Linux(pronouncedi/lnks/lin-uks[4][5]or, less frequently,/lanks/lyn-uks[5][6]) is aUnix-likeand mostlyPOSIX-compliant[7]computeroperating systemassembled under the model offree and open-source softwaredevelopment and distribution. The defining component of Linux is theLinux kernel,[8]anoperating system kernelfirst released on 5 October 1991 byLinus Torvalds.[9][10]TheFree Software Foundationuses the nameGNU/Linuxto describe the operating system, which has led to somecontroversy.[11][12]Linux was originally developed as a free operating system forIntel x86based personal computers, but has since beenportedto more computer hardware platforms than any other operating system.[citation needed]It is the leading operating system onserversand otherbig ironsystems such asmainframe computersandsupercomputers,[13][14][15]but is used on only around 1.5% ofdesktop computers.[16]Linux also runs onembedded systems, which are devices whose operating system is typically built into thefirmwareand is highly tailored to the system; this includes mobile phones,[17]tablet computers, networkrouters, facility automation controls, televisions[18][19]andvideo game consoles.Android, themost widely used operating systemfor tablets and smartphones, is built on top of the Linux kernel.[20]The development of Linux is one of the most prominent examples offree and open-source softwarecollaboration. The underlyingsource codemay be used, modified, and distributedcommercially or non-commerciallyby anyone under licenses such as theGNU General Public License. Typically, Linux ispackagedin a form known as aLinux distribution, for both desktop and server use. Some popular mainstream Linux distributions includeDebian,Ubuntu,Linux Mint,Fedora,openSUSE,Arch Linux, and the commercialRed Hat Enterprise LinuxandSUSE Linux Enterprise Server. Linux distributions include the Linux kernel, supportingutilitiesandlibrariesand usually a large amount of application software to fulfill the distribution's intended use.Distributionsoriented toward desktop usetypically includeX11, aWaylandimplementation orMiras thewindowing system, and an accompanyingdesktop environmentsuch asGNOMEor theKDE Software Compilation. Some of such distributions may include a less resource intensive desktop such asLXDEorXfce, for use on older or less powerful computers. Distributions intended to run on servers may omit all graphical environments from the standard install, and instead include other software to set up and operate asolution stacksuch asLAMP. Because Linux is freely redistributable, anyone may create a distribution for any intended use.Contents[hide] 1History 1.1Antecedents 1.2Creation 1.3Naming 1.4Commercial and popular uptake 1.5Current development 2Design 2.1User interface 2.2Video input infrastructure 3Development 3.1Community 3.2Programming on Linux 4Hardware support 5Uses 5.1Desktop 5.1.1Performance and applications 5.1.2Components and installation 5.2Netbooks 5.3Servers, mainframes and supercomputers 5.4Smart devices 5.5Embedded devices 5.6Gaming 5.7Specialized uses 5.7.1Home theater PC 5.7.2Digital security 5.7.3System rescue 5.7.4In space 5.7.5Teaching 6Market share and uptake 7Copyright, trademark, and naming 8See also 9Notes 10References 11External linksHistory[edit]Main article:History of LinuxAntecedents[edit]

