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Transcript of Lipid
Introduction to Lipid
1
Biochemistry of Lipid & Membranes
Dr. Yogesh V. Ushir
16-07-2012
What are lipids?Lipids are chemically diverse groups of
compounds, the common and defining feature of which is their insolubility in water
Lipids are extracted from tissues with organic solvents such as ethyl ether, chloroform, and acetone.
Lipids are condensational product of alcohol and
and their derivatives216-07-2012
fatty acids
Fatty acidsFatty acids are carboxylic acids with
hydrocarbon chains ranging from 4-36 carbons long.
In some fatty acids, this chain is unbranched and fully saturated
In others, the chains can contain one or more double bonds
A few fatty acids contain 3 carbon rings, hydroxyl group, or methyl groups branches
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Nomenclature of fatty acids
Number of double bondPosition of double bond
Carbon chain length
18:3 (Δ 9, 12, 15) The most commonly occurring fatty acids have
even number of carbon atoms in an unbrached chain of 12-24 carbons
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Lipids are non-polar (hydrophobic) compounds, soluble in organic solvents.
Most membrane lipids are amphipathic, having a non-polar end and a polar end.
Fatty acids consist of a hydrocarbon chain with a carboxylic acid at one end.
A 16-C fatty acid: CH3(CH2)14-COO-
Non-polar polar
A 16-C fatty acid with one cis double bond between C atoms 9-10 may be represented as 16:1 cis 9.
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General pattern of double bondsThe most common position for double bonds are
Δ9, Δ12, and Δ15The double bonds of poly saturated fatty
acids are separated by methyl group: -CH=CH-CH2-CH=CH-
In almost all naturally occurring unsaturated fatty acids, the double bonds are cis configuration. eg. N-dodecanoic acid, n-eicosanoic acid
(in Arachis oil)
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Some fatty acids and their common names:14:0 myristic acid; 16:0 palmitic acid; 18:0 stearic acid; 18:1 cis9 oleic acid18:2 cis9,12 linoleic acid18:3 cis9,12,15 -linonenic acid 20:4 cis5,8,11,14 arachidonic acid20:5 cis5,8,11,14,17 eicosapentaenoic acid (an omega-3)
7
Double bonds in fatty acids usually have the cis configuration.
Most naturally occurring fatty acids have an even number of carbon atoms.
C
O
O 1
23
4
fatty acid with a cis-9 double bond
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There is free rotation about C-C bonds in the fatty acid hydrocarbon, except where there is a double bond.
Each cis double bond causes a kink in the chain.
Rotation about other C-C bonds would permit a more linear structure than shown, but there would be a kink.
8
C
O
O 1
23
4
fatty acid with a cis-9 double bond
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Classification of fatty acidsSaturated
Unsaturated
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Saturated fatty acidsRepresented by general formula CH3(CH2)nCOOH
The simplest is the acetic acid where n=0
Does not show double bond in structure
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Some of saturated fatty acids
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Saturated fatty acid
formula Number of C-atom
Acetic acid CH3COOH 0
Butyric acid CH3(CH2)2COOH 4
Caproic acid CH3(CH2)4COOH 6
Lauric acid CH3(CH2)10COOH 12
Myritic acid CH3(CH2)12COOH 14
Palmitic acid CH3(CH2)14COOH 16
Stearic acid CH3(CH2)16COOH 18
Arachidic acid CH3(CH2)18COOH 20
Lignoceric acid CH3(CH2)22COOH 24
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UnSaturated fatty acidsThey contain one or more double bondsSome of them are:
Palmitoleic acidOleic acidLinoleic acidArachidonic acidCyclic fatty acidsProstaglandins
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Physical properties of Fatty acidsThe physical properties of fatty acids are
largely determined by the length and degree of unsaturation of the hydrocarbon chain
The longer the chain and fewer the double bonds, the lower is the solubility in water, and higher the melting point
The lower fatty acid are liquid and higher fatty acids are solid at room temperature
Most of the fatty acids lighter than water
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Chemical properties of Fatty acidsFormation of esters with alcoholsFormation of soaps with alkalies
RCOOH + NaOH ---------------- RCOONa + H2ODetergents
Due to double bond of unsaturated fatty acidsHydrogenationHalogenationOxidation at double bond
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Classification of LipidsBased on their biological functions, lipids can
be classified into:Storage Lipid --- Principle stored form of
energy
Structural Lipids --- The major structural elements of biological membranes
Lipids as signals, cofactors, and pigments
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Storage LipidsStorage lipids include fats and oils, and wax
Fats & oils are composed of three fatty acids each in ester linkage with a single glycerol (Triglycerols)
Waxes are ester of long-chain (C14-C36) saturated and unsaturated fatty acids with long-chain (C16-C30) alcohols
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Lipid as Structural Elements Membrane Lipids
PhospholipidsGlycerophospholipidsSpingolipids
GlycolipidsSpingolipidsGalactolipids/Sulpholipids
Archaebacterial ether lipids
Sterols1716-07-2012
Lipids as Signals, Cofactors, and Pigments
Some lipids, presents in very small amount, have active role in the metabolic traffic as metabolites & messengers. They serve the following functions:As signal molecules
As enzyme cofactors
As pigments
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Based on their chemical structure, lipids can be classified into:Simple Lipid --- Esters of fatty acids with alcohol
Fats & oils waxes
Complex Lipids --- esters of fatty acids with alcohols containing additional groups as, Po4, nitrogenous bases, carbohydrates, proteins etc
Phospholipids Glycerophospholipids Glycolipids Sphingophospholipids Lipoproteins Sulpholipids, aminolipids,
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Derived Lipids Lipid (fat) soluble vitamins Steroid hormones Ketone bodies
Miscellaneous Lipids Carotenoids Squalene Terpenes
NEUTRAL LIPIDS triglycerides
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Simple Lipids
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A. Fats & oils : These are fatty acids esters of the trihydric
alcohol, glycerol.
