plays in changlng the lives of 111iterates, the Interna-

tional Council of Adul t Educatlon at its Paris Conference

( 1982) proposed (in i ts report en ti tled :'Towards an authentlc

development: the raIe of adult educatlon") that adult educa-

tion should become one of the prerequlsltes for rural develop-.

ment. The Couneil further emphasized that adul t educatlon

should be embedded in a programme of rural transformation:

/

,/

/

,/

/

• •• educational actlvities, including liter­~cy and post-literacy programmes, cannot be planned in isolation. They must be seen as integral elements of an overall social, economic, and cultural developrnent process, with content, methods, participants, and instructors related directly to deyelopment goals.

The -'Council also noted that adult education should support

action appropriate to speci fic local needs and that "people

shol.Jld be he~ped to create their own a~thentic models" for

developrnent (International -Council for Adul t Education, • 36).

..

.(

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1982~

,.

- 40 -

CHAPTER THREE

THE ORIGINS AND EVOLUTION OF THE TANZANIAB LITERACY CAMPAlGN

Introduction

Tanzania, un1ike many African countries, has a 10ng-

history of contact with the civi1izations of the Middle' East

and Europe. Arab sett1ement occurred between 950-1500 A.D. on

the eastern coast of the mainland and in Zanzibar; (Clarke,

P. H. C., 1963, 12 ) • The Arabs intermarried wi th indigenous

people and converted man y to Islam. They also brought their

language with them, which resuited in the enrichment of Swahi-

li with Arab~c words. Al though the Portuguese were be11eved

to have ru1ed Tanzania ~n the ~

16th cent ury , European

protectorates were not ~stab1 he region untll the end

of 19th century. (Hinzen, 1979, 1-2).

The Germans occupied from early 1880'5 untll

1919. After the Flrst~1d War 1 Tanzanla (then Tanganyika)

was governed by Britain under a mandate from the League of

Nations, and later under trusteeship granted by the United

Nations Organization unt~l it became lndependent in 1961.

During the German- and British rule , missl.onaries of

severai denom~nations were mainly responsible for the develop-

ment of schooling ln Tanzanïa. They came W1. th the Holy Bible

to popu1arize the1.r bellefs and taught the rudlments of

- 41 -

li teracy to the African population. Arnong the most active

m~ssionary groups were the Roman Catholic French Roly Ghost

Fathers who began the~r work in 1868, the Un~vers~ties'

Mission (1875), the Lutherans (1887), and the Morav~ans of

Germany (1891).

Government-sponsored adu1t 1iteracy programmes began in

1946 under the auspices of the Colonial Community Deve10pment

Department wh~ch organized instruction for army veterans. In

1949, the Department changed i ts narne to the Social We1fare /

Department and ~~s serv~ces were expanded. Rowever, it was

'only after 1952 that adult education programmes were developed

1

for rural areas. Desp~ te the expans~on of these programmes

and the presence of European m~ssionaries in the country, only

10-15 percent of the populat~on was cons~dered to be literate

in Swahili 1n 1965, four years after independence. (Swantz,

L.W., 1965).

In 1954, the Tangany~ka Ifr~can National Union (TANU)

was formed with the current head of state, Ju11us K. Nyerere,

as its f1rst pres1dent. (Kurtz, L.S., 1978, 152). This party

led the country to 1ndependence ~n 1961. In 1967, the govern-

ment of Tanzan1a (then TanganY1ka) adopted the policies of

soc1al1sm and se1f-rel~ance outlined ~n the Arusha Declaration

which had a direct and decis ive impact on the development of

educationa1 policy in general, and adult literacy education in

/' /'

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r particular. As Abdul Khakee puts it, "education was expected

to play not only a leading role but als0 a new role in the

newly envisaged society". (Khakee, A., 1970, 73). The impor-

tance attached to adult literacy education can be traced to

the founding, by TANU (now chama Cha Mapinduzi), of Kivukoni

College in 1961, which was charged with the task of provlding

educatlon ta those adul ts who occupied' ~eadership positions in

the party. (Kurtz, L., 1978, 97).

Nyerere bel1eved that rural development could not take

place without a maJor investm~nt in literacy education. The

First Fi ve-Year Development Plan (1964/65-1968/69) proposed

the launching of·a nation-wide literacy campaign. The Presi-

dent, a former school teacher, had a strong interest in, and

_ impact on, the country's educatlona1 development. Inaugur:at-

ing the first development plan in 1964, he announced that:

The purpose of Government expendlture on educa­tion in the coming years must be to equip Tanzanians wi th the skills and knowledge which are needed lf the development of this country is to be achleved. First, we must educate adults. Our chlldren will not have an impact on our economlC development for fi ve, ten or even twenty years. The attltudes of the adults on the other hand have an lmpact now. The people must understand the plans for the development of this country. They must be able to partlclpa te ln changes which are necessary. Only if they are wil1ing and able to do this will thlS plan succeed ... and adult education is part of this preparatlon of 'ourselves for the work we have to do. (Government of the United Republlc of Tanganylka and Zanzibar, 1964, XI).

1

- 43 -

Three years later Nyerere issued the Arusha Declaration/which ,

spe1led out the necessity of "Education for Self-Reliance".

This was the, most important step taken by Nyerere 1 TANU and

the government to direct the socio-economic and poli tical

future of the country. The declaration 'proclaimed national-

ization of the economy, establishment of TANU as the only

poli tical party, and emphasized rural. development and self-

reliance. The expansion of primary and adul t education was

considered to be necessary to achieve these goals.

\

The need to educate the whole country was seen by

Nyerere and TANU as the best way to redch the rural masses and

to prepare aIl Tanzanians for U]amaa, Tanzanian~style soci~l-,

ist society. (Graham, S., 1975, 150). The policy of Education

for Self-Reliance called for the imparting of bas~c· literacy

skills to promot~ active economic part~cipation al}d required

that schools become' productive, self-reli~nt entities and

integrated into rural s?ciety. (Nyerere, J.K., 1968, 267-290).

The Second Five-Year Development Plah (1969/70-1973/74)

gave additional impetus to the notion that rural eaucation

should become the axis of rural development. The plan pro-

Fosed that "concerted efforts be directed towards making

primary schools 'community education centers' and focal points ,

for total educational needs rather than ... somewhat detached

insti tutions for the education of children." (Government of

..

, D

'1,

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Tanzania, 1969, 157). The Third Fi ve-Y.~ar Plan for Economie fl

and Social Developmen't (1976/77-1980/81) ex~ressed the govern-

ment 1 s conuni tment ta the eradication of illi teracy which was ~

ta be acnieved by the end of the plan period. Adult education

was ta be given a practical orientation and explieit1y related '.

to rural life under the direction of the new (1969) Ministry·

of National Education.

'Voluntary agencies, mass and missionary organiza1:ions

have also been invol ved in the l:i teracy campaigns launched. in

Tanzania. Agencies such as the Tanganyika Par~ntJ Association

(TAPA) Mere influential from the beginning and prqvi'ded many

teachers for the literacy programmes. Another is the National ~

Adult Education Association, which has respQnsibility for the

preparatio'n of reading materials for new litera tes , ~e Co­

operative Movemez:t of "Tanzania has contributed to the promo­

tion of li teracy by organizing programmes for i ts members.

Many organizations affiliated with TANU are involved as weIl"

including;:: the National Union of .Tanzania workers (NUTA), the

Tanganyika African National Union of Youth League (TYL) ,

T<;tnzania Na tional Union of Teachers. (TNUT); and th~ Union of

Women of Tanzania (UWT) (Kurtz, L., 1978, 146, 2lP, 217, 235).

Externally 1 bilateral and international orgé\nizations

have played a .considerable role, especially Unesco and UNDP.

The agencies \1'

jointly s"ponsored the Work-Or iented Adul t • 4

two

(

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- 45 -

Literacy Pilot Project.for a period of'five years from 1968 to

1973, one of the pilot projects launched in 12 countries.

The Tanzanian Work-Oriented Adult Literacy pilot Project 'lias

started in four pilot districts borderl.ng Lak.e Victoria wi~h

l:.his object.ive:

to assist the Governmfj:!nt of Tanzania in organizing and implernenting a work-oriented 'adult literacy pilot project closely linked with vocational training, particula~ly in agricul­ture, and to train the national counteq~arts, supervisors and trainers of literacy teachèrs in the new approach and techniques of functional

'literacy: (UNDP/Unesco, 1976, 3).

The material and technical aid given to the government

by Unesco and UNDP 'lias qui te considerable. More than 13,500

teachers were trained, 90 rural ~ibraries established, 16,800

literacy classes enrolling more than half a million partici-"" ...

pants were organized~ a radio literacy programme begun and

literacy primers prepared in home economics, political educa-

tion, the production of cotton, bananas, cattle breedl.ng and (J

management, and fishing. (SIDA, 1983, Il). The l.rnportance of

this assistance 'lias emphasized by Ndugu Frank Elinewl.nga,

Deputy Director of Natlonal Literacy Center l.n a recent inter-

view:

What could 'Ile have done without the help of UNESCO and UNDP at the inl. tl.al s'tage? 1 UNESCO and UNDP jointly sent us experts, equl.pment, finance' and lots of publicatl.on -materials .. They are the Ofles that started developl.ng approprl.ate reading materl.als for farmers. But when these internatl.onal organl.zatl.ons left, the Government of Tanzania and the Party, because they have seen the tre~endous posl.tl.ve results the proJect

... - 46 -

has brought about, issued an order that the pro­gramme be continued on a national sca1e, Now we have reached a stage where we have a national i Il i teracy ra te .of probably 15 % by the- end of 1983. It ,is abs01utely absurd to consider this ~esu~t as being ours only.

Assistance was obtained on a bil~tera1 basis as well,

especially from Sweden and Norway. Most of the<foreign aid

for: the Tanzanian National Li teracy Campaign carne from the

Swedish International Deve10pment Agency (SIDA) . . Tanzanian

and Swedish cooperat.ion dates from the early 1960 ' s when the

National Union of Tanganyika Workers and Arbetarnas 'Bildnings-

l "-. " d forbund, the Worker s Educat10n Assoc1at1on, agreed to evelop

training programmes. (SIDA, 1983, 37). Sweden be~ame a major

supplier of f~nancia1 and :-,'echnical assistance to Tanzania in

the field of education and rural developrnent from September, ,

1967. (SIDA, 1983, 40). Swedish assistance included technical

training, financial contributions to cover: the token salary of

adu1t literacy teachers*, the purchase of equipment and the

prin[ting of primers. Through several agreements between the

government of Sweden and Tanzania, funds were also made avail­

able for the establishment and operation of rural libraries.

Table II bélow presents data relating to the Swedish contribu-

tion to adult education in Tanzania from 1972 t6 1982.

*Tsh. 30 (about U.S. $3) per month.

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•

TABLE II

SWEDISH TECHNICAL AND PINANCIAL ASSISTANCE TO ApULT EDUCATION IN TANZANIA 1972-1982

TECHNICAL

No. of No. of No. of experts' person- consu1-

months tants

Adult Literacy 1 12 2 Education

Adult Education printing Press 2 60 1

Folk Deve10prnent "5 Colleges 102 2

Insti tu te of Adult Education 12 373

National Corres--pondence Institute 6 137

Mass Campaigns

TOTAL 26 684 5

Note: U. S • $1 = SEK. 4. 14

FINANCIAL

No. of person- (SEK'OOO) months

2 10~,,494

2 758

2 36,779

2,587

7,580

7,482

6 162,680

Source: SIDA, Adu1 t Education in Tanzania, Education Division Documents ~o. 9, 1983, p. 45.

\

SIDA's technica1, financial and materia1 assistance was consider-

able. Expanding programmes of adu1 t li teracy 'education, estab-

1ishing printing presses for adu1t education, organizing Folk

Deve10pment Colleges, organizing an Institute of Adult Education

j

- 48 -

and a Na tional Correspondence Insti tute ~would, not have been

posaible without such assistance. , For these activities,

Sweden provided ·"technical assistance (of 684 person-months)

and financial assistance (of SEK 162,680,000) to Tanzania from

the year 1972 ta 1982. (SIDA, 1983, 43-44). In addition,

Swedish funds supported t~preparation of educational mate­

rials for several mass campaigns carried out in qonjunction

wi th tpe NLC in the areas of heal th education (SEK one

million)" nutrition (SEK 1. 5 million) and forest management

(SEK five million). Moreover, SIDA allocated a total of SEK

61.5 million (1977-82) for the training ofraS,OOO primary

school teachers for ~he establishment of universal primary

education in the country.

Foreign aid for Tanzania 1 s educational endeavour also

came from foreign-based church organizations. According ta a

study carried out by Lloyd W. Swantz, foreign-based churches

contributed $8,000,000 yearly (Swantz',L.W., 1965, 22). Al-

though Tanzania has bene,fitted a great deal from substantial

foreign aid, it also suffered severely from unpredictable

d~fficul ties. Il In the Fl rst Fi ve-Year Plan (1964/69)," for

example, "Tanzania expected to secure up to 78 percent of l

gov~rnment development expenditure from external sources. As ,~-'

i t turned out, however, only 35 percent was forthcoming."

(Norwegian' Institute of International Affairs 1982, 28). sa

ll\uch rell.ance on foreign aid has made Tanzania a victim of

- 49 -

sf. . • unpredlctable po1icies of donor countr~es and organizations.

Ob'ectives, Or anization, and Adminsitrati Llteracy Campa~gn

1 During the 1970 Presidential New ear Address, Nyerere

summarized the basic aims and objective -

paign (launched in 1971) this way:

The first job of adul t education' will therefore -be to make us reject bad houses, bad jembe (hoes), and preventable disease~ it will make us recognize that we ourse Ives have the ability to obtain better houses,. better tools, and better health.

The second objective of adult education is learning how to improve our lives, we thus have to learn how to produce more on our farms or in our factories and offices, have to learn about better food, what a balanced diet is and how it can be obtained by our own efforts , .••

The third objective of adult education must therefore be for everyone to understand our national policies of socialism and self­reliance. And we must learn about the plans for national e~onomic advance, 50 that we ca~ ensure that we aIl benefit from them. (Nyerere, J.K., 1974, 137-38).

Nyerere relied on popular support for ~ the practical trans1a-

tion Qf his tho,ughts into action. Peasants were required to

learn the use of new techniques of production (especia11y

those associated ...,i th irrigatlon) 1 as weIl as develop skills

to enable them to~participate ln national political organiza-

tions. Each village was to become self-rellant and demo-

cratic, governed by an elected manager, a treasurer and a work

supervisor. Villagers were to receive tralnlng as poul try o

breeders, wood and leather workers, blacksmiths, etc. in order

/

/

•

..,

50

\ to reduce their dependence on urban areas. (Graham, S. 1 1975,

150) •

~yerere referred to li teracy as "the key to further

pr'og7ess" in his 19&"70 address. On the same occasion, he also

remarked that a self-reliant society could not be buil t b'y

illiterate citizens for they "will never be able to play their

full part in the deve10pment of [Tanzania]. Il (Bhola, H. S.',

1981, 214). Fo110wing his 1970 Presidential Address, TANU

issued a resolution appealing to aIL illiterate Tanzanians to

rise collectively and fight against ignorance. A national

literacy campaign \lias proposed later that year. It was not

preceded by a major political event; "[it] came as the natural

culmination of a decade of political developments .•. woven

into the very logic of the country 1 s political ideology and

its chosen deve10pmental stance". (Bhola, R.S., 1981, 217).

The Ministry of National Education and TANU were made

responsib1e for organizing the 1971 li teracy campaign. The

Ministry of National Ed ucation through the Department of Ad ul t

Education gave overall direct~on w~ th techn~cal guidance and

assistance belng provlded by the Na tl0nal Li teracy Center at

Mwanza. Day-to-day adminlstrationJ such as the recru~tment and

traln~ng of vo1unteer teachers 1 the preparation and d~stribu-

tion of teachlng-learnlng materlals, cho~ce of c1assroom loca-

tions, supervision of the teaching, and the establishment of

- 51

coordinating and advisory conunittees was carried 01;l,t at

regional, district, and village level. The country (including

the islands of Zanzibar and Pemba) is di vided into 25 adminis-

tra tive regions i reg ions are di vided irito 96 districts. the

lower administrative levels being divisions, wards and vil-

lages. In Tanzania there are near1y 1300 wards and 8200

registered villages. (SrpA, 1983, 1). AlI pol~tical and-

government off~cials from the highest level of this structure

te the lewest serve on consultative and steering cornmittees

for adul t education programmes. Hence, both Party and govern-

ment organizations have been the major instruments for the

mobilization of learners.

The National Commit tee on Mul t Education is the most

important of the national literacy steering commi ttees. It

was set up at the national level as a sub-commi ttee of the

Adv~80ry Counc~l on NatIonal Education. Members of this com-

mi t tee are drawn from TANU and from various m~n~stries and

voluntary organizatlons. The corrunis,~ll.oner for National Educa-\

tion cha~rs the cornm~ttee. The Minlster for National Educa-(

tion ia the Chairman of the Advisory Council on NatIonal Edu-,

cation which was estahlished by the Education Act of "1970.

(Govt. of Tanzania, Institute of Adu1t Education, 1973, 17).

In fact, adu1 t educa tl'on was integrated lnto the forma1 educa-

tional system in 1969 when l ts administration was brought

under the newly created Ministry of National Education.

1 ••

- 52 -

The National Cornmittee on Adult Educat~on has sub-

commi ttees examining the role of the mass media, ,

a Book Pro-

duction Unit which has the task of producing instructional

" rnaterials in the national language (Swahili), a Rural Libra-

ries Cornmittee, and the Statistics ,and Research Cornrnittee to

moni tOr the progress of the Ii teracy carnpaign. The National

Committee on Adult Education also' has advisory conunittees at

t;.he regional, district, division, ward and village leve!.

There are, as well, sub-committees for developrnent and plan-

ning at the local levels. These commit tees articulate devel-

opment plans for particular areas wi th the adul t education

scheme .