Linus Torvalds, principal author of theLinux kernelTheUnixoperating system was conceived and implemented in 1969 atAT&T'sBell Laboratoriesin the United States byKen Thompson,Dennis Ritchie,Douglas McIlroy, andJoe Ossanna.[21]First released in 1971, Unix was written entirely inassembly languageas it was common practice at the time. Later, in a key pioneering approach in 1973, it was rewritten in theCprogramming language byDennis Ritchie(with exceptions to the kernel and I/O). The availability of ahigh-level languageimplementation of Unix made itsportingto different computer platforms easier.Due to an earlierantitrust caseforbidding it from entering the computer business, AT&T was required to license the operating system's source code to anyone who asked.[22]As a result, Unix grew quickly and became widely adopted by academic institutions and businesses. In 1984, AT&T divested itself of Bell Labs; freed of the legal obligation requiring free licensing, Bell Labs began selling Unix as aproprietaryproduct.TheGNU Project, started in 1983 byRichard Stallman, had the goal of creating a "complete Unix-compatible software system" composed entirely offree software. Work began in 1984.[23]Later, in 1985, Stallman started theFree Software Foundationand wrote theGNU General Public License(GNU GPL) in 1989. By the early 1990s, many of the programs required in an operating system (such as libraries,compilers,text editors, aUnix shell, and awindowing system) were completed, although low-level elements such asdevice drivers,daemons, and thekernelwere stalled and incomplete.[24]Linus Torvalds has said that if theGNU kernelhad been available at the time (1991), he would not have decided to write his own.[25]Although not released until 1992 due tolegal complications, development of386BSD, from whichNetBSD,OpenBSDandFreeBSDdescended, predated that of Linux. Linus Torvalds has said that if 386BSD had been available at the time, he probably would not have created Linux.[26]MINIX, initially released in 1987, is an inexpensive minimalUnix-likeoperating system, designed for education in computer science, written byAndrew S. Tanenbaum. Starting withversion 3in 2005, MINIX becamefreeand was redesigned for use inembedded systems.Creation[edit]In 1991, while attending theUniversity of Helsinki, Torvalds became curious about operating systems[27]and frustrated by the licensing of MINIX, which limited it to educational use only. He began to work on his own operating system kernel, which eventually became theLinux kernel.Torvalds began the development of the Linux kernel on MINIX and applications written for MINIX were also used on Linux. Later, Linux matured and further Linux kernel development took place on Linux systems.[28]GNU applications also replaced all MINIX components, because it was advantageous to use the freely available code from the GNU Project with the fledgling operating system; code licensed under the GNU GPL can be reused in other projects as long as they also are released under the same or a compatible license. Torvalds initiated a switch from his original license, which prohibited commercial redistribution, to the GNU GPL.[29]Developers worked to integrate GNU components with the Linux kernel, making a fully functional and free operating system.[24]Naming[edit]

5.25-inchfloppy discsholding a very early version of LinuxLinus Torvalds had wanted to call his inventionFreax, aportmanteauof "free", "freak", and "x" (as an allusion to Unix). During the start of his work on the system, he stored the files under the name "Freax" for about half of a year. Torvalds had already considered the name "Linux," but initially dismissed it as too egotistical.[30]In order to facilitate development, the files were uploaded to theFTP server(ftp.funet.fi) ofFUNETin September 1991.Ari Lemmke, Torvald's coworker at theHelsinki University of Technology(HUT) who was one of the volunteer administrators for the FTP server at the time, did not think that "Freax" was a good name. So, he named the project "Linux" on the server without consulting Torvalds.[30]Later, however, Torvalds consented to "Linux".To demonstrate how the word "Linux" should be pronounced (i/lnks/lin-uks[4][5]), Torvalds included an audio guide (listen(helpinfo)) with the kernel source code.[31]Another variant of pronunciation is/lanks/lyn-uks.[5][6]Commercial and popular uptake[edit]

Ubuntu, a popular Linux distributionMain article:Linux adoption

TheGalaxy NexusrunningAndroidAdoption of Linux in production environments, rather than being used only by hobbyists, started to take off first in the mid-1990s in the supercomputing community, where organizations such asNASAstarted to replace their increasingly expensive machines withclustersof inexpensive commodity computers running Linux. Commercial use followed whenDellandIBM, followed byHewlett-Packard, started offering Linux support to escapeMicrosoft's monopoly in the desktop operating system market.[32]Today, Linux systems are used in every domain, fromembedded systemstosupercomputers,[15][33]and have secured a place inserverinstallations often using the popularLAMPapplication stack.[34]Use of Linux distributions in home and enterprise desktops has been growing.[35][36][37][38][39][40][41]Linux distributions have also become popular in thenetbookmarket, with many devices shipping with customized Linux distributions installed, and Google releasing their ownGoogle Chrome OSdesigned for netbooks.Linux's greatest success in the consumer market is perhaps the mobile device market, withAndroidbeing one of the most prominent OSes amongsmartphones,tabletsand recentlywearable technology. Linux gaming is also on the rise withValveshowing its support for Linux and rolling out its own gaming oriented Linux distribution. Linux distributions have also gained popularity with various local and national governments, such as the federal government of Brazil.[42]Current development[edit]Torvalds continues to direct the development of the kernel.[43]Stallman heads the Free Software Foundation,[44]which in turn supports the GNU components.[45]Finally, individuals and corporations develop third-party non-GNU components. These third-party components comprise a vast body of work and may include both kernel modules and user applications and libraries.Linux vendors and communities combine and distribute the kernel, GNU components, and non-GNU components, with additionalpackage managementsoftware in the form ofLinux distributions.Design[edit]A Linux-based system is a modularUnix-likeoperating system. It derives much of its basic design from principles established in Unix during the 1970s and 1980s. Such a system uses amonolithic kernel, theLinux kernel, which handles process control, networking, andperipheralandfile systemaccess.Device driversare either integrated directly with the kernel or added as modules loaded while the system is running.[46]Separate projects that interface with the kernel provide much of the system's higher-level functionality. The GNUuserlandis an important part of most Linux-based systems, providing the most common implementation of theC library, a popularCLIshell, and many of the commonUnix toolswhich carry out many basic operating system tasks. Thegraphical user interface(or GUI) used by most Linux systems is built on top of an implementation of theX Window System.[47]More recently, the Linux community seeks to advance toWaylandas the new display server protocol in place ofX11; Ubuntu, however, developsMirinstead of Wayland.[48]Various layers within Linux, also showing separation between theuserlandandkernel space