Are also known as triglycerides or triacylglycerols (TAG)
Glycerols + Fatty Acids ------------- TAG
Most of occurring TAG’s are mixed, which contain 2 or more different fatty acids. TAGs are nonpolar, hydrophobic molecules, essentially insoluble in water
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Identification of Fats & OilsHydrolysisSaponificationSaponification
numberAcid numberIodine number
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Acetyl numberPolenske numberReichert-Miessl
numberHalogenation Rancidity
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B. WaxesWaxes are ester of long-chain (C14-C36)
saturated and unsaturated fatty acids with long-chain (C16-C30) alcohols.
In human body commonest waxes are esters of cholesterol
Three types are;True waxes- esters of higher fatty acids with
acetyl alcohol or other higher straight chain alcohols
Cholesterol esters - are esters of fatty acids with cholesterol
Vit. A & D esters- are palmitic acid or stearic acid esters of vitamin A (Retinol) or vitamin D, respectively
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Functions of WaxChief storage fuels for some microorganisms
Protect skin and hair
Prevent excess water evaporation in plants
Protect against parasites
Application in industries, pharmaceuticals, and Cosmetics
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ExampleBEES WAX- palmitic acid ester of myricyl
alcohol (C30H61OH)
LANOLIN or WOOL FAT- palmitic, oileic or steric acid ester of cholesterol
SPERMACETI- palmitic acid ester of cetyl alcohol (C16H33OH). It is oil from head of whale
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Compound lipids
Most of complex lipids have structural function in cell
membraneGlycero-phospholipidsPhospholipidsSphingo-lipidsMembrane Glyco-lipidsGalacto-lipids/Sulfolipids
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27
STRCTURE OF CELL MEMBRANE
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A. Phospholipids (phosphatides) Are esters of fatty acids with glycerol
containing an esterified phosphoric acid and an nitrogen base
They are present in large amount in Nervous tissue, brain, liver, kidney, pancrease, and heart
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Functions of PhospholipidsThey increases the rate of fatty acid
oxidationThey act as carriers of inorganic ions across
the membranesThey helps blood clottingThey acts as prosthetic group for certain
enzymesThey forms the structures of membranes,
matrix of cell wall, myelin sheath, microsomes and mitochondria
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Phospholipids (Continu…)
These are lipids that contain one or more phosphate groups
PL are the primary components of biomembranes. Other lipids in biomembranes are glycolipids and cholesterol. Surfactants are phopsholipids, mostly phosphatidylcholine
PL are subclassifiedbased on their parent lipid; phopshoglycerides or sphingomyelins
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PL are subclassifiedbased on their alcohol present in the phospholipidGlycerophosphatides- glycerol is alcohol gr.
phosphatidylserine; phosphatidylcholine (Lecithins); phosphatidy lethanolamine (Cephalin); Diphosphatidylglycerol(cardiolipin)
Phosphoinositides- inisitol is alcohol gr. phosphatidylinositol;
Phosphospingosides- sphingosine is an amino alcohol Sphingomyelins;
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Glycerophospholipids Are Derivatives of Phosphatidic Acid
Glycerophospholipidis named for the head group with the prefix “phosphatidyl-.”
