Lit review

SODIUM BICARBONATE: A ROLE IN COLLEGIATE SWIMMING 1

Sodium Bicarbonate: A Role in Collegiate Swimming

Allison Kliewer

University of the Incarnate Word

November 20, 2012


Introduction

Competitive athletes compete and train to the best of their abilities. They have to be

able to perform in any condition and at their best in order to excel in a sport. Athletes trying to

achieve at the highest level of competition often use ergogenic aids such as creatine, caffeine,

and ephedrine to enhance sport performance. An ergogenic aid is defined as “any means of

enhancing energy utilization, including energy production, control, and efficiency” (Silver,

2001). Albeit limited, the use of ergogenic aids has been increasing in the collegiate athlete

population (Dascombe et al, 2010).

Athletes have been using special foods to enhance physical performance for many

years. In 500 BC athletes would eat the liver of a deer or the heart of a lion in beliefs that the

foods would provide speed and courage needed for victory in sport or battle (Rosenbloom and

Rosbruck, 2008). Today many dietary supplements are available for athletes but the fact

remains that very few improve performance, however, sport nutrition and weight loss

supplements are over the $18 billion dollar mark in sales (Rosenbloom and Rosbruck, 2008).

Health claims of dietary supplements are regulated by the Dietary Supplements and Health

Education Act of 1994 (DSHEA). The DSHEA prohibits claims that diagnose, mitigate, treat, cure

or prevent specific disease or medical conditions, but allows drug manufactures to make health

claims related to body structure and function (ADA, 2009). Claims for enhanced performance

can be made, whether valid or not, without demonstrated safety and efficacy of a product

(ADA, 2009).


To understand the full nature of ergogenic use by collegiate athletes, knowledge of

nutrition, supplements and performance, motivation for use, environmental influences,

attitude and efficacy need to be determined.

Use of Ergogenic Aids

The use of performance enhancing substance unfortunately begins at an early age, as

seen the Goulet et study, 2010, that showed one out of four young athletes use performance

enhancing supplements. A retrospective survey of self-reported use of performance enhancing

substances in young athletes found that 25% of the 3527 athletes took one or more of 15

prohibited or restricted substances banned by the International Olympic Committee (IOC). The

survey was sent to civic and school sport programs across Quebec. The mean age was 15 years.

Goulet et at found a significant relationship associated with use of supplement behavior,

athletic level, and subjective norms (2010). If the athlete believed supplementation would

increase the chances to compete on a level playing field with opponents or make an elite team,

the use of supplementation increased. Cost and effectiveness had a moderate influence on the

athlete’s intention to use supplements. Coaches, physicians, teammates and friends can have a

significant influence of intention to use or abstain from using supplements. Moral obligation

was the most significant influence for athletes not to take supplements. Athletic attitude was

found not to be the sole factor, rather the athletes psychosocial environment measured by

factors such as subjective norms and facilitating factors have significant impact on the decision

to use supplements (Goulet et al, 2010).

Nutritional knowledge of Collegiate Athletes


Although athletes are familiar with the use of supplements, many lack basic nutrition

knowledge. Based on a true or false nutrition questionnaire, Ozdogan, Y. and Ozcelik, A. (2011),

found of the 343 participants receiving sports education at a university level, neither athletes

nor coaches were found to have sufficient nutrition knowledge. The results are similar to the

findings of Torres-McGhee et al, who conducted a cross-sectional study on division I, II, and III

institutions across the United States surveying nutritional knowledge of athletes, coaches,

athletic trainers, and strength and conditioning specialists (2012). A questionnaire of 20 items

based on nutritional resources, basic nutrition, supplements and performance, weight

management, and hydration was sent to various institutions via email. Adequate sports

nutrition knowledge was defined as an overall score of 75% out of a possible 100% in all

domains. Total response rate was 38% of the 100 National Collegiate Athletic Association

(NCAA) institutions recruited; subjects consisted of 185 athletes, 131 coaches, 192 athletic

trainers, and 71 strength and conditioning specialists. The average score of basic nutrition

knowledge was 68.5%. Only 35.9% of coaches and 9% of athletes received an adequate score.

Therefore, it is shown that both coaches and athletes have an inadequate base knowledge of

nutrition. Athletes and coaches also had the lowest scores in the knowledge for supplements

and performance domain.

Athlete’s Attitude/Beliefs/Influences on Use of Ergogenic Aids

A study of use and perceptions of nutrition and supplements was conducted by

Karabudak and Ercumen on elite water sport athletes who competed at national, international

and Olympic levels within Europe (2011). Results show that 72% of athletes take supplements,


and believe they are necessary to be successful in sport. The primary purpose for taking

supplements was to provide energy, maintain strength, maintain health, and restore nutrients.