.. Financial. and Material Resources

Tanzania is among the 25 poorest and least developed

nations of the world.

a1lays a'Ssured of a

non-formal education

Generally', while formal schooling is

fixed portion of the national budget,

is not. Unlike most African and other

Third World countries, the Tanzanian government has always had

a budg.et for âdult education amounting to about 10% of the

allocation for education. According to information ~;9ined from the Ministry of National Education .. the governrnent pro-

vided Tsh 107,501,540 for the period 1971/72-1974/75 for adult

education. Fore~gn donors contributed an addi tional Tsh

53,531,732, 'which constituted aboût 50% of what was provided by

the government.

- 53 -

TABLE III

COSTI'HG OF ADULT EDUCATION PROGRAMMES ONDER THE MINISTRY OF NATIOHAL EDUCATION (in Tanzanian Shillings)

Financial , Fiscal Year Total Source \

"

1971/72 1972/73 1973/74 1974/75

Government 9,271,800 20,880,567 39,465,983 37,883,190 107, SOI, 540

Donors - 12,000,000 7,700,000 33,831,732 53,531,732

Total 9,271,800 32,880,567 47,165,983 71,714,922 161,033,272 J

Source: Yusuf O. Kassam, The Adult Education Revolution in Tanzania (Nairobi: Shungwaya Pub11sheI"s Ltd., 1978), p. 64.

These data do not include estimates of inkind contributions,

Le:, in material and labor. According to the information

provided by Ndugu Frank El inewinga, Deputy Director of the

National Li teracy Center (during a recent interview with this

writer), Tanzanians made substantial voluntary contributions

to the campaign by building schools, raising funds for purcha-

sing chalk, note-books, pencils and 50 on. Expenditure On the

first phase of the campaign 0971-75) arnounted to about U.S.

$20 million with- a per literate cost of Tsh. 23 (U.S. $3.00).

(Singh, B.N. & Mbalike, E.P.R., 1976, 19).

/

54

Curriculum Development and Material Production

About ninety percent of the Tanzanian population lives \

in the rural. areas, wi th agriculture being the principal source

of incom~. Tanzania' s economy has and wi Il have to depend on

agricul ture in the foreseeable future. Adul t _ education in

to mak~eople Tanzania has emphasized functional , goals;

literate by teaching them to read, write and perform elemen-

tary calculations, and while doing so, to en~ure usage of

skills pertinent to the 1eàrners' immédiate env~ronment and

daily activi ties. It was as surned 'that 1 i teracy woul.d be put ,

to use in improving rural life; that literates would be able

to understand and follow written instructions, read newspaper!?

and brochures, and make simple computations and calculat~ons,

skills that are perceived to be necessary for the adopt~on of

new agricul tural techniques 1 part.l.c~pat.l.on ~n collectiv.l.zed

agriculture - and .l.n the polit.l.cal l.l.fe of UJamaa vÜlages. In

other words, li teracy educat.l.on ha s ~nvol ved the teaching of

literacy skills, economic s1<i11s and pol~t~cal sk~lls.

Teaching-learning .l.S carried out wi th the use of pr .l.mers and

other instructional mater~als from May to October and through

demonstration and actual work on the, Shambas (plots) from

November to April. Dr i Il teaching ~s the princ~pal means of

imparting learning in adult literacy education. Agr icul tural

extension services the ut.l.lizat.l.on of skill.s learnt .. during the practical studies.

, ,

fiIl', - 55 -

The Functional Literacy Curricula, Programmes and ~ate-,

rials Development Project (which was the second phase of the

Work-Oriented Adu1t Literacy Pilot Project) was initiated by

the Ministry in 1973 w~th the aim of supporting the campaign.

It had the following objecti ve~, to:

elaborate currlcula and programmes in functional

'. literacy ln order to brlng about change in different

regions of Tanzanla, especlally in relatlon te family

,lncome, sanltary condltions, nutrition, production

and consumption practices, better agricultural

methods ~

- prepare and produce functional 11. teracy teaching and

reading materials includlng prlmers, teacher' s

guides, vlsual aids, follow-up materials and local

newspapers;

develop radlo programmes both for learners and

teachers;

organlze and supervlse the tralnlng of regional

trainers' teams ln functlonal Ilteracy:'

- carry out contlnuous 'research and evaluatlon;

ensu~e th~ retentlon of llteracy Skllls galned durlng ('

the natlonal functlonal Ilteracy campal.gn by estab-

llshing a networi< of rural ll.brarles and rural

papers;

ensure effectl.ve follow-up actlon by national staff

at all ~véls of admlnl.stratlon.

~.

,

56 -

The subject matter of a primerl. prepared by writers'

,workshops -composed of subject specialists, education and lan-/

guage experts. The first seven prfmers were prepared by the

UnescojUNDP -sponsored Work-Oriented Adul t Li teracy Pi~ot Pro­

ject (WOALPP), launched in the Lake Region from 1968 ta 1972.

primers Nos. 8 to 13 (see p. 57) were developed after the

launching of the NLC. These were prepared according ta the ,

following guidelines:

a) The three Rs must e taught in the Swahili 1angua,gei

b) lesson texts or rimers should be summarized in such a fashio? that one or many vocational skil1s are presented to 1earners; and

c) the vocabu1ary components of each lesson· (primer) must ~nc1ude the most basic key words of the central vocat~ona1 skill (s) in the lesson or the prlmer.

In 1983, 13 prl.mer sets were in use ln Tanzania" aIl of

/ which have teacher 1 s guides. Seven pr imer sets were developed

in 19 when the nat~ona1 campalgn began ln four districts, and

ix were prepared la ter to SUl t specia l needs for learners in

other areas. The tl tles of these materia1s are llsted below.

Primers Prepared for the pilot proJect ~n the Lake Regions (1968-1972)

1. Cot ton land II 2. Banana l and II 3. Home Economies l and II 4. Fishing l and II

5. 6. 7.

Cattle l and II Rice l and II Politieal Education l and II

,~

57

Primers Prepared for Other Areas After 1 ~72

8. 9.

10.

r1aize land II Tobacco land II Coconut land II

Post-Literary Materials

1. Pol~tlca,l Education 2. Mathematics 3. Agriculture 4. Kiswahl1l 5. History 6 . Geography

Il. 12. 13-.

7. 8. 9.

10. Il.

Cashewnut l and II Wheat l and II Tea l and II

Pol1tlcal Economy, Crafts Health Home Economies English

In the process Of curriculum development and material produc-

Hon, i t ' i8 emphasized that the texts be made relevant to

rural life. Moreover, lessons are carefully prepared to per-

suade learners to bel~eve that a social environment is always

sub j ect to chan'ge ra ther than belng something beyond human

control. In the proce8S of developing teachlng learning mate-

rials, speclal emphasls was given ta lncreasing agrlcul tural

productl0n. For instance, Kilimo Bora Cha. Pamba (the Primer

for Cotton Growing) provldes lnformation on methods of modern

cot ton growing such as row making to facll i tate weeding and

bet ter retention of ra~nfall; how to apply fertilizer ln order

to increase' yields; and, tlow to correctly apply lnsecticldes

at the rlght time to protect plants from pests. Also included

in this prlmer are a serles of lessons on how to pick and

store cotton at the time of harvest. Simil_arly, the primer on

hshing provides information on how to use drag nets, and

motor boats, how to pres,erve fl sh wi th saI t or other local

i'

-"

1 i 1

'!

~ "

, l'

58 -

'4'" means, and. methods of marketing the product. The primer for

political education was prepared to rnculcâte the principle 4'( p ,

'I)thatv

"aIl human beings are equal, that every citizen is an

- ~ integral part of' the nation and has the right to take an equal \

'part in the goverrunent at the local, regional and national

levels." (Singh, B.N. and Mbakile, E.P.R., 1976, 14).

Language of Instruction

Tanzania has 120 tribes, each with its distinct '1an-

guage, dialect or sub-dialect. The g-averrunent' s policy from

'" i'ndependence has been to make Swahili understood by aIl Tanza~

nians. (Govt. of Tanzania, 1969, 157). The Second Five-Yea'r

Plàn emphasized that one o"f the major' goals of the li teracy

campaign was to help aIl non-Swahili speaking Tanzanians learn

the language. "In rural areas," it was emphasized, "virtually ,/

the whole of [the .li t.eracy programme] will be conducted in

Swahili." (Kurtz/i L., 1978, 1 1 0

that Swahili should play 1

"

203) • President Nyerere's belief

a unifyirig role in the post-

independence era has itsl antecedents in the colonial period:

During 'European (German) penetration of the interior of Tanganyika such auxiliaries as sol­diers, junior administrative officers •.. were Swahili or swahili-speaking Tanganyikans from other mother-tongue groups. This had the effect of further spread·ing th~ language and giving it a new prestige status as the language of admin­istration, education and modernity •.. , This policy of using Swahili in the lower levels of

,administration and in the field of education was éQntinued during British rule. European mis­sipnart1!s too played· an important part in the spread of Swahili. (Abdu1aziz, ,M.H., 1972, 156-157).

/

- 59 -

Al thoug1r Unesco and many educators recommenà the ..lse of the

mother-tongue ln educatlon at the prlmary stage and for

adul ts 1 the goverrunent pursued a pOIl cy of "::1l1l:1gr..:allsm ln r

the preparat1.on and use of teaehlng materlai2.s, Ho .... ever, the

government v1.eweè Swah1.11 lnstructlOr. as necessary te reduce

the gap that elClsted bey ... een the Engllsh ed~cateè \..!rba:-. e:'lte

and the rural ·populatlor.~

Support, Post-Literacy and FOllow-up programmes

The pr lnc l.pal compone!': tS of the fol:' o'w"-..lF programmes

were: (1) rural newspapers, 111 ':'1..Crarles, 1:" ~ ~ radlC pro-

grammes and fllms, ~lV: FolK De\;e::"opme::~ ':è:-:..:eges, and v

work-orlented POst-Il teracy programmes. A~ present, tn~re are

. seven zonal newspapers ~:-: Za~z~-

barl produced monthly for ne ... ::'1 tera tes. The r-.;ra::' ne ... spape rs.

s'erve as aààltlonai edr..:cat.1ona: materla':', Frovloe peasar.ts

wlth lnformatl,or: or. matters re:ate-:: te loca:, na~.:.,::ma: and

internatlona:' events, enhance

techn1.que~ and entertal!': therr ... lth le1s~re read1nc. ::>ne s...:ch

paper, Ellmu Halna M'wlshe (eèucatlor: has !"le end" .... !'::ch .... as

establ1.sheè .ln 19i4, prese::ts na~lor.a: and loternatl::ma':' :-.ews

. (on page one), local rle\ofS or. page t,wc 1 and eè.: ~çr .:.-a:'s anè

letters ta the eè~tar 10'- page ~b~ee,. Ho ... ever, an ~mpor~ant

part of the paper 15 page fo~r .... h.::.. ch ~nc::..lèes 'ar:'l:: :es ::::on-

certl1ng better agrlcL:lt...lre, r.ealth, u nutr~t..::..ar., et.c. A t.acle ,

papers appears"bel'o .... ,

.>

--~ ...

- 60 -

TABLE IV

DISTRIBUTION AND CIRCULATION OF RURAL NEWSPAPERS IN TANZANIA

-Tltle of Paper -,~ Where prlnted Zone RegJ.ons Monthly

1- J:le!1à~leze h.èult. EducatJ.on 1

1

Press, D' Salaaln

2. J.!.ellffiJ.sne t LJ.thc Prlnt Pak

'" 1 • 1

3. EIJ.lnl.; Ye--:~ 1 Gcvt. Prlnters,

1 Dar-es-Salaar.

4. N .,.. .. Yet_ I Ad:..:.l t. EducatJ.on .......... I...f

Press, :" J Sa! aaffi ! j

:: T....::lv·..;r:ze \ Perar.:.!"'. ~lSS10n ~ . 1

1-~ Songea

. , E. E:' 1.IT'L: r:.:. 1 T."'. P. Tabora

Ba!1ar:. , K~ pal apal a

1 1

.

1 - E"ln" .. a· ... a1 tÀd.Jl~ Educatlor. ~ ..... _':--- n. _4" ,.. . ..- '" P _ ess , ~...,a,_za , " i

" 'f'

Served

.. Easteril

Northern

Central

Southern Hl.ghland 1

1

1

SOL:thern

West~I'n

1 1 1 1

1 ~ake i

,

Coast Morogoro D' Salaam

Arusha Tanga Kl'nJaro ... SlngJ.da Dodoma

Mbeya Irlnga Rukwa

LindJ. Mtwara Rli'vuma

Klgoma Tabora Shlnyang?

Kagera Mwanza Mara

50,000

50,000

50,000

50,000

50, 000

50,000

100,000

E • .: lpat:. e Maac.fa

ZanZlbar Zanzlbar Pemba

50,000

So....:rçe: Ml:;:'St.ri ç: Nat:.cr:a: Eè....:cat:o~, ~ar-es-Salaamt

5eFt., 195'::.

T~e Wcr r:.-Cc. er:teô A.à:..:l t Ll t.eraçy Pl: ct Pro :ect of the Lake

Reglons , 1962- - 2} est.,atl :. sheè :o...:r :-,.ewspapers dur lng thlS

phase serve th~ Fllct. areas. I.a t.er, u: 19i'~. these news-

,

- 61 -

papers were amalgamc3:~ed into one, E1imu Haina Mwisho. Now G

there are eight rural newspapers, wi th al total monthly Clrcu-

lation of 450,000, as can be noted from Table IV. Th~s corn-

pares favorably wlth newspaper circulation ln most parts of

"" Africa (see Chapter l, Table 1). The cost of these is very

nominal, only Tsh 0.20. Studies eonducted by the Minlstry of

National Education in late 1970' sand early 1980' S lndicate

that 75% of the newly literate adults read the rural news-

papers. (SIDA, 1983, 19-20).

In 1983, there were 3,167 rural- libraries. each with

about 400 titles in Swahili selected as supplementary reading

for the literacy and post-1iteracy programmes. Al though the

aim of the goverrune~t was ta have one library ln each of the

near1y 8,100 villages, thls cou1d not be achieved beeause of

'flnancial and materlal eonstralnts. However, the ultimate alm

is ta set up one Ilbrary ln eaeh vlllage.

_ Radio has been used to motivate adu1t illiterates to ,

join li teracy classes, and for the purpose of lnstruction.

Al though the radio programmes were started in 1972, i t was

only ln 1974 that the Natlonal--- Li teraey Center at Mwanza

started broadcasting - three major. series of radlo programmes:

Klsomo Kwa Radio, Jiendeleze and Mwalimu Wa Walimu. Kisomo -Kwa Radio (Ll. teracy Through RadlO) deals Wl th basle develop-

ment, problems. The target group are those adul t learners

--

J

J

- 62 -

enrolled ~n li teracy classes. . The broadcast normally lasts

for 30 m~nutes and covers instruction in the three R's, agri-,

culture, communl.ty development, health, cl.vics and politics

and responses to l1steners' questl.ons. The programme is broad':'

cast every Monday and is repeated on Wednesdays. Jl.endeleze

(Let's advance) encourages people to use thelr primers and

apply thel.r knowledge in their dally llfe by remlndl.ng them to

keep thel.r llv1ng enVlronment, clothlng and utens1ls clean, or

by adV1Sl.ng tht:;m on imP}oved methods of farmlng and cattle

keeping, etc. The programme, although sl.mllar to that of

Kisomo Kwa Radl.o, gl.V~ greater attention to practl.cal ln-

structl.on. Mwalimu Wa Wall.mu (Teacher of Teachers) offers

gurd~nce to voluntary teachers on conductlng llteracy classes

for adult learners. Teachers are issued ~ith handbooks which

are used to develop dally lesson plans.

The fllm educat10n programme is another method used to

moti vate and encourage peopl e to learn and remain li terate.

According to the oral l.nformation obta ined from the Na tl.onal

Ll.teracy Center, each of the twenty regions had one film van

• in 1975; but now l. t lS belleve.d tha t only about six are in

workl.ng conditlon.

The Folk Development Colleges (FOC) in, Tanzanl.a are

Afrl.can adaptations of Swedlsh Folk High Schools. These were

established to promote post-llteracy and continuing education

- 63 -

in rural areas. The first 33 colleges were opened by the

beg inning of 1976, and in 1983 there were 52 in operation.

The governrnent. plans to establish one folk development col-

lege for each distr ~ct, The objectives of the colleges are

to: l'

- enable each and every adul t learner in the FOCs to

develop his entire personali ty: to strengthen h~s

ability to think, to feel and to participate. effi-

cientIy and effectively in the socio-econom~c life of

his comrnun~ ty;

- help adult learners to understand the country's poli-

cy of Socialism and Self-reliance, and thus ta en-~

courage them to play an active role in the pol i tical

life of the country withaut fear or fanaticism;

develop democrat~c and cooperative knowledge . and

s1<ills among adul t learners; .

increase knowledge of Tanzan~an and Afr~can culture ,

and promo te act~ve ~nvolvement ~n cUl,tural activi-

ties and

- help the learners to obtain a wider understanding of

the world.

The Folk Oevelopment Colleges in Tanzania offer short and

long-term courses in "general education, agr~culture, handi-,

crafts, leadership and culture", (Bhola, H,S., 1981, 240),.

The duration of short-term courses var~es from one day ta

three mon ths. The party, parastatal organizations and

- 64 -

government at the national, regional, district, division,

ward, and village level are the major sponsors of such short-

term courses. Long-term courses last from six months to two

years. Such courses are sponsored by the Ministry of Nationa~

Education. The long-term course offerings at Missungwi FOC,

for example, are in three areas; agriculture (soil science,

crop husbandry, horticulture, animal husbandry and fQrestry),

craftsmanship (carpentry, brickwork and technical drawing) and

domestic science (needlework, laundry, House-keeping, cookery

and foods, mother and child care). Al though students coming

to the FOC are expected to specialize in one of these three

areas. they aiso take such common courses as first aid and

health care, polit1cal education, political economy, çook-

keepingjaccountancy and African cul ture. In most FOCs, there

are 35 hours of instruction weekly and 60% of the time 15 ( devoted to practical teaching. Regarding the financing of the

'-~ )' >

FOCs, the Ministry of Na,tional .Educa tion has the responsibil i-

ty of covering 50% of the annual budget required ta run the

colleges. The remainder of the funds i5 obtained from the

sale of farm and other products of the FDCs. According to a

recent interview, sorne FDCs, like the one at Kibaha, are com-

pletely self-reliant.