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Glycerophospholipids
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Di-Phosphotidyl glycerolIt is important intermediate form in the
synthesis of TAG’s and PLAnother name is Cardiolipin
Form from Phosphotidyl glycerol Chemically di Phosphotidyl glycerol Present in inner membrane of bacterial wall and
mitochondria
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Phosphatidylcholine Lecithins
Contains glycerols and saturated fatty acids, phosphoric acid and choline (N-base)
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Spingolipids
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Sphingosine is a derivative of glycerol but it has –NH2 instead of -OH at C2 and has a -OH as well as a long chain hydrocarbon on C3
The –NH2 forms an amide bond with a long chain FA to form a ceramide.
Sphigomyelin is formed when a phosphodiester bridge links the C1 -OH of ceramide to ethanolamine or choline
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SpingomyelinsFound large quantities in brain & nervous
tissueThe concentration of this PL are increased
in liver and Spleen; due to metabolic defect called Niemann-Pick’s Disease
Consist sphingol (complex amino alcohol), fatty acids, choline and phosphoric acid
No glycerol is presentSphingomyelins are present in the plasma
membrane of animal cells, especially in myelin, a membrane sheath that insulate the axons of some neurons
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B. Glycolipids
39
Contain an amino acid alcohol (Spingosine or iso-spingosine) attached with an amide linkage to a fatty acids and glycosidically to a carbohydrate moiety
Glycolipids are lipids that contain carbohydrates
Two types Cerebrosides Gangliosides
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Cerebrosides have a monosaccharide attached to the C1 -OH of ceramide
Gangliosides have an oligosaccharide attached to theC1 -OH of ceramide
Cerebrosides are found in the brain and Spinal Chord. Chief constituent of myelin sheath
Gangliosides are found in the ganglions of brain
In biomembranes, glycolipids are orientedasymmetrically with the sugar units always on theextracellular side of the membrane
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Other compound lipidsLipoproteins
TAG’s (45%) + PL (35%) + Cholesterols + Cholesterly esters (15%) + FFA (< 5%) and also protein combine to form a hydrophillic lipoprotein complex
4 major gr of LP are identified which are important physiologically & in clinical diagnostic in some metabolic disorders; Chylomicrons VLDL (pre- β-LP) LDL (β-LP) HDL (α-LP)
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AminolipidsPhophatidyl ethanolamine & serine are
aminolipidsSulpholipids
SulphatidesIsolated from brain and other animal tissuesSulfolipids have a sulfonated glucose residue
joined to a diacylglycerol in glycosidic linkage. Theyalso exist predominantly in chloroplasts.
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Derived lipidsThe derived from the simple lipid &
compound lipid hence the name given.
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SteroidsSterols: Cholesterol, Ergosterol, coprosterolBile acids : Glycocholic acid, taurocholic
acidSex harmones: testosterone, estradiolAdrenal cortical hormones: corticosteroneVit. D: Vit. D2 & D3 Cardiac glycosides: strophanthinSaponins: Digitonin
Are the some important derived lipids
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Chemical reactions for derived lipidsSalkowski reaction
Sterol gives red color at the bottom of the test tube when treated with conc. Sulphuric acid
Lieberman-Burchard reaction Sterol gives rose-red color when chloroform
layer treated with acetic anhydride & conc. Sulphuric acid, which rapidely changes to blue & finally green
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CholesterolOne of the important derived lipid
Meaning solid alcohol from bile
Sources- diet: only found in animal fat brain, nervous tissues, adrenal
glands & egg yolk are rich sources
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biosynthesis and degradationbiosynthesis: primarily synthesized in
the liver from acetyl-coA; biosynthesis is inhibited by LDL uptake
degradation: only occurs in the liver
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Properties of cholesterolThe double bond can be saturated by addition
of hydrogen to form the dihydroderivative, it can also be halogenated
The 3 position OH group can be esterified with fatty acids to form cholesterol esters; three fourths of cholesterol of plasma exists as ester
Lanoline the cholesterol ester already studies as under WAXES
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CH3
CH3
H
OH
H3C
HH
hydrophillic
hydrophobic
OR
O
usually palmitate
drawn this way
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Cholesterol and cholesterol esters
HO
HH
Functions: -serves as a component of membranes of cells (increases or
moderates membrane fluidity
-precursor to steroid hormones
-storage and transport – cholesterol esters16-07-2012 50
STEROID NUMBERING SYSTEM
A B
C D1
2
3
45
6
7
89
10
1112
13
14 15
16
1718
19
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Cholesterol is largely hydrophobic.
But it has one polar group, a hydroxyl, making it amphipathic.