The most commonly used supplements by swimmers were multivitamins, multivitamin with

minerals and creatine. The lack of congruence between the reasons and supplements used,

shows poor understanding of why the athletes take supplements. Fourty-one percent of the

athletes claimed an explanation for not seeking further information regarding a specific

supplement was that “the product must be safe since it is a commonly advice.” Results also

indicate that the belief of supplements as an unavoidable part of competition, and the pressure

to take dietary supplements is reflected in the high prevalence of use (Karabudak and Ercumen,

2011). Fifty-four percent of those who do not take supplements and 78% of those who do take

supplements felt well informed about nutrition and nutrition supplements, however, other

results showed that 53% of athletes had minimal or no knowledge about the supplements they

took, and only 36% of those who used supplements were aware of the possible contamination.

The authors conclude that athletes appear to take supplements with poor understanding of

why they take them (Karabudak and Ercumen, 2011).

Froiland et al, 2004, conducted a survey on 207 male and female division I athletes. The

survey was developed to determine an athlete’s definition of supplement, use and regularity of

supplements, source of information and recommendations regarding use and reasons for

choosing to use, supplemental frequency of use, personal explanation for use and how it

enhances performance or improve health, and demographics. Only 11% reported having never

used supplements and 34% accurately defined supplements by including a positive effect on

sport performance, strength, muscle, and recovery in their definition. Of those who used, 86%


took supplements for energy. Most information on supplements was obtained from either,

family, teammates, strength coach, athletic trainer, registered dietitian (RD), friend or coach.

The reasons for use were for health, strength and power, increased energy, and weight and

muscle gain. Thirty-three percent did not consider fluid and calorie replacement products as a

dietary supplement, and only 37% correctly identified the appropriate function of vitamins

while 30% thought vitamins provided energy. Therefore, it is evident that athletes do not have

a clear or complete understanding of what qualifies as a dietary supplement. It should be noted

the athletic department provided a RD specializing in sports nutrition at no charge to the

athletes. In this study advice given by staff clearly affected the choices of the athletes regarding

supplementation.

Recent master’s theses papers have examined the use of supplements in collegiate

athletes. Burgio, R., 2006, determined the nutritional knowledge base of student-athletes

attending California State University in Northridge (CSUN). Burgio found that CSUN athletes had

inadequate nutrition knowledge and 67% asked for improved sport performance education. Of

the CSUN athletes taking supplements, many lacked basic understanding of supplements and

their physiological impact. Burgio found that athletes believe that a higher intake of nutritional

supplementation is required in order to maximize recovery, improve training adaptations,

intensity and performance and/or avoid illness and maintain health, in agreement with

conclusions published by Froiland et al, 2004. Athlete’s reasons for use include physical demand

of their respective sport, teammates, coaches and parents. Based on the findings of Burgio in

2006, Rodriguez, D. developed a brochure on nutrition education to enhance athletic


performance as a master’s thesis, and found the brochure to be useful and highly valued by the

CSUN athletes with recommendations for more information regarding supplements (2012).

Hansen, T. (2010) and Lewis, M. (2012) conducted similar master’s theses papers as that

of Burgio in 2006. Hansen surveyed 147 division I female soccer players and found that this

population was most influenced by RDs and strength and conditioning coaches regarding

nutrition related knowledge (2010). Lewis surveyed 152 male and female division I athletes of

various sports with a 14 item questionnaire. Results showed that 51% of those that used

nutritional ergogenic aids, and 33% of those who did not, believed supplements are the most

effective way to build muscle and increase energy (2012). Of the 80% who used nutritional

ergogenic supplements, 90% reported an experienced benefit.

Caffeine is the most widely used ergogenic aid with elite competitors (Applegate, 1999).

The ergogenic dose is between 250 mg and 350 mg, or 3-13 mg per kg body weight, which can

sometimes result in restlessness, nervousness and insomnia (Ghaphery, 1995 and Applegate,

1999). Creatine is also a commonly used ergogenic aid. Athletes take the supplement of

approximately 20-25 g per day, for several days, to increases creatine levels in the muscle by 20

percent to delay fatigue and enhance performance (Applegate, 1999).