Work-or 1ented Post-Li teracy Programmes were establ1shed

wi th the al.m of mal.nta 1.nl.ng li teracy and prav 1d1ng pollo tical

educat10n and skl.ll tra1nl.ng. The programmes were attached ta

- 65 -

local literacy centers with the h~pe that they would help

adults in performing their day-to-day activities more effi-

ciently and effectively. The students are either primary

school leavers or new li terates. Instruction is offered in

home econornics, crafts, brickwork, agriculture and poul try /

farrning, fishing and shoemaking. Graduates of these· pro-

t1 grammes have started over 50 small scale industrles, with the

assistance of the Tanzanian Small Industries Development

Organization (SIDO). When the Work-0rlented projects were ,

launched in ,1972/73, the intention was to introduce thern at a

ward level aIl over the country with a total intake of about

1.7 million participants. However, at the moment there are

2,300 centers with a student enrollment of between 10 to 15 in

each centér. The length of the programmes and thelr content

is decided by local authori ties usually at the vl11age, ward

or district level.

There are" in addition, other programmes and institu-

tions which, directly or indirectly, are çontributing to the

effort to keep new literates permanently literate including

the National Correspondence Instltute, Kivukonl Workers'

C~ege, and the Institute of Adult Educatlon. A major step

., taken in this cOnnectlon was the issuance of the "Workers'

Education Dlrective" by the Tanzanian Prlrne Ml.nister' s Office

in 1973 (Kawawa, R.M., 1973). Accordlng to this dlrectlve,

evety government unlt lS obliged to set aside one hour a day

- 66 -

\ for the education of workers. Of~fcia1s of the Ministry of

~

National Education c1aim that i11iteracy has been eradicated

among fu11- time workers as a resu1t ef this directive.

Supervision and Evaluation ~

Student enrol1ment increased trom 908,351 in 1971 ta

5,184, 982 ~n 1975, deub1~ng the 1iteracy rate te 61%' in 1975.

"Classes were t "

conducted .. according to Bho1a, "in schoo1s,

specia11y constructed centers, hea1th centers, coop~rative

buildings, off~ces, facteri~s~ and of course, under the trees

in the open. Typica11y, 30 learners were enro11ed in a class

[wh~chJ met three times a week for two heurs." (Bhola,

H. S., 1981, 228).

Organizing testing and evaluation of the NLC has~ been y

an important aspect of the programme since 1975. Although the

functlonal cOntent lS stressed in the l~,t~racy curriculum, the

deflnltlon of Ilteracy was based on the abllity to read, write

and reckon the three Rs. For the purpose of testing and

eva1uating the ablllty of partlcl~ants, four leve1s of 1itera-

cy ablllty (l, IIr III and IV) ~ere establl.shed. To assess

the /1

ablllty of ll.teracy graduates, another three stages

(leveis V, VI and VII) for post-ll.teracy education were alse

d istingui shed. TIn s enabled learners to under stand 1 i teracy

as progressive mastery of wri tten communicatl.on and basic

numeracy. According to the information provlded by the

f

- 67 -

National Li teracy Center at Mwanza, the four basic levels of

literacy are defined as follows:

Level 1: a person who enrolled and attended at l'east

two-thirds of the literacy sessions in any one

year of the campaign.

l'

Level II: a person who achieved' level land had success-'

fully passed one or two of the tests for the

following sub-levels:

Sub-level (i) : a person able to recognize words

and/or symbols, writ~ letters for the

syllables, numbers and/or arithmetic

signs:

Sub-levei (ii):' a person placed in this level was

able to read and write short, mean-

ingful sentences and add and sub-

t~act one figure numbers.

Level III: a person was placed in this level if he

qualified for level II and passed one or

bath ~ests for the following sub-levels:

Sub-level (i): a person who can read short, simple

and meaningful sentences, and could

add and subtract two f~gure numbers:

Sub-level (ii): mastery of symbols 1n their written

form and fluent readlng, addlng and

subtracting three figure numbers',

mui tlplying t'oNO figure lilumbers and

dividing one flgure numbers.

\

68 -

Level IV: a person was placed here if he continuously

used literacy skills, re~a newspapers and

obta1ned inform~tion on current events, read

instructions and pamphlets on better food,

better livingl better agriculture, etc., kept

simple books of accounts of incornes and

expenditures and solved simple arithrnetic

problems.

Records of class attendance were kept and national

examinations admin~stered. So far, four national examinat~ons

have been scheduled: in 1975, 1977, 1981 and 1983. The exarni-

nations were prepared by an ad hoc national cornm~ t t ee . The

Nat~onal Li teracy Center at Mwanza trained reg~onal and dis-

tr~ct coord~nators who, in turn, trained local adm~n~strators

of the natl,onal test. Test papers were rnarked by these adm~n-

i stra tors and res.ul ts were sent to the author 1. t~es at the

nat~onal level. Although test results show that the rate of

adult illiteracy has decreased from 39% ~n 1975 to 21% ~n

1981, progress has been slow after 1975 (the rate of 1.111tera-

'" cy decl~ned from 67% ~n 1967 te 39% ln' 1975). In fact, the

tempo of the l~teracy carnpa~gn has slowed trernendous1y Ln

recent years, due to the lack of teach~ng materl.als, ~11-

prepared lnstructor~ and d~ff~cult~es ~n organlZ1.ng fo11ow-up "

programmes. lü though 1. t was the dec 1ared a~m of the govern-

ment. of Tanzan~a to w~pé out illl.teracy beiore 1980, there ~s

- 69 -

no indicator showing that the tasK w~ll be accomp1~shed before

1990. The 1983 national test resu1 t was not ava~lable at the-

time of thlS research. However, offlclals at the National

Literacy Center speculate that the natl.ona1 rate of adult

il1iteracy might have decreased te a 10w of 10 te 15 percent.

Table V illustrates the decl1ne l-n- the rate of adult. 1111tera-

cy in Tanzanla from 1975 (the year ln whi~h the flrst natlonal

test was administered) untl.l 1981, the year ~n wh~ch the third

national 11teracy test was conducted.

TABLE V

NA~IORAL LITERACY TEST RESULTS 1975-81-

Year Rate of llliteracy

1975 39% (male 34%, female 44%)

1977 27% (male and female % not known)

Source:

1981 21% (male 15%, fema1e 27%)

"The Na tl.ona1 Evaluatlon Comm~ ttee Report Assessment of Funct~onal1 L~ teracy Programme," try of Natlonal Educatlon, December, 1981, (mirneographed) .

on the M~n~s­

p., 3

In 1981, the number of part~cipants ln the test was 3,107,506

out of a total of 6,099,197 1.11iterates ln the country. of

thes~ 3,522,442 people were expected ta· show up for ~he

natlonal test; but the turn out was 3,107,506, representl.ng

- 70 -

about 88% of the expected participants. The test revealed

that 70% of those who partlcipated fell below Level III while

only 30% qual~fied at levels III and IV. (Govt. of Tanzania,

Natlonal Evaluation Comm~ttee, 1981, 2).

Recruitment and Training of Teachers

Instructors \Nere selected by UJamaa v~llage 9r Li teracy

Center Comm.l t tees. Local village leaders \Nere asked to sug-

gest posslble Sl tes for adul t Ilteracy classes and also to

form class committees, const.ltutlng at least flve people,

responsl.ble for class actl.Vltl.es. Thelr tasks included the

screenlng of volun tary teachers. Th.lS was thought to be

necessary, because volunteers had to be accepted by the local

people. The voluntary teachers ' .. ere usual1y elementary school ,

leavers who ]olned the campalgn t~ obtaln a b~tter opportunlty

for gover~ment employrnent. The token amount WhlCh they earned

month l Y varled from Tsh JO 1 when the prog ramme fLrst s tarted,

to Tsh 60 no .... .~ccordlng ta an Lntervlew wlth ~dugu F.

Ellnewlnga, Deputy Dl rector of the Na t lona l Ll teracy Center 1

Cl. v II se rvants and other government employees who vol un teered

for teachlng ad ul t.s were selected by local TAtW comml t tees ".ln

arder to make sure that antl-soclal and antl-revolutl.onary

elements could not ]ol.n the ranks of Ilteracy lnstructors."

A. large group of teachers was requlred who could not be

traloed ln the conventlonal way at teacher tralnlng colleges.

,1 1

•

71 -

4 Thersfore, short- term training schemes (var-ying from one to

four weeks,'depending upon th~ academic and professional back~

ground of the trainees) were planned and conducted by mobile . training teams composed of experts sent' out to the country-

side. According to Mary Joan Eyakuze (1977), most instructors

rece~ved four weeks of training in the Teaching of Reading and

Writing, Arit~etic, Class Management, Records and Testing and

Evaluation of the Course. In order to familiarize the in-

structors wi th the psychology of adul ts and adul t literacy

education, lessons were jll!so offered in the Phiiosophy Of

Functionai Lîteracy, Pre-Class Preparation, Working wi th

Adul ts and the Us e of Audio-Visual Mater iais. Other courses,

(e.g. the Comprehensive Nature of Functional Literacy Pro-

gramme and Coordinating wi th Agriculture Extension \'70rkers and

Others), were al 50 offered, in order ta help instructors

relate the literacy programme to the productive activities of

adul t learners. (Eyakuze, M.J., 1977). Further tra~ning of 1

adul t educatars was normally done at, the Insti tute of Mul t

Educatlon, Departrnent of Education in Dar-es-Salaam Unlversi-

ty, and at other colleges of education. Reports issued by the

Min~stry of Natlona1 Educatlon ind~cate that four-fifths (83%)

of· the lnstructors ~n functional litera,cy were volunteers

receiving short-term training, wh~le 13% completed profession-

al programmes. The rema~n~ng 1nstructors were government ~

employees 1 secondary school and college students. Table VI

ind~cates the k!Lnds of part~cipants who s ... erved as inst,ructors

in literacy and post-literacy programmes.

o

, .

"

~

- 72 -~.

(

l\ \ TABLE VI

v,I,v

TEACHERS, IWOLVED IN FUNCTIONAJ;. LITERACY AND POST-LITERACY PROGRAMMES

Category Literacy Instructors Post-Literacy Instructors

. Number % of Total Number % of total

Voli.m'teers . 86,872 82.5 16,266 31.4

Professional Teachers 13,430 12.8 30,152 58.1

Civil' Servants 3,476 3.3 3,019 5.8 -

Students (sec. Sch. & Colleges) , 1,476 1.3 2,347 4.5

Army and Police 28 0.2 70 0.1

Total 105,241 100 51,854, 100 , .

. Source: M,in:istry of National Education, Dar-es-Salaam,

January 1984.

T

/

As can be noted from Table VI, while most (83%) of'~,the J:iter­

acy instructors were volunteers, the majority (58%) of those

who taught in the post-1iteracy phas'e were school

and therefore nad obtained a professiona training.

Summary

Tanzania's 1aunching of a nationwide,1iter~cy Rrogramme 1

1 in 1971, and the the adoption of ~niversa1 primary educatOion

~UPE) in 1974, rêâu,~ed i11iteracy among individuals' ten years \

of age and oider from 67% in 1967 to 21% in 1981. The nacion-

. ,

, ,

'.

- ï3 -

l~ w~de campa~gn has been or~ent.eè t.e ':ohe neeès of t.he count.ry-

s~âe and comp'r~ses raà~e programmes, r~ra: l~orar~es ~nd r~ra:

newspapers, ~n adè 1. t.~or. t.e fcl':'ow-up t.raln.l.ng' ~er ne.... .:.::. t.er-

ates. The campalgr: lntends t.Q embrace almost. every C~-':lzen,

elther through learnlng or thro~gh t.eachlng.

. 'l11e expanslor. qf pr :unary school ~ng, Cu PE) has lncreased

the proportlon of school chlldren from less thac 50% in the ' ~ '~

.Beca;Jse Tanz~. '

least. develQped and poorest natlo~ t.he

1ate 1960's to over ~O% ln the early 198C's.

was among the

wo r l d , i t. ex pe r l. e n c ed ma:-. y dl. f f l C '..1 t l. e s start. of the vq

11teracy campalgn: "There 'Was ne _ romor. language, the 'envl.-

ronment' was all but there ""as no adm~n:..strat~ve

structure t.o ll.teracy servlces :at t.he natlonal ,

level the emphasl.s was oc the sécondary,and tertl.ary educa-

tlon and funds 'Were very scarce." (SIDA, 1983, 77). However,

the firm actlons taken by the goverorunent and the unreserved

support of Pres.l.dent Nyerere, a former teacher who lS st~ll

referred to as Mwall.mu (teacher), 'Were instrumental ln the

1aunching of the Tanzanian Natlonal Ll.teracy Campalgn.

Among the main factors that contributed to the success

of-the Tanzanian NLC were: 1) the declaration of the pOllcy o~

"Education for self .... Rell.ance .. , which l~nked the l.lteracy' cam-

paign and the expansl.on of pr irnary school s (UPE) Wl th the

political philosophy of a Tanzanl.an st.yle Socialisrn; 2) the

1

1

J

"

\ - 74 -

\ \

conlltutment shown by t.he çover=-..mer.t. of Tanzan~a t.o provlde moSt

of tt:oe reso..:rces necessary fer tr.e il teracl' carnpa.l.gn: tne

decentral.l.zat.lor. of <::.he .1"1, t.eracy progianunes: a:-.è 4, t.he art..l-

culat.l.on bf llt.eracy eë~cat..l.on .... .!.th ot.:1er fçrms' of ed~cat.lon,

inclùôlng .lnlversal Fr.l.m~ry educatlon w~th natl.ona..l. developm-

ent plann~ng processes.

"

~-

- 75 -

CBAPTER POUR

THE ORIGIBS AND EVbLUTIOIIJ OF THE E'rHIOPIAB LITERACY CAMPAlGB

Introduction

Eth.l.opla has ~ very r .l.ch cul tural herl tage. since the

.l.ntroduction of Chrutianlty ln the fourth century A. D., its

rnonasterler and tradltional church schools served as centers

for the dbe10pment of artlstlc, architectural and lntel1ec-

tuaI wark. (Pankhur-st, E.S,., 1955, 232; Ullendorff, E., 1973,

61; Taddesse T., 1972). - The typ,lcal1y Eth.l.oplan towerlng

steles and monuments ofAxum, the rock-he...,n churches at Lall-

bela and the castIes at Gondar, which are Sl.tuated in the

hlghlanà 'Flateau of northern" Ethlopla, are eV.ldence of

Ethl0pla's clalm ta belng one of the oldest centers of C1Vl1i-

J-I zatlon. (Petrl.des, S.P., 1964, 18). References to that 'clvl-

llzatl0n are found, for example, ln the Old Testament and ln

the accounts of Heroàutus ln the 5th century B.e. (Shwab,

Peter, . 1972, 1). Eth.l.op1a lS aiso the only Black Afrlcan

count'ry tha t deve loped lts o...,n alphabet, and lt was never

s ubJect to colonla r ru1e (except the short-liveâ Îtall.an occu-

pation of the country between 1935 and 1941).

The Ethioplan (Axumi te) clvilization has provided

Ethiopians wi th a g~ea t feel ing of pride and self-confid nce

that i5 apparent today:

.'

~.

---

•

'".

76 -

its [Ethiopia] èarly converSl.on ta Cl1rl.s­tiani ty a t a tl.me when Europe wa 5 stl.11 a land of seml-savages, lts conquest of part of Arabla, the story .9f its fleets tradlng as far as Indl.a, . ", its long serles of sanguinary wars against Islam as the bulwarl< of Chrlstlanl.ty ln A.frlca,

the meteorlC ,=areer of tha t extraordinary monarch Klng Theodore, the dl.sastrous efforts of the It~ilians to sub]ugate the 'coun­try, the connection 'of Abyssl.nia [EthlopiaJ wlth the rlvalry of France, and England on t:he Ni le - these are Sorne of the grea t even~s whl.ch at one period or another brought Abysslnl.a before the world. (Rey, C.F., 1924, 9).

The Ethlopian Church played a proml.nent role l.n maint~inin9

the Chr lstian cul ture 1 and in the country' 5 economl.C and

political llfe as ..... ell. Untl.l the 20th century -:hurch schools

\oI'ere the only places for schooll.ng ln the country both for

~cc1~$l.astl.cal and secular studl.es.*, as a resul t,

"prlests, minl.sters of the 5tate, lawyers, ]udges, army offl-

cers, c1erl<s, etc., got thelr trainlng at church schools or ln

the monasteries." (Aymro Wondlmagegnehu and Motovu. J., 19',

128; Pankhurst, E.R., 1968, 666-668).

The tradt tlona1 church school system had t'NO tiers;

an ,e1ementary leve1 consistl.ng of the Nebab-Bet (house of

readtng) and the Qidasse-Bet (house of church mUSlc), and

* According to Richard Panl<hurst (1974) the number of churches in Ethl.opia reached 15,000 by the mid 1970s. Mos1em Ethio­pians, according to Teshorne and Trimingham, aiso rnaintained, for centuries, a tradit~on of teaching the~r children to read and recite the Koran in the (few) Koranic Schools of Ethiopia. (Teshome Wagaw, 1979, 80-81; Trimingharn, John S.,

" 1952).

..