C holestero lHO
52
Cholesterol, an important constituent of cell membranes, has a rigid ring system and a short branched hydrocarbon tail.
cholesterol
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Cholesterolin membrane
Cholesterol inserts into bilayer membranes with its hydroxyl group oriented toward the aqueous phase & its hydrophobic ring system adjacent to fatty acid chains of phospholipids.
The OH group of cholesterol forms hydrogen bonds with polar phospholipid head groups.
53
C holestero lHO
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But the presence of cholesterol in a phospholipid membrane interferes with close packing of fatty acid tails in the crystalline state, and thus inhibits transition to the crystal state.
Phospholipid membranes with a high concentration of cholesterol have a fluidity intermediate between the liquid crystal and crystal states.
54
Interaction with the relatively rigid cholesterol decreases the mobility of hydrocarbon tails of phospholipids.
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Functions of cholesterolserves as a component of membranes of
cells (increases or moderates membrane fluidity)
precursor to steroid hormones and bile acids
storage and transport –cholesterol esters
Cholesterolin membrane
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Photograph of an arterial plaque
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Prostaglandins and other eicosanoids (prostanoids)local hormones, unstable, key mediators of
inflammationderivatives of prostanoic acid
COOH
20
8
12
prostanoic acid
9
1115
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O R
O
O
OP
O
O
O-
X
O
COOH
CH3
phospholipase A 2 (enzyme that hydrolyzesat the sn-2 position - inhibitedindirectly by corticosteroids)
H20
prostaglandin synthase(also known as cyclooxygenase)
O
O
COOH
OH
very unstablebond
PGH2
COX is inhibibited byaspirin and other NSAIDs
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O
O
COOH
OH
PGH2
COOH
OH
O
HO
COOH
OHHO
HO
PGE2 PGF2
key mediator of inflammation
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O
R1
R2
O
R1
R2
PGA PGB
O
R1
R2
PGC
R1
R2
HO
OPGD
R1
R2
O
HO
R1
R2
HO
HO
R1
R2
O
O
PGE PGFa PGG and PGHR2
HO
O
R1
R1
R2
O
PGJ
R1
R2
O
O
PGK
PGI
O
O
R1
R2 O
R1
R2HO
OH
TXA TXB
SUBSTITUTION PATTERN OF PROSTANOIDS16-07-2012 61
Prostacyclins, thromboxanes and leukotrienesPGH2 in platelets is converted to
thromboxane A2 (TXA2) a vasoconstrictor which also promotes platelet aggregation
PGH2 in vascular endothelial cells is converted to PGI2, a vasodilator which inhibits platelet aggregation
Aspirin’s irreversible inhibition of platelet COX leads to its anticoagulant effect
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Functions of eicosanoidsProstaglandins – particularly PGE1 – block
gastric production and thus are gastric protection agents
Misoprostol (Cytotec) is a stable PGE1
analog that is used to prevent ulceration by long term NSAID treatment
PGE1 also has vasodilator effectsAlprostadil (PGE1) – used to treat infants with
congenital heart defectsAlso used in impotance (Muse)
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Functions of eicosanoidsPGF2 – causes constriction of the uterus
Carboprost; “Hebamate” (15-Me-PGF2) – induces abortions
PGE2 is applied locally to help induce labor at term
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Examples of drugs derived from prostaglandins
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Terpenessimple lipids, but lack fatty acid componentformed by the combination of 2 or more
molecules of 2-methyl-1,3-butadiene (isoprene)
monoterpene (C-10) – made up of 2 isoprene units
sesquiterpene (C-15) – made up of 3 isoprene units
diterpene (C-20) – made up of 4 isoprene units
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limonene
CHO
citronellal
OH
menthol camphene
Monoterpenes are readily recognized by their characterisitic flavors and odors ( limonene in lemons, citronellal in roses and geraniums, pinene in turpentine and menthol from peppermint)
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bisabolene
HO
eudesmol
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CH2OH
HO
H
H
OH
COOHC
O
CH3
O
phytol gibberelic acid
CH3CH3
H3C
CH3
CH3
O
H
All-trans-retinal
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Triterpenes are C-30 compounds are addition products of 2 sesquiterpenes;
Both squalene and lanosterol are precursors of cholesterol and other steroids
HO
H
squalene lanosterol
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Other terpenestetraterpenes (C-40) are not as common as
mono, di, and triterpenesinclude the carotenoids such as beta-carotene
(precursor of vitamin A) and lycopene found in tomatoes
usually colorful compounds due to highly conjugated system
polyisoprenoids or polyprenols consist of numerous isoprene adducts (8 – 22) examples include dolichol phosphate,
undecaprenyl alcohol (bactoprenol) and the side chains of vitamins K, vitamin E and coenzyme Q
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16-07-2012 72Thank You