User modeUser applicationsFor example,bash,LibreOffice,Apache OpenOffice,Blender,0 A.D.,Mozilla Firefox, etc.

Low-level system components:Systemdaemons:systemd,runit, logind, networkd,soundd...Windowing system:X11,Wayland,Mir,SurfaceFlinger(Android)Other libraries:GTK+,Qt,EFL,SDL,SFML,FLTK,GNUstep, etc.Graphics:Mesa 3D,AMD Catalyst, ...

C standard libraryopen(),exec(),sbrk(),socket(),fopen(),calloc(), ... (up to 2000subroutines)glibcaims to bePOSIX/SUS-compatible,uClibctargets embedded systems,bionicwritten forAndroid, etc.

Kernel modeLinux kernelstat,splice,dup,read,open,ioctl,write,mmap,close,exit, etc. (about 380 system calls)The Linux kernelSystem Call Interface(SCI, aims to bePOSIX/SUS-compatible)

Process schedulingsubsystemIPCsubsystemMemory managementsubsystemVirtual filessubsystemNetworksubsystem

Other components:ALSA,DRI,evdev,LVM,device mapper,Linux Network Scheduler,NetfilterLinux Security Modules:SELinux,TOMOYO,AppArmor,Smack

Hardware (CPU,main memory,data storage devices, etc.)

Installed components of a Linux system include the following:[47][49] Abootloader, for exampleGNU GRUB,LILO,SYSLINUX,CorebootorGummiboot. This is a program that loads the Linux kernel into the computer'smain memory, by being executed by the computer when it is turned on and after thefirmwareinitialization is performed. Aninitprogram, such as the traditionalsysvinitand the newersystemd,OpenRCandUpstart. This is the firstprocesslaunched by the Linux kernel, and is at the root of the process tree: in other terms, all processes are launched through init. It starts processes such as system services and login prompts (whether graphical or in terminal mode). Software libraries, which contain code that can be used by running processes. On Linux systems usingELF-format executable files, thedynamic linkerthat manages use of dynamic libraries is known asld-linux.so. If the system is set up for the user to compile software themselves,header fileswill also be included to describe theinterfaceof installed libraries. Beside the most commonly used software library on Linux systems, theGNU C Library(glibc), there are numerous other libraries. C standard libraryis the library needed to run standardC programson a computer system, with the GNU C Library being the most commonly used. Several alternatives are available, such as theEGLIBC(which was used by Debian for some time) anduClibc(which was designed foruClinux). Widget toolkitsare the libraries used to buildgraphical user interfaces(GUIs) for software applications. Numerous widget toolkits are available, includingGTK+andClutter (software)developed by theGNOME project,Qtdeveloped by theQt Projectand led byDigia, andEnlightenment Foundation Libraries(EFL) developed primarily by theEnlightenmentteam. User interface programs such as command shells or windowing environments.User interface[edit]