. '

- 77 -

hlgher tralnlng conslstlng of the Zema-Bet (house of hlgher

Ievei mUS1C and song), QUlne Bet (house of poetry), and

Metsehaf-Bet (house of Iearnlng phliosophlcai books) WhlCh, ln

türn, were of varlOUS types. For lnstance, among the Zema-Bet

there were several speclallz~d lnstltutlons Includlng the

Dlggwa Bet, Zemare-Mewasl' it, QU.l.dasse and Se' ata t and Aqua-

quam (Habtemarlam Worklneh, 1970, 57), The subJects taught at J

the elementary level lncluded readlng and Wrltlng, the flrst

eplstle of John, and parts of the Holy Scrlpture. Accordlng

to Aymro and Motovu, hlgher church educatIon involved study of

conunentar les of the Old and New Testament by the Church

Fathers, Church Music, the rItual of the Ilturgy, composltlon

of rellglous poetry, Chrl~tologlcal controverSles and aiso

sorne secular subjects such as langl,lages, hlstory, canon and

CIVll Iaw, and astronomy. (Aymro W. and Motovu J., 1970, 128).

Untll the last decade of the nlneteenth century, the Ethloplan

Orthodox Church p1ayed the . role of guardian of ed uca t Lon 1

Ilterature, mUSlC and flne arts and law.

~ Today, the Ethloplan church schoo1s are decllnlng ln

the number of students and teachers as a result of the lmplan-

tatlon of western educatlon lnto the country. Western educa-

tlon was lntroduced ln 1908 durlng the relgn of Emperor

Menellk II who is known as the "rnaker of modern Ethiopla."

The innovatlons Mene1lk init1.ated after 1896 inc1uded the

r

78

construction of bridges, the developrnent" of a pos'tal system,

the bu~lding of telegraph and telephone lines, a ra~lway

between AddlS Ababa and Dj lbouti, modern roads, a modern

ho~l, a hospi ta l, a pr lnt in~ press and a secular school in .i

Addis Ababa ln 1908. (Pankhurst, R., 1968, 25). MenellK' S

strong bellef ln modern educatlon was refiected ln the follow-

ing decree WhlCh he passed ln the first decade of the 2·0th

j'< century:

The Lian of the Trl.be of Judah has prevalled, Mene1lK II Elect of Gad K1ng of Kings of Ethio.;­pla. A.II Cl tlzens are hereby ardered to teach their ch11dren readlng and wrlt1ng, and the acqulsitian of hlgher know1edge. Falllng to do that, you wl11 paya flne of flfty t.halers.'

If your chlldren aged 7 t.o 21 do not acqul.re technlcal knawl~ldge ln the new schools we have opened and Iater ln Ilfe fall to support them­selves, you w111 be fl.ned as a crlmlna1 who has handicapped another person. (Quoted from an Amharlc text, Zekre Neger, ln Paulos Mlllu.as, l 982 , 95).

Menelik hoped to provlde aIl Ethiopians wlth modern education

"to ensure peace", to reconstruct the country, and ta enable ,

Ethiopla "to eXlst as a great nation in the face of the Euro-

pean pOINers." (Tl;le Na tlonal Li teracy Campaign Coordinating

Camml t tee, l 981, 5).

\

Menelik 1 s third successar, Emperor Haile Sellassie l,

encouraged modern education even as a crown prince. But

because he later feared the apposit1on of educated young

Ethiopians, he was very cautious in expanding the public

- 79 -

-~-

school system. (Paulos Milhas, 1982, 302-4), Between 1925

and 1935, for example, only about twenty publlc schools were

,estaqlished wh~ch offered learning to sorpe 8,000 st -ldents.

,(U.S. Government, 1981, 124), -.Port y years 1ater. ln 1973 (a

year before the outbreak of the Ethloplan Revolut.~on of

February 1974), only 588,868 chlldren, l.e., 13.5% of the

primary school-age group obtalned access to governrnent elemen-

tary school s • Teshome Wagaw summarl zes the maJor, fa 11 ures of

Halle Sellassle's educatlon pOll.CléS:

Over the last twenty years the development of the Ethlopian education system has been vlewed w1.th dissatlsfactlon, prlnclpally because lt has failed ta satisfy the aSpl.ratlons of the maJori­ty of the people and to prepare ln any adequate way those passing through its ranl<s. Tl1e most 9 laring of 1. t S shortcomlngs a rose from the fac t that both lts obJectlves and thé expenences lt. o ffered to chtldren and youth were unrel a ted to EthlOpl.an reall tl es, and th us 1. ts product was a younger generatlon unaware of and unappreclatlve of i ts Own cul tural her i tage and roots. The school system was too ell tlst, rigld, and unres­ponslve to the varlOUs local needs. It sought to prepare students prlmarily for the next scho­lastic level and emphaslzed the passJ..og of rJ..gidly set eX8mlnatlons 1 whereas ln fact most students dropped out before they attalned employabl~ Skllls. Educatlonal opportun~ ty was not equitably distrlbuted among the reg~ons of the country, favorlng ~nstead only a few pro­vinces and urban centers. (Teshome Wagaw, 1979, 183) .

It was estimated in 1974 that over 90% of the population could

notr:;read or write in a country that plr-eached to the whole (~1'

world t~at i t was "the ooly land of the scribe" in sub-Saharan

Africa. This is largely attributable ta the reluctance of the

')

- 80 -

feudal ruler~ and the Emperor, lia lIe Se llassle 1 to lntroduce

modern schoo11ng, medlcai serV.1ces, agricultural and indus-

tr.1al technology on a sufflclent scale.

DUrlng the relgn of Emperor Ha11e Sellass1.e, the needs

of the peasantry ..... ere 19nored. The fl.rst 'three Fi ve-Year

Economl.C Plans (1957-1962; 1963-1967; and 1968-1973) empha-

sized the necesslty of urban l.ndustr1es and commerclal agr1-

culture. (Cohen, J .M., 1975, 7) • In 1955, however, \ the

Emperor

for the

l.s8ued a proc1amatl.on on 1iteracy and baSlC educatlon

rural areas,

we charge every 1.111. tera te Eth 10plan bet ..... een the age of 18 and Sb to learn ln the tlme left over from h1S dai1y tasks, such fundamental educatlon as wi 11 enab1e him to know Arnharlc read1ng and writ1.ng, el.ther at scho01s, government and private, e1C1stlng ln hl.S nel.ghbourhood, or by employing a prlvate teacher ln hlS respectlve village or dl.strlct .... (Quoted ln The Nation­al Literacy Campalgn Coord1natlng Committee, 1981, 6).

However, a department to organize adu1 t education was not

created until 1967. A secular. v01untary body calling ltself

the National Ll.teracy Campalgn Organizat1.on started a pro-

gramme 1.n 1962 ..... ith enrollments 1ncreasing from 13,280 ln 1962

to 19,889 in 1964. But because of f1nancia1 constra1.nts and

1ack of adequate support from the government, enrollment

dropped to 7, 500 in 1969 and by 1972 the organiza tl.on employed

only four people at its headquarters in Addis Ababa. The

- 81 -

ethiopian Orthodox Church and other m~ssionary organiza t10ns

also sponsored Ilteracy programmes which, together, enrolled

80, 000 students by 1969. * Bu t 1 aga~n, lac}nng governmenta 1

encouragement or f~nancial support enrollments saon d~m1n-

ished. -

The UNDP IUnesco sponsoréd pro ject for t>lork-or iented

Adul t Li teracy programme was established in Et.)uopia ln 1968

and coO'tinued for a period of f~ve years. During thlS perlod

UNDP contrl.buted U. S. $1,812, 000 wh~le the Ha~le Sellassie

:government a110cated only U.S. $1,661,700 for the proJect.

36, 800 ind~vlduals partlc1pated in the programme, wh~ch lS

less than a th~rd of the pro]ected\ target of 120, 000 people.

Of these, only 21,700 took the literacy test dur~ng the cam-

pa1gn per iod, and only 42 % or 9, 300 people passed lt. ThOSe

who passed the test const1 tuted only 25% of the number 1ni-

tia11yenrolled. (UNDP/Unesco, 1976, 174). Ho,wever, the pro-

ject developed read~ng materla1s and primers which were the

first to relate literacy ta rural act~vities and ~t served as

a springboard for the subsequent Na t~ona1 Li teracy Campaign

1aunched in 1979.

1 * The Yemissrach Dimts Li teracy Campaign, for instance, which was started in 1962 was .financed by the Lu theran "lorld Fede-

\..~ ...... ration and was carried on until 1974/75 in 12 of the 14 administrative regions of Ethiopia. Al though the airn of t.his campaign was ta open the door for evange1ical work, it also provided a considerable push in popu1arizing Il. teracy education among the Ethiopian peasants. (Sjostrom, M. and Sjostrom, R., 1977).

..

- 82 -

The Ethiopian Revolution and i ta Impact on Li teracy Educa tion

The Ethioplan revolutlon erupted as a resul t of a 1009-

tlme accumulat10n of economl.C, pOll.tlcal and soclal grlevances

agal.nst the' decaylng feudal regl.me. The ErhloPlan student

movement durlng the Halle Sellassle reglme played an important

Oppositlonal role ln the absence of a partY-'Jrlented polltl.cal

culture and democratlc processes until the Emperor was deposed

in Septembe'r 1974. The student movement took a leftlst polit-,

ical orlentation after the University Students 1 Unlon of Mdis

T1.baba (USUAA) was established along wit.h the publicatlon of

its organ, Struggle, in 1965. (Paulos Milklas, 1982, 326-7).

The contribution of unlversnty students to ll.teracy activlty

beg'an in the early 1960;5 when student groups became lnvolved

in communlty development proJects. (Paulos Mil'<las, 1982,

341) • Trudeau, 1n hlS detal.led study of hlgher education ln

Ethlopla, relates how the students organlzed "Communlty Ser-

- vice Clubs" through thelr Students 1 Union whose functlons we~e

to:

- bridge the gap between the more or less un­realistic, ideal and intellectual world of the universlty and the cornrnunity of the society acroas the street;

- offer the students the opportunJ.ty ta observe \ the li fe of theu own people in i ts full real­

i ty and to understand better the realities of the world for which they were be~ng trained as potentia1 leaders: a world with Little or no education,' a life wlthout social or personal securi ty, a li fe of poverty, disease and ill~teracy; and

- give the co1lege students, an ellte of less than 1000 students in a population of 20 million, social conscientiousness, that should eventually deve10p in them a sense of service. (Trudeau, E., 1964, 87).

..

- 83 -

The club organized li teracy programmes Wl thout asslstance

elther from government or frain other voluntary organlzatlons.

One of the earllest programmes ln the fust hal f of the

1 ... 960' S lnvol ved the support sta ff 0 f the Un l ver slty. Classes

..... ere organized for gardeners, cleaners, cooks and other staff

after ..... orklng hours, usua11y ln the evenings. The Iiteracy

classes "brought respect for the workers and better apprecla­

tlon by the ..... orkers of the students 1 ..... orld, a world often

looked a t wi th ]ealousy and - even sorne ha t red by the da 11y ..... or­

kers of the Ethiopian soclety." (Tru~eau, E. 1 1964, 87-8). In

the ear ly 1960 ' s, the students began Il teracy inst ructlon at

government schools ln AddiS Ababa. They provlded flnanc laI

support and served as voluntary teachers. And al 50, at thlS

time, unlverslty students (wlth aSslstance from Unesco) set up

a mobi le school for shepherds and peasants about ten miles

outside the City of AddlS Aèaba.

In 1961, the Na tlonal Unlon of the Ethlopian Students

(NUES) decided that every unlverslty student should go to the

countryside for one year before graduation ta teach the

peasants how to read and wrlte. (Paulos Milklas, 1982, 343;

Korten, Davld C., 1969). A nationGl.l unlversity serVice (EUS)

programme was created ln 1964 by a declSlon of the Unlversl,­

ty's Faculty Councll, making lt a compulsory service as weIL

as a requirement for aIL degree and diploma students. Most

students served in rural areas of the country organizing

- 84 -

literacy classes during the evenings or weekends. Compp.red ta

the actl Vl ties of éther vol untary and rè 11g lOUS groups, the

students 1 Ilteracy programmes were inslgnlflcant. Thelr

l;mportance, however, 11.e5 not ln the scàl e of the prograrryrtes

--but rather 1.n the fact that they expressed the conviction that 1

Ilteracy ed ucatlon was central to meaningfu~ pOll tical' and

soclal change ln the country.

The Philosophy of "Ethl.opla T~kdem" (Ethiopia First)

In 1974, tne Provislonal Mllltary Admlnlstratlve Coun-

cil commonly known as the Dergue se1.zed power and began to act

ln aceordanee wlth the Interests of the forces that rallled

behlnd the Ethloplan revolut lon - peasan ts 1 urban worker s,

teachers, C1Vll servants, and students. The Dergue declared

"Eth1.op1.a Tikdern" (Ethlopla flrst) 1 ta be the of=lcial ideolo-

gyof the state. The preamble of the Dergue' s ,proe lamation

announeed that the country would follow:

Hibrettesebawinet (Ethl.0plan Soclallsm), [whieh] rneans equa 11. ty; self- rel lance ; the dlgnlty of labour; the supremacy of the eommon good; and the indiv~Slbll1.ty of Ethloplan un1.ty. That is our political ph1.1osophy. And those are the princl.­pIes upon WhlCh the foundatlons of the new Ethl.O­pia w1.11 rest. (Provisl.onal Milltary Government of Soel.allst Eth1.opla, 1974b).

Programmes were elaborated in the ml.d-l970s almed at mOblll.z-

. ing the peasants through the formation of peasant assoeiat1.ons

with the assistance of sixt y thousand high school and

- 85 -

university students including their teachers. (Ottaway, D.B.,

1974, 18). The programmes were carried out in a campaign to

promote qevelopment through co-operation, known as Idget,

Behibret Ye-Iwke~ena Ye-Sira Zernecha. In October 1974, th~

Dergue issued the "Hidduna Astemiru Il (go and teach) declara­..

tian. (Yezarei tu Ethiopia, October 12, 1974). The intelligen':"

tsia were to guide the peasantry, to teach agriculture, heal th

practices, and li teracy 1 and provide pol i tical' education to

raise people' s pol.l.tical consciousness, create self-confidence "-..

and a sense of national uni ty among the rural community.

(Addis Zemen,' Nov. 2, 1974). 437 campaign centers were estab-

1 ished wi th 51,657 staff in th.l.rteen of th~' country' s fourte~n

administrat~ve regions. Among the achievements of the cam-

'paign were the bringing together of 5,537,812 peasants into 1

19,314 peasants' associations, the organization of Ethiopian

women into 3,000 mass organizations, as weIl as the construc-.

tion of many assembly halls 1 bridges, rural feeder roads, and

market places.

The Proclamation for the Organization of Peasant Assoc-

iatJ.on in 1975 gave these groups the task of poli ticizing and

educating their members. It also assigned them the task of

"organizl.ng educatl.on in a socialist philosophy [ for]

pol itical consciousness of the peasantry. Il (Addis Zemen,' "

\December 14, 1975). The funct~on~ng of jud .l.cial bodies 1 popu-1

i1ar1y known as Yefird Shengo (People' s Tribunals! also became

)

, .

"

, .... 86 -

the responsibil~ty of Peasants' Associations. To qualify for

leadership ,P9sitions in the association's, an individual had to

-- , . demonstrate 'th~ abiÜty to rèad and 'write. This creat;,ed a

/y strong desire for learning to read and write on "the part of

peas,ants.

The Proclamation to Provide for the Public Ownership of

Rural Lands No. 31 of 1975 made aIl rural land the collective

property of the Ethiopian people. Because peasants were

assured of pos,sessory right over the land they tilled, they

showed more readiness to participate l.n literacy education.

The literacy campaign made remarkable \ progress initl.ally.

According to a 1976 report l.ssued by the Idget Behibret Ye-

Iwketena Ye-Sira Zernecha' Headquarters l.n A.ddis Ababa, the

total enro11ment of peasants from December 1974 to June 19-16

was 756,176 (eighteen tl.mes the number that partl.cl.pated in

the' 1968-73 Unesco/UNDP sponsored carnpaign) of which 360,763

(or about 48%) were able ta complete their programme and

receive their literacy certificàte •. (P~ovisional Military

Govt. of Soèialist Ethiopia, 1976b).'

T1"ie Urban. Lands, Proclamation of July 26, 1975 estab-

l ished Urban Dwellers' As socia tians wi th duties and responsi-

bilities sirnilar to those of the peasant associatl.ons. They

were empowered ta handle social, economlC, "poll.tl.cal and edu-

cational màtters, l.ncluding literacy educatl.on. The "proclama-~

~"

....

87

tion on Admini~trat10n and Conttol of the School by the ....

People" (No. 103 of 1976) gàve the assoclatlons (Kebeles) such

impo,rtant tasks as the administerlng and runnlng of the

elementary and Junior secondary schools that had been prlvate-'"

1y owned .. This made possJ.blè an .effective use of these facil-

i ties ln the forthcomlng Il teracy programmes alIned at eliml.-

nating il1ueracy from urban centers by May 1981. (The Nation-~ ~

al ~iteraCY.campa1~ Coordinat1ng Comm1ttee, 1981, 17) • '1

"

The programme of the Natlonal Democratie Revolution

(NDR) of EthJ.opia whjch was >;'.;JI

promulgated in April 20, 1976

s.erved as the ldeological guideline of the Ethioplan revolu-

tion. Its objective was to release "the country's productlve

forces Il in order to accelerate economJ.c development ~ educatlon ,

being an lmportant lnstrument for carrying out thlS task: ....

There Wl.ll be an educatlonal programme that wlll provide free educatlon, step by step, to the broad masses. Such a programme wlii al..m at intensl..fying the struggle against feudall..sm, imperialism and bureaucratl..C capitall.sm. ALI necessary measures to ell..mlnate illiteracy wl.ll be undertaken. ALI necessary encouragement wlii be given for the development of sCJ.ence, tech­nology, the arts and ll.terature (Provl-5 ion a l Ml l i"t a r y Go ver n men t 0 f Soc l. a lis t Ethl.opia, 1977,66-8).