Sodium Bicarbonate as an Ergogenic Aid

Sodium bicarbonate (SB), more commonly known as baking soda, has been used for

years. As an ergogenic aid SB is reported to reduce the negative effects of acid build up in the

circulation. SB proponents claim that it increases endurance, shortens recovery time, and helps

increase intensity during exercise. In addition, claims by supplement shops and drug


manufacture’s include that taking SB will increase intensity with resistance training, help with

muscle recovery, and maximize physique and performance impact. There are no regulations

against the use of SB and it is not banned by the IOC or NCAA. However, there is conflicting

evidence in the literature that the supplement enhances performance, as the ergogenic effects

of SB have been demonstrated in some types of exercise and not others. There is limited

research on competitive collegiate swimmers even though many swimmers use it and many

coaches recommend using it (personal experience). Conclusive evidence is needed to

determine the role of SB on competitive swimmers (Edge, J., Bishop, D., and Goodman, C.

2006).

Mechanism of Sodium Bicarbonate

During high-intensity exercise the body is supplied energy via anaerobic glycolysis. The

by-product of anaerobic glycolysis is lactic acid which builds up within the muscle cell, inhibiting

energy production, and resulting in fatigue (Ghaphery, N. A. 1995). The buildup of lactic acid

eventually will leak out of the muscle cell into the blood (Ghaphery, N. A. 1995). Sodium

bicarbonate is used as a buffering agent in the extracellular environment to improve

performance during continuous short-term high intensity work. Increased extracellular

buffering capacity efficiently buffers diffused hydrogen ions and lactate. This helps to indirectly

maintain intracellular pH because SB cannot diffuse directly into the muscle cells and affect

intracellular pH (Ghaphery, N. A. 1995).

Preventing a decrease in blood pH via increased buffering capacity has been

hypothesized to provide a delay in fatigue and enhance performance. Fatigue is attributed to


lower pH values which inhibit muscular contraction by: inhibiting enzyme activity in key

metabolic pathways (glycolysis, citric acid cycle and electron transport oxidative

phosphorylation), inhibiting the release of calcium ions from the sarcoplasmic reticulum and

the binding of calcium ions to the protein troponin reducing the rate of cross bridge cycling. It

also impairs the rate of depolarization of the muscle membrane and propagation of the neural

impulse initiated at the motor end plate (Requena et al, 2005).

Intra and extracellular buffer systems act to reduce buildup of hydrogen ions by

preventing a large drop in pH during intense muscle contractions (Edge, J., Bishop, D., and

Goodman, C. 2006). Sodium bicarbonate ingestion acts as a buffering agent and is thought to

improve performance in short term anaerobic exercise by reducing the accumulation of

hydrogen ions in skeletal muscle, interstitium, and blood (Edge, J., Bishop, D., and Goodman, C.

2006). Sodium bicarbonate facilitates efflux of hydrogen ions and lactic acid from cells and

reportedly increases the rate of ATP production. (Raymer, G., Marsh, G., Kowalchuk, T., and

Thompson, R. 2004). Edge et al. found SB ingestion leads to a greater lactate threshold, mean

power, and short term endurance (2006).

Conclusions and Future Research

Based of the articles, sodium bicarbonate does benefit sport performance in high

intensity short exercises as well as longer moderate intensity exercise. The ergogenic effects are

moderate and do not dramatically improve performance, rather it helps athletes stay at a high

intensity for a longer period of time due to the muscle buffering capacity.


There have only been limited studies conducted with swimmer athletes, Zajac et al

(2009) and Lindh et al (2008), of small subject size and lack of female athletes that limit the

validity. Of the studies conducted on swimmers, none reported on the motivation behind taking

SB such as health claims, coach recommendations, influence of other athletes, perceived

effectiveness, perceived experienced benefit, reported gastrointestinal risk, source of

information about SB, knowledge of basic nutrition, knowledge of supplement use and sports,

frequency of ingestion, how much money the athlete spends on SB, reasons for further

research of SB or lack of by the athlete, perceived pressure to take SB, use with other

supplements, or personal explanation for reasons to take SB. As previously addressed, there is a

direct relationship between an athlete’s attitude/beliefs and the decision to use ergogenic aids.

Therefore, to fully understand the role SB plays on collegiate swimming, the above criteria need

to be evaluated in collegiate swimmers who currently or have previously taken SB.


References

Burigo, R. (2006). Development of nutritional information for the CSUN varsity athlete.

Unpublished Master’s Thesis.

Dascombe, B., Karunaratna, M., Cartoon, J., Fergie, B., & Goodman, C. (2010) Nutritional

supplementation habits and perceptions of elite athletes within a state-based sporting

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Edge, J., Bishop, D., & Goodman, C. (2006). Effects of chronic NaHCO ingestion during interval

training on changes to muscle buffer capacity, metabolism, and short-term endurance

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