Bash, ashelldeveloped byGNU[50]and widely used in LinuxTheuser interface, also known as theshell, is either acommand-line interface(CLI), agraphical user interface(GUI), or through controls attached to the associated hardware, which is common for embedded systems. For desktop systems, the default mode is usually a graphical user interface, although the CLI is available throughterminal emulatorwindows or on a separatevirtual console.CLIshells are the text-based user interfaces, which use text for both input and output. The dominant shell used in Linux is theGNU Bourne-Again Shell(bash), originally developed for theGNU project. Most low-level Linux components, including various parts of theuserland, use the CLI exclusively. The CLI is particularly suited for automation of repetitive or delayed tasks, and provides very simpleinter-process communication.On desktop systems, the most popular user interfaces are theGUI shells, packaged together with extensivedesktop environments, such as theK Desktop Environment (KDE),GNOME,Cinnamon,Unity,LXDE,PantheonandXfce, though a variety of additional user interfaces exist. Most popular user interfaces are based on theX Window System, often simply called "X". It providesnetwork transparencyand permits a graphical application running on one system to be displayed on another where a user may interact with the application; however, certain extensions of the X Window System are not capable of working over the network.[51]Several popular X display servers exist, with the reference implementation,X.Org Server, being the most popular.Differentwindow managersvariants exist for X11, including thetiling,dynamic,stackingandcompositingones. SimplerX window managers, such asFVWM,Enlightenment, andWindow Maker, provide aminimalistfunctionality with respect to the desktop environments. A window manager provides a means to control the placement and appearance of individual application windows, and interacts with the X Window System. The desktop environments include window managers as part of their standard installations (Mutterfor GNOME,KWinfor KDE,Xfwmfor xfce) although users may choose to use a different window manager if preferred.Wayland is a display server protocol intended as a replacement for the aged X11 protocol; as of 2014, Wayland has not received wider adoption. Unlike X11, Wayland does not need an external window manager and compositing manager. Therefore, a Wayland compositor takes the role of the display server, window manager and compositing manager. Weston is the reference implementation of Wayland, while GNOME's Mutter and KDE's KWin are being ported to Wayland as standalone display servers instead of merely compositing window managers. Enlightenment has already been successfully ported to Wayland since version 19.Video input infrastructure[edit]Main article:Video4LinuxLinux currently has two modern kernel-userspace APIs for handing video input devices:V4L2API for video streams and radio, andDVBAPI for digital TV reception.[52]Due to the complexity and diversity of different devices, and due to the large amount of formats and standards handled by those APIs, this infrastructure needs to evolve to better fit other devices. Also, a good userspace device library is the key of the success for having userspace applications to be able to work with all formats supported by those devices.[53][54]Development[edit]