The programme of the Natl.onal Democra tl.C Revolution (NDR) was

the first comprehensive text in WhlCh aIL soclal, economlC and

political programmes of the Dergue were clearly stated. The

main objectives of the National Democratl..C Revolution of

(

•

!

, , . .. .

~

..

-',

88 -

Ethiopia were:

1-

2.

abolish feudalism, imperialism and burêau­cratic ca~~ tal1sm from Ethiopia and wlth the united effort of aIl· antl.-feudal and ant~­imperialist forces to bUlld a new Ethiop~a and l,ay a strong foundatlon for the transi-, tl.on to SOCl.allSm; and

.{>. (

towards thlS end, under the leadership 0

the working class and on the basis of the worker-peasant aillance and ln coll~boratl.on with the pett}/ bourgeo1.s1.e and other anti­feuda,l and ant1.- imperl.allst fO,rces, estàb­lish a people' s democratlc republlc 1.n which the freedom, equality, unit y and pro'sperity of the Ethioptan peoples 1.S ensured, in which self-government at different .. levels is exercised and which allows for the uncondi­tional exerClse of human and democratic ri,ghts. (provisional Ml.l i ta.ry Government of Socialist Ethiopia, 1977, 9-17).

The Provisional Mil~tary Government of Socialist

Ethiopia establ ~ shed the Na tlonal Revol utionary Development'

Campaign and' Central Pl~nnlng Supreme Counc11 (NRDC and CP~C)

in 1978. o

l' The Co unc1.1.,.. was created to .. repea t the success of

the revol ut1.or~ the econom1.C and cul tura'l front". The

broader ob]ect1.ves of , .. r.~

the campaign headquA'rters were to in1.-

tiate, coordinate and· supervlse a natlon-wide campalgn for

soc1.o-ecdnomic reconstruction and development specl.~ical1y

almed at the eradlcatl.On of significant prob1ems of the co un-~ ,l

try such as hunger, disease, unemployment, poverty, and illit-

eracy. The Chairman of the Provisiona1 Mil i tary Government., 1

Lt. Colonel Mengistu Hai1e-Mabiam, announced that the campaign

would require more sacrifices than th6se made on the political

..

. ,

t

89

• and military fronts. The campaign was ~een as essential to

. transforming Ethiopia into a revolutionary socl.alist society.

The Na t:i,onal Re~olutionary Deve1dpment Campaign and ~Central

Planning Supreme Couneil called for the aeeeleration of liter-

aey 'edueat~on in the country,' and qn October 29, 1978 a pro-o

elamat,:i"on was issued .f"ÇJ.r an intensification of eeonomic devel-

oprnent and mass education in pr.eparation for the establishment

of a workers' ,Party and ul timately a Peopl e' s Democratie

Republ ~e of Ethiopl.a (Provision~l Military Government of

Soeialist Ethiop~a, 1978, 7-i9).

Financing of the National Literacy Campaign

The 'Ethiop~an Natl.o~al Literacy Çampaign (NLC) has been

largely financed b~i the local, voluntary contributions'. A

major part of the budgetary burden rested on the shoulders of

the ,Ethiopian masses. The major local d~nors to' the National

Literacy Campaign since 1979 have been the political Study

Forums, -tttrade unions, professional associations such as the

Ethiopian Te~chers" Assocfations, and mass organizations sueh'

as Ethiopian Journalists' Association, the Urban Dwellers'

Associations, Peasants' Association, the Revolutionary Ethio-

pian Youth Association (REYA), Revo~utionary Ethiopian \vomen'

Associations (REWA), as weIl as religious institutions includ-

ing the Ethiopian Orthodox Church and the Muslim Mosque.

(Gudeta Mammo, 1983, 12). Aceording ta the information pro-

yided by the Departrnent of Mul t and Li teracy Education which

- 90 -

ia respdnsible for the Na tional Li teraey Campaign, the total (..~ ~; "

expenditure from 1979 to 1983 was 43,535,683.31 Birr (U.S.

$20,548,639). Non-government contributions compr1sed 65% of

the totàl. Th1S proportion would be greatly increased if

contr1butions in k1nd were'taken into account. For instance, """1

Peasan ts ' As soc 1a tions cons tr ucted 11 te r acy cen te r sand

teachers residences wherever there were no such fac111 t1es,

suppl ied food,' and prov 1ded the means of transport. Twenty

percent (20%) of the budget for the NLC was ,provided by the ,

government, 13% by bilateral donors and 1. 5% by internat10nal 1

organizations. Contributions for tHe Na tiona1 Li teracy Càm-"

paign of 1979 were obta1ned from internat10nal organizations

such as UNDP, UNESCO" UNICEF, the EEC and ~VHO. The bilateral

donors incl uded Austria, Alger ia, Belg ium, Bulgar ia, Canada,

Czechoslovakia, Djibouti, the German Democratie Republic,

Hungary, Italy, Japan, Lybia, Nigeria, the People's Republie

of, Ch1na, Poland, Yemen Democratie Repub11c and the Soviet

Union.

The Organization and Administration of the BLe

Administrative direct10n of the Na tional Li teracy Cam-

" paign was vested in a Coordinat1ng-,Comml.ttee (NLCCC) ereated

in 1979, which embraced important government and pub11e orga-

nizations. The Na tional Li teracy Campaign CooFd inating Com-

mittee (NLCCC) was o-rganized to serve as the central poliey

making body of this undertaking. Virtually aIl Ministers,

'.

..

91

Regional Administratora, Commissioners, Army and Police Chiefs ,

and leaders of ail professional and mass organizations ~ere

~de members of this committee. Because the NLCCC meets only

onre or twice a year, an executive body of the NLCCC was set

up that meets more regul'arly to act upon matters requir-ing 1

urgent decisions. The Minlster of Education became the Chair-

man of both the NLCCC and its Executive CO,mrrii'ttee. The head

of the Department of Adul t 'Education of the Ministry of Educa-\

tion assumed the post of secretary and executive officer for

the campa.i:gn. There are four sub-committees of the Na tional

Li teracy Camp'aign Executive Committee: the Educationa-l Mate-

rials Procurement and Di stribution Commit tee which has the

responsibility of preparing, producing, and distributing edu-

cational materials and is chaired by the Minister of Transport

and Communication; the Recrui tment 1 Training and Placement

Committee that selects and trains literacy instr~ctors chaired

by the head of the Department of Adul t Education; the Propa-

ganda and Aid Coord inating Commit tee chaired by the Minister

of Information and National Guidance which solicits funding

from internaI and e?Cternal . sources, and the Data Collection,

supervision and Certificate Committee which is chaired by the

General Manager of the Central Statistics Office. ,:\~

;j

Committees similar to those of th~ NLCCC were/organized

at the Kifle Hager (Regional), Awraja (Provincial), Woreda

(District) and Kebele (Village) levels. For organizational /

\ \~ ..---.

- 92

purposes, cities are divided into Qetana (Zones); Qetanas are,

again, qivided ',. il1to Kefitegnas (wards) which coordinate the

activities of Kebeles, the lowest levei of local administra-, '

tion for 0 social, ,eolitj,cal, and economic a.ctivities:. in urban

centers. Local literacy committees at the Urban /Mellers'

Association level are consti tuted by elected members repre-

sen ting ,

the Yfuth asso·c::·iations, women' s as soc ia t ions,

teachers 1 and other ~'<::, ~ I~ •

repres.~nta tl. ves of mass' organiza tions

, existing rwi thin the Kebele. Figure ~I on page 112 shows how

the NLCCC ia structured from top to bottom, Le., from the

national center, ta local administrative 40its (rural or urban

Kebeles) . There are also lit~racy educatl.on coordinating

committees 'in productive, distributive and service-provl.ding

organizations of the country such' as textile factor l.es,

breweries, paper mills, etc.

Ten phases of the national 1iteracy campaign have taken

place from June 1979 to March 1984. The Ministry of Education

anndunced in 1979 that illiteracy wou1d be eradicated from

urban and surrounding areas by 1981 (a target not achieved

untl1 January 1984), and that this wou1d be followed by its

total eradicàtion from rural Ethiopia by December 1987. Phase

plans were developed wH.h specifie aims and objectives. The

f01lowi'ng is a brief description of what was done during the

first five phases:

/ /

/

..

- 93 -

~ :

1\ \'1'

Phase 1 (June 1979 to October 1 1979~: _Urban centers

\IIere the target area of thè first phase. The total

number of d;OP-outs c)ut"i,,ng this phase · ... as 2,541,616 or 1

'1

about AO% of the dütial~ enrolHnent.

" " \

Only 25 pe'rcant-

of the pa rt l.cipa nts success fu ll!y completed the pro-

gr'amme.

Phase 2 (October 1979 ta June 1980):' Tl1is was planned

as a continuati'on of, thé first' phase which' had dis-

appo1nting results. - Ou:cing this phase, follow-up

c,lasses were orgdn ~zed for the succes~ fu 1 part l.cipc}nts

of phade one, and re-registratiqn of drop-outs was \ ,

carried out.

- ,Phase 3 (May t'O Oc tober 1980): 'l'he actl. v i tles of phase

one and two contlnued in this phase as weIL, and the

campalgn moved ln to the rura l areas. Re-reg.Lstration

(" of drop-outs of the second phase cont~n~ed and conti-

nuing educa tian \Has pray ~ùed to thase who succeeded in

p'assing the test administered at It.he end of phase two.

- Phase 4 (November 1980 to ApI," i l 1981): This phase was .

almost fully. devot.ed ta the "final attack" on illiter-

acy in urban canters. At the sarne time, the campaign

was being carried out in rural aréas. The target set

for eradicating i11~teracy fram uban areas was not

aC'hieved.

Phases 5- 8 (May 1981 tà October 1983): The campaign

now focussed on rural areas . projected that the

--...

. ,

;',

;.

1 •

J

" '1"- •

-J

94 (

rurâl popula,tiori wou1d grow from 16,390,000 in 1979 to

19,200,00d in 1986 an-d that illiteracy would drop from

9.75 milli9n te only 2.54 million people in this

period, and thus the programme'wou1d involve almost the . whole of the rural adul t population. (Gudeta Mammo,

b 1982, 197). Table VI l illustrates the total nurnber of

participants dur ing phases (rounds) 1-8 from July 1979

ta August 1983.

Male Female

Total

TABLE VII

PARTICTPATION OP ADULTS Iii PHASE 1-8 FROM , JULY 1979 TO AUGUST 1983

Registered

(734,457 7,399,408

14,134,265

Examined

6,188,394 6,617,293

12,805,687

Certificate awarded

4,263,577 4,086,445

8,349,992

Source: Gebeychu Kumsa and Debebe Tegegne, 1983, p. 11. ~J

As the figures appearing on Table VII are provided by the

Ministry of Education, a careful analysis seems to be necessa-

ry. According to official data, 59% of registered adul ts and

65% of those examined ha~e succeeded in mastering the three

Rs. However, the certi ficate does not necessar ily mean that

one has satisfactorily comp1eted the programme. A somewhat'

..

- ----------- ----------------------------

- 95 -

di fferen t picture of the Eth10pian L1 teracy Campa~gn i s pro-

v~ded in the data collected by the Nat10nal L1teracy Campa1gn

Coordinat1ng Comrrl1ttee (NLCC). Durlng phase (round) l, for

instance 1 the target group was 1,368,000 but. a total of

'6,224,904 ind1v1dua~s reg1stered and of these, only 3,68),288

showed up for the test. Of those examlned, only 1,543,678

passed the test, wh11e 2,139,610 fa11ed and 2,541,616 were

known to have dropped out of the programme. (The NLCCC, 1981,

37). Those who passed the test constl. tute 25% of those reg1s-

tered and 42% of those who were exam1ned. However, from Table

VI l, one thi# ls striking and that is the number of female

part1clpants ln the NLC from phases 1-8 19 52.4% of the total

reglstered, 51.7% of the total exam1ned and 48.9% of the total

!

who recelved certiflcates. Th1S is very Lmportant and 1ndeed

encouraging ln the emanc1pat1on of Eth1op1an women, who have //"

always been looked upoh as managers of the Kltchen and domes-

tlC affa~rs only. Accord1ng to Gebeyehu Kumsa and Depebe

Tegegne, the total number 9f part1clpants ln the posi-l1teracy

programme from 1979 to 1983 was on1y 978,378 and of these

543,273 were males wh11e 435,105 were females. (Gebeyehu K.

and Debebe T., 1983, 11).

Curriculum Development and Material Production

After the revolutlon 1 partlcularly after the Zemecha

(Campaign for Deve10pment Through Cooperatlon) was launched in

1974, a fresh start was made 1n the preparat10n of I1teracy

!

{

- 96 -

materlals th~t wou1d reflect the needs and lnterests of the

peasantry. Pr1mers were prepa~ed at the Zemecha headquarters

in 1974 and 1975 by exper lenced educa tors and area experts

drawn from Halle SellaSle l Ur'llverslty (now AddlS Ababa Unl­

vers1ty) and othe( governmental Instltutlons. Seven pamphlets

were prepared ln five maJor Ethloplan languages, l.e., Amha-

ric, Oromogna, Tigrigna, Wolaytlgna and Somal1gna as reparted

ln, the C?mprehensive Report of the 1974/75 Campalgn. (Provf­

sional Mll1tary Govt. of Soclall.st Ethlopla, 1976b, 51-52).

These included:

1. Ye-Fldel Gebeta (alphabetlc chart}.

2. Fldelna Nebab MelmeJa-YemeJemeria Metsehaf (Text for learning the alphabet and a read­

"', ,ing exerclse).

3. . Ye-I J j Tsehlfet Memar la (an exerClse book for learning how to wr1te).

4. Huletegna Menbab (a reader).

5. Ye-Memhiru Metsehaf (the teacher's gUide for the above materl.als).

1

6. Ye.-Arnarlgna Neg1gir Mastemar1a (a text for teaching oral Arnharic to non-Amharlc speake­rs.* (Provl.sional MU1~ary Gavt. of Soc1a1-Ist Ethiop1a, 1976b, ~1-52).

\

The cu"rricu1um for the 1979 Ilteracy campaign evo1ved

out of th~ experl.ence gained from both the UNDP/UNESCO spon-

sored WOALP project and the Zemecha. In fact, at the 1n1 tlal

\ stage of the 1979 NLC, most of the materlals used were the

• Amharic ls the offlc1al language of Ethlopia. '"'

- 97 - ,

ones developed for the Zemecha. Later, sorne of these mate-

rials were either ,revised or replaced by new ones reflecting

the programme af the Nat~anal Democratie Revalut~on of Ethio­

p~a. In addition to the three Rs and poliücal education, the

literacy materials include lessons on family ll.ving, basic

heal th care, and adv ~ce on the need ta erad icate undesl.rable

social practices, such as èarly mar rlage, drunkennes s, etc. ~

In the 9th round (1983) materl.aIs were developed for

three' categories of students: beginners, lntermediates and

gradua te's: For exampi e, les sons for beg l.nners incl uded alpha-1

betl.Zatlon, reading, wri ting, numericals and computa tion.

Lessons for the rntermediate programme dealt with clean water,

501.1 conservat.lon, child-mather care, household pest control

and political education, and the materials for post-literacy "

and fOllaw-up programmes inciuded such texts as poli tical

educa tl.on (part 2) and functional readers, aS well as guide

books on heal th care, first aïd, conservation of soil, the

rnethod of coffee planting and its care, fahtily living, and on

organ.lzing cooperatives. The literacy materials were intended

to address the interests of, those localities in whieh tl\e

-mat~r l.aIs were to be uséd. For instanc'e, lessons for the

peasantry carrled information on soiL c~.r::~ervation, row plant-

ing, pest control, etc.

1

- 98 ....

Language of Instruction

AlI li teracy campaigns before the Ethiopian revolution

of

,.' '-'

1974 were conducted in Arnharic. Campaign of ---

When the

Development Through Codperation (Zemecha) was J-aunched in

.- 1974, the teaching of li teracy in several national languages

was started. Teaching materials were prepared for the first

time in four other Ethiopian languages: Oromogna, Tigrigna,

wolaytigna and Somaligna, in addition to Arnharic. (provision-

al Military Government of Socialist Ethiopia, 1983b, 4). N'hen

the NLC began in 1979, instruction was carried out in these \

languages. Later on, however, other 0 Ethiopian languages \

Hadyigna, ~embatigna, Gedeogna, Tigre, and K~namigna were

introduced as medium of instruction in the reslectiv~ areas.

Finally, Sidamigna, Si l tigna, Afarigna, Keff7-MOCh~gna, and

Sahogna were aiso added as languages of instruFtion. Out of a

total of about 80-100 Ethiopian' languages, ftfteen which are

believed to be used by about 95% of the pOP~lation are being

fully employed at the maIllent al though the go~ernment does not

have adequately trained experts an~ enough resources to popu-

larize the use of aIl these languages.

Support and Post-Li teracy Materials and Progra~es \ \

Eleven follow-up primers were developed from 1979 ta

July' 1983. A few reading centers and several o local newspapers

were established in the 6th and 7th rounds. Al though it was

stipulated that "local papers (for new literates) should be

- 99

produced at the regional and provincial Level"" their content

was to be monitored by members of the Commission for the

Organizat"ion ôf the Party of Workers of Ethiopia (COPWE). In

fact, "the. main ,aim of local papers", the campalgn head-,

quarters announced, "should be to carry important duplicated

portions of newspapers and other pUblications produced at the

'" national level". (provisiorral Mili. tary Govt. of Socialist

~thiopia, ,1983b, 21) ~ However, the Ethiopian daily newspaper, ~

Addis ZE;!men ("New Era ") and the weekly paper, Yezarei tu

Ethiopia ("Modern Ethiopia "), carry sorne articles userful for

new literates.

Rural Ilbraries were introduced by the WOALP project

./ (1968-73) when a mobile library scheme was established.

" (UNDP lUnes co , 1976; 1-40) • "

But the programme encountered J. numerous difficulties related to the 1ack of,financia1 support

from government and was terminated as soon as the project

period was ovef: About 6,000 re,ading centers have been estab­

lishe~d since 1979, where new literates can obtain fOllo1,rl-up

mat\rials and primers they haye, ust; .. d for lit.eracy classes.

Al th'ough these reading centers have the potential to become

future village (kebele) l~1?raries, no attempt 'has been made' to

make available additional ma~eri,ls reflecting the needs and

interests of the users,of those reading centers.

l,

100

'i) ,

~diO, tèlevision; and film are powerful med ia for

reaching the mass of the population. A department known as

the Educational Mass Media Service ~as created in the Ministry , ,of Education in March 1968 ta assist in vocational training,

adul,t. education, the' literacy campaign, corresponding educa-

tion and rural development. The 'first radi<;, programmes were

l launched in 1971 with a transmitter donated by the government

of the Netherlands. There are now Il regional transmi tting

y stations (each 'having a power of l.. Kilowatt). The annual}...

airtime allocation of the radio programme for formaI and non~-

formaI adult education :lS 8651.30 an'd 1716.00 airtiine hours

respectively. The allocation ta formal,education is over five

times greater than the time allocated ta the non-formaI pro-

grammes comprising, in part, les sons for new literates.

50 far, 52 adult radio programmes have been produced in

12 series on agricul ture, heal th and civics. In order to

assist those who could not afford to purchase pr i va te radio

receivers, a total of 18,029 radio sets have been distributed

by the Ministry of Education ta 5,793 primary schools which ,

are used as li teracy -centers. The Agri-Serv~ce Ethiopia has"

also been involved in distributing radio receivers to adults

in the rural areas. According to a survey conducted by -the

Educational Mass Media Service, adult radio programmes reach

18,845 National Literacy Campaign Centers.

\

- 101

Less has been do ne regarding the use of films for edu-,

cational purposes. However, the Education Mass Media Service

has produced several documentary films and filmstrips. More-

over, the department has been able to obtain much audio-vi~ua~

equipment through a loan obtained from the Wor Id B~nk: ~tk,

the aim of suppo~ing adult education through movies seems to

be very' far from being realized in the foreseeable future.

-Moreover, the Ethiopian Television Service does 'not extend

beyond the capital city of Addis Ababa and ci ties of Asmara,

Assela, Dire Dawa (a provincial capital) 1 Harar and Nazareth

(another provincial c"api tal )-. It is hoped that the Ethiopian

Television Service will expand its broadcasts into the coun-

tryf3ide following the graduaI development of microwave commu-

nication links between the city of Addis Ababa and other

regions.

Among the most important po!iit-li teracy programmes are

those offered by the Communi ty Skill Training Centers which

have been established in about a quarter of the 500 woredas

(districts) of the country. These are intended to help new

literates learn new vocational sk~lls helpful for village

life. Training includes instruction in weaving, basket mak-

ing, woodwork, carpentry, masonry, construction, etc. An

important development of the p'ost-revolutionary period in

this connection is the founding of the Farmers 1 School at

Agarfa. The programmes of this school are similar to those

, '

, <;

. '

D

- 102 -

of Folk Development Colleges (,FDC) of" Tan-zania in the kinds of

training it offers. This is the only school- so, far estab-

lished in a country in which over 90% of the population makes

a living either from farming or raising livestock.

Supervision and Evaluation of Programmes and Learners

In order / to facilitate a, smooth running of ,the NLC,

three ~upervision and evaluation mechanisms have been employed

in " Ethiopia. First, attendance of both learners and instruc-

tors is strictly monitored ta determ~ne whether a participant

is eligible to sit for the literacy test and whether an

instructor should get his certificate for satisfactorily

"responding to the national call of the motherland" by teach-

ing adul ts. Corrective measures vary from fines to imprison-,

ment for a few days. But oral and written reprimands are the

major means of making learners and instructors observe the

~ __ ---,n=-=-=e:..=c,-,eO-'s~s_ary discipline to carry out the li teracy campaïgn •

Second, supervision and evaluation is done at the end of each

round at the national, regional, provincial, district, and'"""

village (Kebele) levels. This task is monitor,ed by the Data

Collection, superv~ion and Certification Committee (DCSCC)

and carried out at the grass-root level.

The third and most important mechanism of evaluation

and supervis~on is the adm~nistration of a nat~on-wide test at

the end of each phase. An example of this -could be the test.

", '-.

,.. ;

- 103 -

administered by the end of the first phase (round) in which

less than half of the registered learners sat for the national

of test and less than half of th0se who sat for the exam "passed.

According to the definition of the N'LeCC, a literate person 1

'-, (or a liter~cy graduate) is s~pposed to be able tô demonstrate'

, $

the following:

a) Reading Skills To be able to read and understand newspapers, magazines and periodi­cal.s and wall-sheèts produced for the general reader together wi th leaflets, pamphlets and booklets produced" for f01low-up and conti­nuing education which relate to nation~l political affairs .", etc,

b) Writing Skills - Write letters to friends and faml1)( m~mber~1 and to the Kebele or Peasant Assoclatlon, or to gQvernment agencies , '. , stating a case.

c) Computation Skills - Calculate or estimate sueh ~hings as areas of land, quanti ties of materials, crop yields, , .. priees, measure weights, prepare budgets, work out taxes •. " etc. (The NLCC, 1981, 26-27).

The standards of performance are however not very weIL defined \

as may be judged from the placement criteria whieh were used:

a) Beginners and intermediates classes held for

fresh beginners every w.eek from Monda~ throu,9h

Friday two hours q day for six months and for a

total period of 240 hours;

b) RemediaI - classes held for adul t learners who are

poor achievers in the preceding round. A total of

- 104 - --~ 120 hours of addi tional instruction ie given to

this gro~p in order to strengthen their knowl ed9-e

before they appear for the next national test~

c) Follow-up - classes could include those who did

--very well as beginners or in the remedial classes

as well as those who showed paor performance in

their 1ast examination.

Recruitment and Training of Teachers

Prior to the first round of the 1979 campaign, a crash

programme

teachers,

was organized to

stuQents, civil

train instructors, mainly school

servants, members of the Armed

Forces and the Police, and from the ranks of the educated

unemployed. According to ~nformation furnished by the Head of

the Planning Department of the Ministry of Educ,ation and the

Secretary of the Na tional Commission to Unesco, a total of

984, 708 instructors had been trained dur ing rounds 1,/8 (June

1979-November 1983). (Gebeyehu K. and Debebe T., 1983, 12).

Tra~ning took place for a period ranging from 5 to 10

days, depending upon the trainee's academic and professional

background and the availability of facilitiesr The psychology

of adul ts, methods of teaching adul ts, the preparation and

effective use of instructional materials were the core dourses

of the training programme.

number of other subjects

As the","programme prog ressed, a

were added, such ~s pol,t.ti,cal'

à

..

105 -

education and principles and methods of evaluation. In order

to coordinate training from the national to the grass-root

(kebeIe) 'level, there was a general orientation session for

all instructors on the nature.and importance of literacy edu-

cation and on the organization,of the programme at the nation-

al, regional, and provincial leveis. (Gudeta Mammo, 1983, 8).

In selecting, instructors, emphasis was placed by the govern­

ment on identifying individuals who:

1. are 18 years old and over;

2. are physically and mentally healthy;

3. are not married for not having parental responsibilities);

4. are cur.rently grade-twelve graduates; and

5. have accepted Leninism as was of the National of Ethiopia;

the philosophy of Marx i'sm­expressed in the Programme Democratie Revolution (NDR)

6.' 'will voluntari,ly accept the assignment in a rural area. (provisional Military Govt. of Socialist Ethiopta, 1976b, 51-52).

Since the nurnber of instructors 'requir~d was very large

(nearly one million) 1 it was not possible to rigidly apply

these criteria. There were Iiteracy instructors less than 18 \

years of age, for instance. Moreover, very-, few instructors

would voluntarily accept a teaching assignment. , Coercive

measure,s were taken ~gainst those who refused to pa:r;:ticipate

as~instructors of adult literacy. Students were not allowed'

to accept either temporary or permanent government emp10yment

- 106 -

unless they produced a certi ficate indicating that they had

. respondèd to the governmental request by teaching adu1 ts.

Those who did not participate l.n teaching adults were consid­• ered as counter-revolutionaries and were sometimes harasaed

and imprisoned. e

~uch sanctions were used, for example, in

recrui ting gradua tes of, secondary s chool s which were the

prim-ary source of instructors. The following table illus-

trates the number of instructors trained for the Ethiopian NLC

with the corresponding data for enro11ment of participants

during rounds 1-8 f~om July'1979 to August 1983.

TABLE VIII

SUMMARY OP LITERACY PARTICIP~TS, INSTRUCTORS AND CAMPAIGN CENTRRS FROM JULY 1979 - AUGUST 1~83

Rounds Enrolments Instructors (phases) Centers

Male Female Total Male ,

Female Total

1 2-,977,760 3,247,'144 6,2"24,904 - - 241,795 34,559

2 235,928 241,000 477,828 97,358 33,230 130,588 18 1 336 ,

3 1,207,912 1,314,760 2,522,672 41,096 16,897 57,993 Il,048

4 , 348,079 418,109 261,248 86,606 21,589 108,195 10,440

5 751,9'9'8 781,959 1,533,937 - - 96,122 27,638 ,

6 303,523 377,019 680,542 82,798 21,549 104,347 30,253

7 595,467 656,362 1,253,829 104,533 26,463 130,996 18,845 ,

8 314,210 362,155 676,365 95,086 ~,686 1,14,772 23,726

Grand \ . Total 6,734,857 7 r 399,408 14,134,255 - - 984,808 -

~

Source: Gudetta Mammo, "Trainig of Teachers based on Ethl.opian Reality", A Seminar Paper Presented ln Harare, Zimbabwe, Ju1y 11-15, 1983 (mimeographed).

- 107 -

SUJIImary

The Ethiopians are' among the most ancient peoples of

the wor1d, with a rich historical heritage. Just as the monas-

teries of Europe have helped in the conservation of Western

cultural tradition (Gillett, M., 1966, 62), 50 also the

Ethiopian Orthodox Church and its traditional schools fostered

the development of Ethiopian l1terary and many artistic and

architectural works. Tho,ugh Eth~opia' is considered the home

of the famous Axumite civ1lization, it still' rernains, owing ta ,

a long period of political and economic stagnation, one of the

25 least' devéloped and poorest nations of the world. • The

Ethiopian feudal, system which lasted until the outbreak of the

Ethiopian Revolution of February 1974, was largely responsible

for Ethiopia's underdevelopment. Today, Ethiopia is a war-

torn ~ountry with- a number of political dissident movements

and national liberation fronts which are waging a war from aIl

directions against the Ethiopian Provisional Military Govern-

ment.

After 1974, the Provisional Military Government pro-

cla,imed the establishment of a campaign headquarters which

mobilised 60,000 secondary and university students (inc~uding

their teachers) to educate the' Ethiopian people. The politi-

cal aim was to fight feudalism and feudal outlook by providing

literacy education to Ethiopian peasants. In 1979, a National

Li teracy Campaign Coordinating Coinmi ttee '(NLCCC) was estab-

- 108 -

lished to 1aunch another nation-wide campaign with an ambi-

tious target of comp1ete1y eradic~ ting il1i teracy by 1987.

According to a recent interview wi th campaign off~cia1s, the

rate of il1iteracy was reported to have been brought down from

" 93% in 1974 to 37% in 1983. This 1iteracy campaign, like the

,. previous campaigns was not guided by a coherent po1itical

guideline. The result of the Ethiopian NLC under the leader-,

ship of the Provisional Military Government (Dergue) could be

summed up as a venture that attracted mass involvement ini-

tial1y, but was overtaken by a, continuing political, economic

and social crisis.

, \

o

- 109 -}

CHAPTER PIVE

COMPARA'rlVE PERSPEC'l'IVES ON THE TANZABIAN UD

ETBIOPIAB LITERACY CAMPAIGNS

Tanzania and Eth~opla were among the eleven countries

selected for the UNDP IUnesco sponsored Work-or iented Mul t

Literacy Pilot Projects (WOALP) launched in the late 1960s and

early 1970s. Although the pIlot proJects wh~ch emphasized the

role of literacy in rural development were pronounced fail­

ures,' literacy educators obtained considerable experience and

much progress as was real ized in subsequent li teracy cam­

paigns.

In Tanzania, administrative direction of the national

literacy campaign of 1971-1975 was exercised mainly by TANU

and in Ethiopia by the Provisional Mi~itary Goyernment.

Na tl.onal li teracy commit tees in the two countr ies were en-

trusted wlth coorcllnating funct~ons. The administrative

structure of the campaigns i8 summarized in Figures l and II

on pages III and 112 in this chapter.

There is a marked difference in the organization and

administration of the two campaigns in that in the case of

Tanzania, the coordinating committee received political direc­

tion from the pdrty (TANU) whereas in Ethiopia the coordinat-

- 110

ing committee receiv~d guidance from the ruling Provisional

Military Council which has not functioned as a political

organization, nor has it received a mandate from the Ethiopian

people. It should aiso be noted that in Tanzania poiiticai

direction was given to the campaign from the village to the

national level. In Ethiopia local literacy officiaIs are not

operationally responsible for rural development, programmes as

they are in Tanzania. The local pol i tical cadres who are

giving political direction to the literacy campaign have a

clear political objective which Nyerere articulated in the

Arusha Declaration, and :they are directly supervised by the

Party.

, During and after the launching of the National Literacy

Campaign in Ethiopia, there was no political party operating

at the center and to which poli tical cadres were attached.'

The political groups that formed a united front with the

Dergue soon after the revolution took place in 1974 were

ei ther co-opted or liquidated by the rul ing "Mi Il. tary Council,

and the rest went underground. (Lefort, R., 1983, 253-4).

Although the Provisional Military Government has created many

mass political organizations like the Peasanti' Associations,

it failed to give them any political responsibilites thau·were

promised by the government in the Programme of the National

Democratie Revolution of Ethiopia (NOR). In fact, bath the

chairmen of the Ethiopian Peasants 1 Association and the ALI

1

\

1-

1

1

1

1

- 111 -

FIGURE 1

ORGANIZ1'.TIONAL STRUCTURE OP 'l'Hl!! TJWZANIAN NATIONAL ADVlSORY COMMITTEE ON Jl.DULT EDUCATION AND IT5 RELATIONSHIPS WITH PARTY AND GOVERNMENT STRUCTURES "

1 Head of State and 5ecretary of Party . 1

1 PrIme MInlster 1

,

~ --------------------------Cha1rman of the Nat. AdVlsoiy Ctee on Educa- NatIonal Advisory Committe tion and MIn1ster of NatIonal Educat10n on Adult Educat10n Department of 'l\dult Educat10n --------------------------,

J , ,

Re~10nal (CCM)

1

- , partx secretary ,

Reaiona 1 Adult Eciucation Coorrlinator , , 1

f ,

--------------~-------Re~ional EducatIon Off1cer .1 Reqional Mul.t Reaional Arlult Erlucatlon CoorrH na tor _:~~~~==~~_~~~~t==== __ ,

·1

, DIstrIct Parti: Secretarï

, , ni strict Deve l opmen t 1)i rector , ,

1 __ ~~-----J--------DIstr1ct Educat10n Off1cer

1 District Adult Eduo. Coordinator .1 DIstrIct Adult

EducatIon Commlttee ---------------------,

.' , DIV1!1I0n part;t ChIef

1

1 , D1V1.S10nal Secretary ,

• 1

1

, . ,

1

- ---------------------Dl V1s10n EducatIon Coord1nator J DIVISIon Adult

, _:~~:~::~~-~~~:::::-,

·1 ,

l'lard part:t ChIef 1 J

Warri Secretary ,

" , , 1

Ward EducatIon Coordlnator \~ard Mul t , .1---------------------' _:~~:~::~~-~~~~:::::j

1

( , V111aae partx Reeresentativei

, vi} 1 aoe

1

\ Couneil , 1

1 ,

l --------~----~-------I

vi liage F'~ucation Comnlttee 1 Villaae Adult : EducatLon Comm~tee 1

-------------~- ______ I 1 ,

l ,

1

1

Head of Prlmary Sehool and , SuperVlsors 1 , 1

, 1

LI teraey. Post-Llteracy and Adult EducatIon Classes at ,the Vi llage Level 1 , .

Source: E.P R. KtaJole. "The NatIonal Literacy Campp.1qn ~n Tanzanla", A paper presented at a conference ln Iraq, lMa} 1976); H.S, Bhola, Cam~a1gnlnQ for Literacy, pp. 224-25, M1nlstry of NatIonal Educat1on, January, 1984. ...

--, e 1 , , --'

..

\

1

'"

....

- 112 -

FIGURE II . ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE OP THE ETHIOPIAN NLCCC AND ITS RELATIONSHIPS WITH

TAE ADMINISTRATIVE STRUCTURE OF THE PROVISIONAL MILITARY GOVERNMENT

l Chalrman of the Provlslonal j Military Government .

ICOPWE Central Commlttee Member Minlster of Education. & 1

1

1

National Llterac~ Campalgn,

1 Coordlnating Committee

1 1 ,

1 • • l Educa tional Recrultrnent Propaganda and Data COllect-Materials Tralnln~ and Coordlnating ing Supervi-Procurement Placement Aid Commlt tee sion and anc3 Dl strl- Commlttee Certification bution

1 Regl0nal AdmlnlBtr~torl • 1

IRegional R<luc. Officer 1

1 Regional Literacy Campalgn coordinating_1

and Executive Committee ,

1 Provlncial lIdministr~tr°r 1

1 1 provincial Educ. Officer I- l 1 ,

. PrOVlnClal Literacy Campaign coordlnatlngl and Executlve Committee

1 " \

Dl,strlct Admlnlstrator ,

1 D1Strièt ILlt. Camp. CC;>0rd. & Exec. commltteel ,

-, " 1 1

" J 1 J " Urban Dwellers Asso- Peasants ASBocla- Productl.ve, Distr1.butl.ve

clation Lit. Camp. tions Lit. Cam- & Service-glvlng Organ-Coor. & "Executive paign Coord. & lzatlon Llt. Campaign Committee Exec . Commlttee Coord. & Exec. Comml.ttee .