Simplified history ofUnix-likeoperating systems. Linux shares similar architecture and concepts (as part of thePOSIXstandard) but does not share non-free source code with the originalUnixorMINIX.Main articles:Linux distributionandFree softwareThe primary difference between Linux and many other popular contemporary operating systems is that theLinux kerneland other components arefreeandopen-source software. Linux is not the only such operating system, although it is by far the most widely used.[55]Somefreeandopen-sourcesoftware licenses are based on the principle ofcopyleft, a kind of reciprocity: any work derived from a copyleft piece of software must also be copyleft itself. The most common free software license, theGNU General Public License(GPL), is a form of copyleft, and is used for the Linux kernel and many of the components from theGNU Project.Linux based distributions are intended by developers forinteroperabilitywith other operating systems and established computing standards. Linux systems adhere toPOSIX,[56]SUS,[57]LSB,ISO, andANSIstandards where possible, although to date only one Linux distribution has been POSIX.1 certified, Linux-FT.[58][59]Free software projects, although developed throughcollaboration, are often produced independently of each other. The fact that the software licenses explicitly permit redistribution, however, provides a basis for larger scale projects that collect the software produced by stand-alone projects and make it available all at once in the form of a Linux distribution.Many Linux distributions, or "distros", manage a remote collection of system software and application software packages available for download and installation through a network connection. This allows users to adapt the operating system to their specific needs. Distributions are maintained by individuals, loose-knit teams, volunteer organizations, and commercial entities. A distribution is responsible for the default configuration of the installed Linux kernel, general system security, and more generally integration of the different software packages into a coherent whole. Distributions typically use apackage managersuch asdpkg,Synaptic,YAST,yum, orPortageto install, remove and update all of a system's software from one central location.Community[edit]See also:Free software communityandLinux User GroupA distribution is largely driven by its developer and user communities. Some vendors develop and fund their distributions on a volunteer basis,Debianbeing a well-known example. Others maintain a community version of their commercial distributions, asRed Hatdoes withFedoraandSUSEdoes withopenSUSE.In many cities and regions, local associations known asLinux User Groups(LUGs) seek to promote their preferred distribution and by extension free software. They hold meetings and provide free demonstrations, training, technical support, and operating system installation to new users. Many Internet communities also provide support to Linux users and developers. Most distributions and free software / open-source projects haveIRCchatrooms ornewsgroups.Online forumsare another means for support, with notable examples beingLinuxQuestions.organd the various distribution specific support and community forums, such as ones forUbuntu,Fedora, andGentoo. Linux distributions hostmailing lists; commonly there will be a specific topic such as usage or development for a given list.There are several technology websites with a Linux focus. Print magazines on Linux often includecover disksincluding software or even complete Linux distributions.[60][61]Although Linux distributions are generally available without charge, several large corporations sell, support, and contribute to the development of the components of the system and offree software. An analysis of the Linux kernel showed 75 percent of the code from December 2008 to January 2010 was developed by programmers working for corporations, leaving about 18 percent to volunteers and 7% unclassified.[62]Major corporations that provide contributions includeDell,IBM,HP,Oracle,Sun Microsystems(now part of Oracle),SUSE, andNokia. A number of corporations, notablyRed Hat,Canonical, and SUSE, have built a significant business around Linux distributions.Thefree software licenses, on which the various software packages of a distribution built on the Linux kernel are based, explicitly accommodate and encourage commercialization; the relationship between a Linux distribution as a whole and individual vendors may be seen assymbiotic. One commonbusiness modelof commercial suppliers is charging for support, especially for business users. A number of companies also offer a specialized business version of their distribution, which adds proprietary support packages and tools to administer higher numbers of installations or to simplify administrative tasks.Another business model is to give away the software in order to sell hardware. This used to be the norm in the computer industry, with operating systems such asCP/M,Apple DOSand versions ofMac OSprior to 7.6 freely copyable (but not modifiable). As computer hardware standardized throughout the 1980s, it became more difficult for hardware manufacturers to profit from this tactic, as the OS would run on any manufacturer's computer that shared the same architecture.Programming on Linux[edit]Most Linux distributions support dozens ofprogramming languages. The original development tools used for building both Linux applications and operating system programs are found within theGNU toolchain, which includes theGNU Compiler Collection(GCC) and theGNU build system. Amongst others, GCC provides compilers forAda,C,C++,GoandFortran. Many programming languages have a cross-platform reference implementation that supports Linux, for examplePHP,Perl,Ruby,Python,Java, Go,RustandHaskell. First released in 2003, theLLVMproject provides an alternative cross-platform open-source compiler for many languages.Proprietarycompilers for Linux include theIntel C++ Compiler,Sun Studio, and IBM XLC/C++Compiler.BASICin the form ofVisual Basicis supported in such forms asGambas,FreeBASIC, andXBasic, and in terms of terminal programming orQuickBASICorTurbo BASICprogramming in the form ofQB64.A common feature of Unix-like systems, Linux includes traditional specific-purpose programming languages targeted atscripting, text processing and system configuration and management in general. Linux distributions supportshell scripts,awk,sedandmake. Many programs also have an embedded programming language to support configuring or programming themselves. For example,regular expressionsare supported in programs likegrep, orlocate, while advanced text editors, likeGNU Emacs, have a completeLispinterpreter built-in.Most distributions also include support forPHP,Perl,Ruby,Pythonand otherdynamic languages. While not as common, Linux also supportsC#(viaMono),Vala, andScheme. A number ofJava Virtual Machinesand development kits run on Linux, including the original Sun Microsystems JVM (HotSpot), and IBM's J2SE RE, as well as many open-source projects likeKaffeandJikesRVM.GNOMEandKDEare populardesktop environmentsand provide a framework for developing applications. These projects are based on theGTK+andQtwidget toolkits, respectively, which can also be used independently of the larger framework. Both support a wide variety of languages. There are a number ofIntegrated development environmentsavailable includingAnjuta,Code::Blocks,CodeLite,Eclipse,Geany,ActiveState Komodo,KDevelop,Lazarus,MonoDevelop,NetBeans, andQt Creator, while the long-established editorsVim,nanoandEmacsremain popular.[63]Hardware support[edit]