1 - 1 1

~Llt~rac~ Càmp al Qn! !Literacy Camp a1.qnJ l~iteraCy Campaiqn! . Ofhcer , . Officer Officer ,

1 1 1

LTeachers 1 r l'T'eaChersl treachersl

1 . l r ,

, , Partlcipants . Partlc1pants Partl-cipants , ,

1 Llteracy : 1 ILL tel\acy 1 lù teracyl

Sources: The NLCCC, Every Ethioplan Will be'Llter~te and W1Ïl Ramaln L1terate, p. 16; Ministry of Education, De~artment of A<lult and Literacy Educat!on, Ad?lS Ababa, December, 1983.- ~ 0

/.

..

? • ,

, ,

{ }

(,\

- 113 -

" Ethiopiah Trade Unions were not invo1ved as J1lembers in the

" Commission for Orgauizing the Party of Workers of Ethiopia l'

, l' . (COPWE) until August 1984.

, ,

"

Finance, Its 'Sources and Management

In Ethiopia, the Provisional Mi1i tary Government has . ~~ied heavilY .(;';!:! local sources, mainly publié cont'ributions,

J

tb finance the national literacy campaign. In the Eco'nomic

Plan for 1978..-1983, 1iteracy education was given a high

,priority but it \ was not incorporated as a budget item.

Despite the recognition of the necessity for a nation-wide (\

literacy carnpaign only 20% of the total expenditure was fun~ed

by the government from 1979 to 1983, while contributions 'from

the general publ'ic and from foreign donors amounted to 65% and

14,5% respectively.

,The Tanzanian NLC( has benefitted greatly from the

political support it has received from the TANU (now CCM)

'Party, the government and especially the President, who has •

backed the NLC despite the economi'c difficulties the country

is ;acing presently. "Throughout the years of the campaign t "

. h' Br~la no~es, Il the government alloca ted funds to adul t educa-

tion no lees than 10 percent- of the total allocations of the

• Ministry of Nati(pnal Education." (Bhola, H.S. 1981, 231). In

Ethiopia, the total amount., a110cated to the entire National .

Literacy Campaign,and other adult education ac~ivities did not

. ' o '

- 114 -

reach four percent of the total budget of the Ministry" of

Education. For examp1e, in 1982/83, about 254 million

Ethiopian Birz;;* was al10cated for the Ministry of Education~

but the amount provided for adul t education was only 8,465, 000 '

Eth. Birr which is only about.3.4% of'the education budget.

(Provisional Military Govt. of sOcialist Ethiopia, 1983G, 36).

Table IX compares the funding of li teracy (adul t) education in

,the two countries ..

TABLE IX

SOURCES O~ FINANCE FOR THE TANZANIAN AND ETH:IOPIAN LITERACY CAMPAIGNS

Source of Finance

Government

Làca~ (public) contribution

Foreign donors

Total

. Ethiopia (1979-1982)

20%

65%

14.5%

100% P

Tanzania (1972-1975 )

66%

33%

100%

Source: Yusuf O. Kassam, The Adult Education Revolution in Tanzania, p. 64; The Ethiopian Ministry of Education; Dept. of Adult and Literacy Education, Addis Ababa, December 1983.

In Ethiopia, local contributiqns and foreign donations to-

gether give a total amount which is four times greater than

,the finance al10tted by the Military government. In contra st ,

to this, the Tanzanian governmemt provided two-thirds of 't.he

* U. S. $1 = 2.07 Eth. Birr.

.". 1

,- 115

,total budget required during the campaign years of 1971/72 to

1974/7,5.,

_ Ethiopia' s campaign expenditures per c,apita are mOI;'e , '

than double those of Tanzania ~ the per cap! ta cost in Tanzania , '

was 23 Tsh. (about U.5. $3.00) frorri 1971 to 1975 (5ingh, B.N.

and Mbakile, E. P. R. , 1976, 19) whi1e the average cost per

Ethiopian participant was 16.25 Ethiopian Birr (about U'.S.,

$7.85) from 1979 to 1983. The comparatively high per capita

e'xpenditure for the Ethiopian li~eracy education may be due to

the' invol vement of a very large number of instructors! twice

as many as have been engaged in the Tan.zanian ~;iteracy cam­\,

paign (see Table XI). '-~" Programme Design

The writing and ilJ,.ustrating of literacy and P?st-

literacy materials may seem a 'simple matter, but it is not.

It requires the expert~se of educatiotial psychologists,

special ists in curriculum development, writers, artists,

designers, etc. The materials are supposed to entertain the

readers a~ much as they are expected ta inform thern about

trad es and skills.' Moreover, they must aIsé) be suitable ta

the geograph.ical ~d cui tural env ~ranment" for wh~ch they are

written.

, ,

116

...

Tanzania 1 S performance with respect to the preparation, ,

PFoductiort an~ distribution of literacy and post-literacy

materials is impressive compared to Ethiopia' s • In Tanzania,

writers' workshops were organized at zonal and regional levels

'to ensure a conti,n1:f'ous supply: of relevant materials for aIl

kinds of rural settings. In Ethiopia, on the other hand, the

materials are developed within the Department of Adu},t and

Literacy Education in the capital, AddlS Ababa. Experts are

sametimes dtawn fram other rrtinistries but the work is mostly

done by adul t educators. Linguists are hired on a part-time

basis from Addis Ababa University, various ministries and

other government organizations who translate materi~ls into 14

different Ethiopian languages at considerable cost. Table X

compares the types of literacy and post-literacy materials ,

developed in Ethiopia and Tanzania.

'.

"

, '

- 117

TABLE X

LITERACY AND POST-LITERACY MATERIALS DEVELOPED POR LITERACY CAMPAIGNS IN ETHIOPIA AND TAH~IA

(\

ETHIOPIA TANZANIA

Titles of Materials Title of Mate~ials

Literaey Materials

1. Fidel Gebeta (alphabetic Table)

2. Reading Exereise 3. Ari thmetie 4. Clean Water and its Use 5. Soi1 and its Conservation 6. Care fo'r Pregnant Woman 7. Get-rid-of Household Pests

8. Political Education

1. Cotton 1 and 2

2. 'Banana 1 and 2 3. Home Economies 1 and 2 4. Fishing 1 and 2 5. Cattle 1 and 2 6. Rice 1 and 2 7. Po~iti~al Education

1 and 2 8. Maize 1 and 2 ~. Tobacco 1 and 2

10. Coconut 1 and 2 \~ kIl. Cashewnut land 2

12. Wheat 1 and 2 13. Tea land 2

~~st-Literacy Materials

1. Political Education 2. Mathematics 3. Agriculture 4. Family Living 5. CooperativéS 6. Heal th

1. Po1itical Education • 2. Ma thema tic s 3. Agriculture 4. Kiswahili 5. Hi,story 6. Geography 7. Political Econorny 8. Crafts 9. Health

10. Home Economies ,,11. Engl~sh

-- . Sources: Ministry of National Education, Dar-es-Salaam, January 1984: Minis,try of Education, Addis Ababa, December 1983.

\

\..

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l'

.. 118

The Tanzanians have deve1aped a large range of 1iteracy and

" post-1iteracy materia1s that are applicable to major food or

cash crop growing areas, whereas the Ethiopian ma t.erial sare

less varied and emphasize health and nutrition. The prep~ra­

tion of literacy and post-literacy materials was difficu1t

because t.he present Ethiapian NLC, like the d previous cam-

, " paigns, has not escaped the consequenc~s of paor planning. The

'i

Dergue instructed the Ministry of Education in 1979 to prepare

for a nation-wide li ter~cy campaign despi te serious financial

and material constraints. Following this, in May 1979, the

establishment of the N'LCCC was officially' announced by the

government. (The NLCCC, 1981, 15). When the. Military gavern-

-ment announced that li teracy instruction would beg in in Ju1y

,l~79, there were not enough teaching matel;"ials. Factory

workers and craftsmen in urban areas and farmers, cattle .'\..

"'breeders, nomadic herdsmen in the rural areas were aIl

expected to read the same ma ter ial s al though they were trans-

1ated into local languages. Q

Training of Literacy Instructors ..

!n Tanzania, bath in termedia te and high level training

prog rammes ~or - trainers of instructors were developed. A

Dipfama Course for adult educators was begun in 1969 at the

Insti tute of Mul t Education. Certificate programmes have

also been established for instructors wi thout credentia ls for '?'

e:ntry lnto un~versl.ty. Ad vp.nced training of adul t educa tors

~,

119 -

is. carried out at the undergraduate and post-graduate level at

Dar-es-Salaam University. Tanzanian literacy instructors with

.' bigher degrees were posted at ~he national or reg~onal levels

-whereas those with lesser qualifications were posted at dis-

trict or villag,e-leve1. * A total of 984,808 instructors were

reported to have been trained in Ethiopia to serve during the

campaign period from 1979 ta 1983 compared ta 453,267 from

1971 to 1975 in Tanzania, (see Table XI).

TABLE XI

NUMBER OF LITERACY INSTRUCTORS AND STUDENTS IN TANZANIA AND IN ETHIOPIA FOR THE FIRST FIVE YEARS OF NLC

ETHIOPIA (1979-83 ) TANZANIA (1971-75)

Carnpaign Enro1ment Instructor Ratio Enro1ment Instructor Ratio Year

1 6,224,904 241,795 25:1 908,351 29,341 30:1

2 3,500,000 188,581 18.1 1,508,204 88,106 17:1

3 2,300,125 204,317 11: 1 2,989,910 94,262 31:1

4 1,932,371 235,343 8:1 3,303,103 107,673 30:1 /

5 1,877,210 144,772 12:1 5,184,982 133,885 38:1

Total 15,834,610 984,808 16:1 13,894,550 453,267 30:1

Sources: SIDA, Adult Education in Tanzania, pp. 15-16; H.S. Bho1a, carnpaic;ning for Li teracy, pp. 228-9; Gudeta Mammo, i1Train~ng oTTutors Based on Ethiopian Expe­rience", 1983, Anoex II (mimeographed) i "Statistica1 Data on the National Li teracy Campaign Rounds 1-8," Ethiopian Ministry of Education, Department of Adult and Li teracy Education, Addis Ababa, r1arch 1983 ( mimeographed) •

* For instance, the editor of one of the eight rural news­papers, E1imu Haina Mwisho (Education has no End), Ndugu Mazigo Kasuku holds a Masters degree in Adult Education and certificate in Journalism from Eng1and.

, .

------ ----------------------------------~...--

120

- ,AI:! the above Table shows, the ratio of teachers ta students

was lower in Ethiopia than in Tanzania in the ,initial phases

of their 1 i teracy campaigns. For instance, the fJve-year 1

average (1979 to 1983) ratio for Ethiopia was 1:16 compared to

J.:30 for Tanzania (1971 to 1;375). The duration of training

programmes ranges trom 5 to 10 days in Ethiopia to one to four

weeks in Tanzania. In addition, whi1e programmes in adu1t

education have been deve10ped at the post-secondary leve1 in

Tanzania, no such programmes eXlsted "in Ethiopia even -at the

-Addis Ababa Uni versi ty, the country' s oldest and 1arge~t

insti tution of higher education. In other words, a higher

1evel, of training for 1iteracy instructors was avai1ab1e in

Tanzania than in Ethiopia.

Lanquageof Instruction

The Tanzanians have pursued a po1~cy of monolingua1isrn

from the beginning of their 1iteracy campaign despite the fact

that there are over a hundred languages spoken in the country,

The government has made literacy education _a major means of

popu1arizing Swahi1J. (the offic~a1 language of the country) in

order to faci1 i ta te communication among di fferent ethnie

groups with the aim of strengthenl..'ng national unl.ty. This

objective was spelled out in Tanzanl.a' s Second Five-Year

Development Plan in whl.ch it was declared that " ... the who1e

of this work [1iteracy] will be conduoted in Swahili." (Gov.

of Tanzania, 1969, 157-). Sa far, the government has not

0'

121

ac1<nowl edged _ significant problems arising from the use of

Swahili for literacy education. However, it is likely that

many non-Swahili speakers encounter difficul ty. Mbakile,

fOrmer Deputy Director of the National Li teracy Center at

Mwanza, in his Sur vey of the Radio Education Programme

conducted in 1975,' identified the use oi: Swahili as a major

problem, in <;rg'anizing adul t li teracy education in non-Swahili

,speaking parts of the country. (Mbakile, E.P.R., Nov. 1975,

5 ) •

Ethiopia pursued ? policy of monolipgualism before the

outbreak of ,the 1974 popular revolution. Now there are 15

languages used for 1iteracy education among them Arnharic which

is the official language. The justification for employing so

many languages- for li teracy is ta be found in the Progratnme of

the National Democratie Revolution of Ethiopia which addresses

the cou~try's language and nationalities' problems thus:

The right to self-determination of aIl national­i ties 'will be recognized 'and fully respected. No nationality will dominate another one since the, history, culture, language and relig ion of each nationality will have equal recognition in accordance wi th the spin t of socialism ... , the problem of nationalities can be resolved if each nationality is accorded full right to self­government. This means that each nationaliJ:Y will have regional autonomy to decide on matters concerning its internaI affairs. Within its environs, it has the right to determine the contents of its political, economic and social iife, use its own languages and elect its own 1 eaders and administrators to head i ts internaI organs. (provisional Mi1itary Government of Socialist Ethiopia, 1977, 13-14).

..

- 122 -

A1though the Dergue expressed a wlll~ngness ta implement ItS

poll.cies rela ted to 11.ngu~ stic p1ura ll.sm and reg ~onal a utonomy

for the purpose of encouraglng a broader pol i tlcal partl.Clpa-<,

t~on, i t retreated ln the practIca1 appllcatlon of the l1.n-

"The questl.on of natIonal1 tl es", A. Hlwet

noted, "18 closely Llnked to the questlon of polltl.cal demo-

cracy". (AddlS Hlwet 1 1978, 37). Al though -the governmen t pro-

moted mother-tongue l.nstructlon 1.n adul t ~~atl.on, 11.ngU1.stlc

pl urail sm dld not, COlncl.de Wl. t;h genu lne /Poll.tl.cai decentra 1-

l.zation or regl.onai autonomy whl.ch the ten-year-oid "provl.-

sional" ml.l1.tary regl.me had proIDl.sed to the Ethlopian people

when l.t came to power ln September' 1974.- Nother- tongue

-l.nstruct~on i9 of 11.tt1e functl.onal use ln the absence of

'regio-nai autonomy and the rl.ght ta self-adml.nl.stratl.on.

Participation ,of Mass Organizations

Tanzanl.ans and Ethl.oplanS 1 through thelr polltl.ca1 and

mass organl.zatl.ons, have made lmportant contrl.~ut~ons l.n pro-

moting the Il teracy campa 19ns ln thel r respectl ve coun t r l~S.'

In Tanzanl.a, the unl.on of workers, youth aSSoclatl.onS and

women' s organl.Zatlons mobl.ll.zed the masses to at tend Il teracy

classes. But they dl.d not contrlbute materlally or flnanclal-

ly to the lI. teracy campal.gn. In EthlOpl.a 1 the All- Eth lOpl.an

Trade Unl.on, the AIL EthlOpl.an Peasant ASSOCIatIon, the Revo-

1utionary Ethl.opian Women' s ASSoclatl.On, Revolutlonary EthlO-

pian Youth Associatlon, and the Ethloplan Teachers •

123 -

Association have, in addition to encouraging mass participa-

tion in li teracy classes, sol ici ted financ ial cOl\"!:ributions.

The contribution of women associations both in Tanzania

and Ethiopia has been" of paramount importance in encouraging \

women ta regularly attend li teracy classes." In Ethl.opia" the

rnajorl. ty of adul t learners- are womeo and this c:ould not have

been accomplished without the strong support and backing of ,

the Revolutionary Ethl.opian Wornen' s Associatl.on. Durl.ng 1

rounds 1-8 (1979-83), a total of 7,399,408 women 'Nere enrolled

which constituted 52% of the total enrolment. (Revolutl.onary

Ethiopian Women's Association, 1982, 19). Of those who sat

•

for the final 1 ~ teracy examina tian , women consti tuted 52% and, -

of those who passed the national test, 49% 'Nere women. In

Tanzania, 80% of the female population were illl.terate in

1967. In 1975, the ra te was reduced to 44%. (Governrnen t of

Tanzania, 1981b, 4). In the case of Ethiop~a, it was reported

~ that the ra te of il11 teracy for females decll.ned from about

95% before 1979 to about 73% l.n 1983.

The Role of Government and Poli tical Organizations in the PromotIon Of Li teracy EdüëitIon

Area experts in adul t educatIon suggest tha t strong

.. poli tl.cal support a,nd fl.nanc l.al backl.ng by a government Wh~

combl.ned Wl. th adequa te technl.ca1 expertl. se 1.5 necessary to

enSl're success in a literacy carnpal.gn. (IDRe, 1979, 12-13 and

17). In Ethlopia, a po1üical tradl.tion of parties (with the

'.

)

\

- 124

exception of Eritre~before its reunion with EthLopia) did not

exist. Autocrat1c rule which preva~led in the country up

until 1974 has been the character istlc feature of the 'coun-

try' s polLt1cal hLstory. After 1974, Ethlopia came under the

administration of a self-proclaimed previsienal MilLtary

Government which has nOw transformed l tse1 f (ln September

1984) lnto Ye-I~yopya Serto-Aderoch Party (the Workers pa;rty

of Et hiepia), wi th the Dergue' 5 Chairman as i ts SecI'etary

General. (The EcoI'lomist, June 9, 1984, 38: Africa Now,

September 1984, 15-19).

gress

both

Tanzania, on

in invOl~ng' the other hand, has made tremendouEi pro-

ci tizens in the decision- making process

at the Idal and national level. /'

People \elect their

party representatlves and parliamentarians in Tanzanla, and the

party has a t tempted te reach every membe r of society 'through 1

grass-root-level politlcal institutions such as the OIten-house

cell" system. The system has provided the mechanism .. . for

~ommunication betweel) party and government on the one hand,

and between t.he party and the general pUblic on the other.

The Tanzanian NLC appears to have benefitted greatly

from the fact that the President ot' the Republic, Julius

Nyerere, himself a former Mwalimu (teacher) took special

interest in the Tanzanian National Literacy Campaign.

Ethiopia' 5 NLC, on the other hand, lacks a stable political

· . - 125 -

" leadership and a conducive po}îtica~ atrnosphere although land

reform initiallY,moti'vat;e? the rural masses to participat~. in

the campaign which man~ believed would give thern new skiJls ta

produce more :ticom their newly acquired plots.' f61lowing the , .

proclamation. However, ~~thout their ft:t11 participa:tipn in

political and, economic dec:itsion making, people' s enthusiasm

for the li teracy pr?gramme has waned in Ethiopia as the rele-

vant data suggest:. (See Figure III).

1 1

, 1

\ ~

, ,

;

..

'.

. 1

/

6

5

4

3

2

l

-,

l'

V

,U

"

3

-

.

- 126 -FIGURE III ,

TRENDS IN THE PARTICIPATION OF ADULTS IN LITERACY EDUCATION IN TANZANIA (1971-75) AND ETHIOPIA (1979-83)

4 5 l 2 3 ,

6,4 2 4,' 04

\ \

\

5,184, 82 \

/ \

1 ..... ~ \

1 3,500, 00 , ,,, v( <, ,

/ 3,303, 03 ',2,300,

> ... "-

/ 2,989, 10 "-

0

4 5

ln C 0

~

E

c ~

~

25 Vl ... "

~,..9]_2~ 71 .\ 1,877,

"t;1 lU

10 ... 0

c: 0 ~

L 1,508. 04 . 1

.....

'" " 0-

U

908.35 ~ ;:;

l Cl 71

-s.. ., lU

, 0..

1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983

'ToANZANIA (Campalgn years) ETHIOPIA

Sources: H. S. Bhola, Carnpaigning for Llterac~ .. p. 22S; Mlnistry of l'ducation, 'Departrn~nt of Adul t and Llteracy Education, "Statlstlca1 Data on the Natlonal Llteracy CarnpaJ.qn Rou~ds 1-7 [sJ", AddlS Ababa, March 1983 •

• LF,GFND

F.thlopïa ----------­Tanzahla

.. ~I I~

\

J '

- 127 -

Figure III illustrates how the highly orchestrated propaganda

Gcarnpaign of the Ethiopian Military Government which. was ,

launched at the outset of the NLC produced a turnout of over

six million participants in 1979 at a time when the campaign

" headquarters was preparing itself to teach not more than a

million and a half people. It can be seen very clear1y from

the figl1re that the Ethiopian NLC has suffered a number of

?et-backs because of the continuing political and economic

/

crisis. The participation of adul ts showed a sharp. dec1ine

from 6,224,904 in 1979 te 1,877,210 in 1983 whereas the parti­

cipation of adults in Tanzania sho~ed Çfrowth from 908,351 il1

1971 to 5,184,982 in 1,975. Enrol1ment expansion in Tanzania

occurred as the campaign attained the necessary financial and , ,

organiz1lfonal capacity to cope with additiona1 participants.

The Ethiopian Provisional Military Government claims to ,

have brought the rate of adult illiteracy down fro~ about 90% ,

in 1979 te 37.4% in 1983 out of a total population off~cially

estimated at over 32 million. In Tanzania, adu1t il1iteracy.

was declare'd te bave been reduced from 67% in 1967 to 21% in

1981. The latter claim 'seems to be modest in view of the fact , l:'1 0

that it tO,ok Tanzania, ", years te achie;re this wi th mor~ and

bet ter facili 1;.ies for adul t education. The claim- made by

the Ethiopian Provisional Mili tary Government, on the other

hand, should be carefully examined since the actual population ,

of Ethiopia for 1983 was believed to have been over 40 million

- 128 ...

. according to unofficial data reaching the Nàtional Revolu-

tionary Development Campaign and Central Planning Supreme

,Couneil. Moreover, Ethiopia's literacy rate may be inflated

by the widespread practice of dou1;>le counting (granting of

mul tiple eerti ficates to learners) which lS caused by a com-~

petition among Regional ~nd Provincial Military administrators

to win national prizes for their achievements in the NLC.

l According to Bhola (1981), Tanzania believed that

literacy education would play a role in the creation of a

• self-reliant T)jamaa (socialist) society. Beoause the Party

and government had the poli tical will to do i t, they provided

adequate funds and ~elped in the creation of a structure which

embraced every Tanzanian and converted the whole nation into a

literacy center. Al ~hough the 1971-75 campaign was conc1uded

with irnpressive results, the subsequent campaigns did not seem

to be carried out wi th the same tempo as in the preceding

campaigns because of scarci ty of resources and planning pro-

blems.

Ndugu Z.J.' Mpogo10, the current Director of the Depart-

ment of Mul t Education in the Ministry of Na tional Education

of Tanzania admitted in a recent interview that 7event"y per-

cent of the literacy examinees failed the 1981 nat10nal t.est.

(Sunday News, 1982, 1-2). Mpogo1o",attributed this result to

several factors: the shortage of print -and non-pr1nt materia1s

129

" and equipment, spare parts, and stationerY1 the lack of suffi-

cient motivation on the part of adults; problems "caused by

war imposed by fascist Idi Amin "1, the lack 'of permanent

teachers and pOOF remuneration for vo~unteer teachers; trans-

portation problems1 and the ac~te shortage of money to finance

the adult education programme. (Sunday News, 1982, 2-4),.

These conditions reflect the deterioration that has taken

place in the country's economy and the increasing disillusion­

ment with the Ujamaa programme.

The malaise of the Ethiopian NLC is also deeply rooted

in the country' s current political 'Ij,

and economic situation.

Given the increasingly worsening' economic and drought si tua-

tion, it i6 unlikely that the Ethiopian people can provide the

generous financla1 contributlons required ta make the campaign

a success. It is also unlikely that the Ethiopian Mlll.tary

government will be able ta lncrease lts rneager budgetary a110-

cation for the carnpalgn in view of the fact that ltS ffillitary

expenditures alone have increased by 700 percent since.1974.

(Bailey, G., 1980, 109)'. {

The absence of peace in tne country-

side, as a result of the armed resistance of different nation-

al fronts and politica1 diss ident movernents to the Dergue' s

undemocratic rule, (and, consequently, the Military govern-

",'

ment' s lack of actual control over the si tuat ion in Northern,

Eastern and Southern Ethiopia) 1 has had an adverse impact on

the NLC. It has been practi.cally impossible, under the

\

- 130 - -:-._---

present circumstances, to wage a successful nation-wide lit~-

acy cam~aign. Moreover, the lac)c of coherent lead'ership on

the part of the Provisid'hal Military government and droughi:; \,

have led the country to a tragic human catastrophe which has

brought seven to nine million Ethiopians to the brink of death

because of famine. (~ Gazette, 1984, B6; ~ \'Jashington

Post, 1984, Al and AIS). The national literacy. campaign,

thérefore, has become irrelevant and meaningless to a people

who have di'fficul ty surviving. In the final analysis, the

pre-condition for launching a truly successful literaoy cam-

paign in the Ethiopian context is the establishment of a popu-

lar democratic, and mass-b.ased, g0vernment that is 50 consti-

tuted as to be able to defend and advance the gains of

February 1974; reso1ve the nationa1ity problem which has 50

far resul ted in senseless' fratrlcidal slaughter and destruc-

t~ve/warfare, and guarantee the requlsite stabllity and peace

<>'

necessary for a meaningful campaign of economic and social

reconstruction.

, '

131

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- 132

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- 133 -

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- 134 -

~

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"Cognltive Consequences of School Expansl.on in Kenya Journal of Educatl0n, (forthcoffil.ng).

"Ethiopian St uden ts He Ip Of f~c ~a1 Rural Prog ram. Il

York Tlmes, Il January 1976, p.,2.' The New

"Ethl0p~a '5 Decade of Sacr~f~ce." Afr~ca Now, September 1984, pp. 15-19.

Freire, Paulo. "The Adult L~teracy Process as Cultural Actlon for Freedom." Harvard Educatl0nal Revlew, 40,2, (May 1970): 205-225.

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Hal.le Gabr~e1 Dagne.* "S 1 1e -Mehaymnan Tunhirt Yetederege Tina t. " CA St udy on Ad u1 t Ed ucat~onJ . Ethiopian Journal of Educat~on, S,l, (December 1971): 2-21.

Harbeson, John W.H. "Soc~al1sm, Tradltlon and Revolutlonary Pol~t~cs ln Contemporary Eth~opla." Canadlan Journal of African Studles, 11,2, (1977); 217-234.

H~rJ~, Karlm F. "Colonlal Under the Germans." London: Longman, 1979.

Ideologlca1 Apparatus ln Tanganyika ln Tanzanl.a Under Colonlal Rule.

pp. 192-235.

1

- 147 -

Korten, David C. and Korten, Frances F. .. EthlOP~ • s Use of of Rural Servlce."

(October 1966,):

Maaza

Natlona1 Unlverslty Students ln a Year Comparatl ve Education Revlew, 10,3, 482-492.

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Mb111nYl, Mar]Or1e J. "Afrlcan Educatlon Durlng the Brltlsh C01onla1 Per10d 1919-61." ln Tanzanla Under Colonla1 Rule. London: Longman, 1979. Pp. 236-275.

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Ott,away, Post,

Dav1d B. "Letter 24 May 1975.

from Tanzan1a. " The \vash1ngton

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+ A non-Ethloplan known by an Ethloplan name.

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- 149 -

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AddlS Zemen [New Era], T1klm~23, 1967 [Nov. 2, 1974].

Afrlca Conf1dent1âl (London), Vol. 18, No. 1 (January 7, 1977) to Vol. 25, No. 19 (Sept. 19, 1984).

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The Economlst, Vol. 291, No. 7345. June 9, 1984.

E11mu Halna MW1Sho [Ed~catl0n Has No End], (Mwanza, Tanzanla). January 1976.

The Ethloplan Herald, December 17, 1978.

The Gazette (Montreal) August 21, 1984.

Serto Ader [The WorkerJ, A ~Yeekly Offlcial Organ of COPWE, January 1980-January 1984.

Sunday News (Dar-es-Salaam), January 10, 1982.

T1me, Septernber 24, 1984.

Yezare1 tu l tyopya [Modern Eth1opla], Tlklmt 2 , 1967 [October 12, 1974J.

0,

150 -

APPENDIX l

THE ETHIOPIC "GE 1 EZ" ALPHABETIC CHART WITH ENGLISH TRANSLITERATION OF CONSONANTS, VOWELS AND DIPHTHONGS

Consonants 'T'he romplete A1phahetic Chart with the Seven Vowe1s

fI-h. T1-kh a i é u a e 0 - - - - - ..... ,,-1 CIJ-w U' 0- 'J. ~ ~ Il tr ",.-/:1 o-·'a il ft- Il. " Il. lA tr-

nt m- th.. -" th. ih rr lIO_m JI-z (ID 1ID- O? lIfJ DIl. cr 'l" IP-S 'tr-l

lP ",. ut. .., tif. JP Y' l. or t t. t- e t!

I.-·r f-y ,ft il- l'l. la (\ il tl c'I_s ~-d

.,. ri! ct ? ~ ~ rf 0- cr fi. 1} 0. '" (1

7"-~ 1:-j 'f ~ -t ;Jo of; ". ",.

.~ ".,. 1 ;) "'-q "l-g

.~ j .1 .. ... .)

~ ~ ~ c.' ~ '} li n-b cn-t h l" }',.. ',", 1 •. h ).

Il h, h. il h. n c tt ·,,-t tUr-~ en dJ. 'f <p 'i! ur pl

f-~ to-J.1 0 o· 01., :\ ob () P

" II- li. li 11 ,., "1-0 1.-~ r f. ~ (' fa f.,. r-

1. .~. .Pt.. e . 1: f· "_Il o-~ J; .0

"1 .,. 1.. ,;J 7, al 1 ")'-0 t.-f ln ,m' m. flJ m. '1' (Tl

h ' . fi. ,P,. P.. ~ A. * 7--a 1"-~ 0" 1. ~ ~ ~ x. ~ ~

h-k ('J 0' t ? 'l (J l' J, <f- t.. i. 6 .. if! 6: T T- 1; ;r 7: T T

Diphthonqs trot"!: The flrst alphabet "h 11 (whicl-) is a ëë"ëiSonan t.) is pronouncefl wi t:, the vowe ls as

c~. llwa flha", "hu", "hi" , "ha" , "hé", "he" , "ho" ,,5

~ hw.ï shown in the complete alphahetic chart. AlI the other consonants also follow the

\to kwa same pa ttern.

1" gwa

/

- PSI

APPENDIX II

~ 1 THE ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURES OP THE DEPAR'l'HENTS OF

ADUt.T EDUCATION IN TANZANIA AND r.:THIOPIA

A. TANZANIA

IAdUlt E~ucation DIVISlonl

~e NatIonal Literacy Center (~wanza)

Book Pronuction Home Eçonomlcs Rural ConstructIon

Ru.r:al Libraries RadIO Erlucatlon

AqrIculture ~ Rural ~Je""spapers~ Pr~ntlnq

EvaluatIon [. Research

B. ETHIOPIA

loepartrnent of "clul!: [. LIt. EctucatIonl

1 'l'nunIne 1

Sect Inr 1

i Pegearcr.. t"1r'oararnr"le 1 rrnpl'n [. Eval'n DIV.

f-Researcr [. ['nc,lrn'n Panel I-fval' '1 [. Sup' r Panel f-Rural Plan'a [. ?roq'q

Panel ~l'rha'1 Pla"]',.,. [. Prog'q

Panel

1 1

l~d~lnlstrat~vel 1 ServIce

1 1

'1Istance EèucatIo~ 1 DIVISIon 1

I-Peglst' n [. Recorrls Panel I-Course DevelopPlent Panel I-'I'utorial Panel I-RadIo" 'l'.\,. Panel -GuIdance [. Coùnseillna

Panel

1

1

CurrlculuJTl l'evelorment [. ~ateriai Pr:ep. DIVISIon

I-Agnculture Ed. Panel f-Health & Fam. LIVIng Panel I-Cooperative Ed. Panel -CIVIC Ed. Panel -Cat! taqe Cd. Pane 1 L~ter~cy & Numeracy Panel

Sources: Department of !'>.<1ult .. Literacy EducatIon, A,lclls Abaha, FthlOpla, Dec. 1983; Adult EducatIon DIVISIon, Dar-es-Salaam, January 1984 •

•

- l 52 -

APPENDIX III

THE FIRST LESSON IN THE TANZANIAN PRIMER FOR COTTON GROWING WITH TRANSLATION IN ENGLISH

Pamba b

SOMO LA 1a

Pamba Pamba

ni mali d

huleta pesa e

/pamba f 1 pesa9 pesah

"1 pambai

ANDIKA: j

pamba k pesa l

English Translation of Swahili Pords and Phrases

a) Lesson l g) r10ney b) Cotton h) rl\oney c) Money i) _Cotton c'l ) çotton lS wealth J ) Urite e) Cotton hrings rnoney k) Cotton f) Cotton 1 ) ~10 ney

J

- 1

.-

- 153 -

APPENDIX IV

PASSAGE FROM THE ETHIOPIAN PRIMER FOR HEALTH AND FAMILY LIVING WITH ENGLISH T~S~TION

f4l~ oDlJ'l~! flf.111 h1-'LmC'?'1 h'J.!Lf~J} 1l0lJY: ldJ ~tJ..1 O:rhhA flODlJ'l.lty ODcpC.mlj:Cj "1fl-tilnA ~~:: nûDbQ,L7f~ 01.111 ODTL&tJ UD:rh-1 !Pft.;J1T filt..A;J!i\::

ODCf lJ' fi/,." l\OlfW~:'" n~~ OOTI..'Lf {lDm4'~ il?'} 11(1 (Lml."] flÎttt:C; flirttt:16l2. fDll..1f)~1 Îl!lt. !VA h'}~! m:p h01J~I.'r~ Oil.e ~t"J~'} ~«p1ltA :: l1"..~t11Jt~ Oh 6f!>C OD-Tl1..,f l\.~Lll flfl! ~:rAn:r1 f1;t- 1l,} F-ffJt. foor:"'/l l&T n~"h- fltryb~:r f,m~cryA :: IF'i9° i16fJ-C 00'1'1.1.19" h,9.t. ffl ~~ ll:rœ-'}C; fil I.t-r ~c ! fll1:f~~ 00 Y-. Cf..tf9'"':f-h 1~ .. Lr~ il t\;J9'-:f1 l\1PJ &'1&,7 l\.m:"9"" f,Tf\l:\ ::

liA ca re Eu l tr imrni ng of the edqes of your braor71 he Ips to sweep the f loor ef f iClf~nt ly. Bes ldes, us l ng a long braom has .'l

variety Qf acivi'\~taqes. In arr'l i tian to keernnq the t111st on VOllr flaar from qettin'J lnhale(] thrauah th'e mouth and nase,' the use of t'-Le 10na rraOfT1 sa 'Jes .=t la t a f e nerav. ~Ioreove r, USlnq a lQnq hraam he1rs ln cleanlno the celllng and other SJ:lots ·"hler can't he rPêlcrer'l otrlerwlse. q(l,vever, pvpn short sweepers r::an he Ilse,l for ,~lertnlnq ,iustv cornees, shel'.'es 'H1,i

"lrtv snnts un,1 pr tl,p rpr'1."