Linux is ubiquitously found on various types of hardware.See also:List of Linux-supported computer architecturesLinux kernel is a widelyportedoperating system kernel; it runs on a highly diverse range ofcomputer architectures, including the hand-heldARM-basediPAQand theIBMmainframesSystem z9orSystem z10 covering devices ranging from mobile phones to supercomputers.[64]Specialized distributions and kernel forks exist for less mainstream architectures; for example, theELKSkernelforkcan run onIntel 8086orIntel 8028616-bitmicroprocessors, while theClinuxkernel fork may run on systems without amemory management unit. The kernel also runs on architectures that were only ever intended to use a manufacturer-created operating system, such asMacintoshcomputers (with bothPowerPCandIntelprocessors),PDAs,video game consoles,portable music players, and mobile phones.There are several industry associations and hardwareconferencesdevoted to maintaining and improving support for diverse hardware under Linux, such asFreedomHEC. Over time, support for different hardware has improved in Linux, resulting in any off-the-shelf purchase having a "good chance" of being compatible.[65]Uses[edit]See also:Linux range of useBeside the Linux distributions designed for general-purpose use on desktops and servers, distributions may be specialized for different purposes including:computer architecturesupport,embedded systems, stability, security, localization to a specific region or language, targeting of specific user groups, support forreal-timeapplications, or commitment to a given desktop environment. Furthermore, some distributions deliberately include onlyfree software. As of 2015, over four hundred Linux distributions are actively developed, with about a dozen distributions being most popular for general-purpose use.[66]Desktop[edit]

Visible software components of the Linux desktop stack include thedisplay server,widget engines, and some of the more widespreadwidget toolkits. There are also components not directly visible to end users, includingD-BusandPulseAudio.See also:Desktop environmentandLinux adoption: Measuring desktop adoptionThe popularity of Linux on standard desktop computers and laptops has been increasing over the years.[67]Currently most distributions include a graphical user environment, with the two most popular environments beingGNOME(which can utilize additionalshellssuch as the defaultGNOME ShellandUbuntuUnity), and theKDE Plasma Desktop.[citation needed]No single official Linux desktop exists: rather desktop environments and Linux distributions select components from a pool offree and open-source softwarewith which they construct a GUI implementing some more or less strict design guide. GNOME, for example, has itshuman interface guidelinesas a design guide, which gives thehumanmachine interfacean important role, not just when doing the graphical design, but also when considering people withdisabilities, and even when focusing on security.[68]The collaborative nature of free software development allows distributed teams to performlanguage localizationof some Linux distributions for use in locales where localizing proprietary systems would not be cost-effective. For example theSinhalese languageversion of theKnoppixdistribution became available significantly before Microsoft translatedWindows XPinto Sinhalese.[citation needed]In this case theLanka Linux User Groupplayed a major part in developing the localized system by combining the knowledge of university professors,linguists, and local developers.Performance and applications[edit]The performance of Linux on the desktop has been a controversial topic;[citation needed]for example in 2007Con Kolivasaccused the Linux community of favoring performance on servers. He quit Linux kernel development out of frustration with this lack of focus on the desktop, and then gave a "tell all" interview on the topic.[69]Since then a significant amount of development has focused on improving the desktop experience. Projects such asUpstartandsystemdaim for a faster boot time; the Wayland and Mir projects aim at replacingX11while enhancing desktop performance, security and appearance.[70]Many popular applications are available for a wide variety of operating systems. For exampleMozilla Firefox,OpenOffice.org/LibreOfficeandBlenderhave downloadable versions for all major operating systems. Furthermore, some applications initially developed for Linux, such asPidgin, andGIMP, were ported to other operating systems (includingWindowsandMac OS X) due to their popularity. In addition, a growing number of proprietary desktop applications are also supported on Linux,[71]such asAutodesk Maya, Softimage XSI andApple Shakein the high-end field of animation and visual effects; see theList of proprietary software for Linuxfor more details. There are alsoseveral companiesthat have ported their own or other companies' games to Linux, with Linux also being a supported platform on both the popularSteamandDesuradigital-distribution services.[72]Many other types of applications available for Microsoft Windows and Mac OS X also run on Linux. Commonly, either afree softwareapplication will exist which does the functions of an application found on another operating system, or that application will have a version that works on Linux, such as withSkypeand somevideo gameslikeDota 2andTeam Fortress 2. Furthermore, theWineproject provides a Windows compatibility layer to run unmodified Windows applications on Linux. It is sponsored by commercial interests includingCodeWeavers, which produces a commercial version of the software. Since 2009, Google has also provided funding to the Wine project.[73][74]CrossOver, a proprietary solution based on the open-source Wine project, supports running Windows versions ofMicrosoft Office,Intuitapplications such asQuickenandQuickBooks,Adobe Photoshopversions through CS2, and many popular games such asWorld of Warcraft. In other cases, where there is no Linux port of some software in areas such asdesktop publishing[75]andprofessional audio,[76][77][78]there is equivalent software available on Linux.Components and installation[edit]Besides externally visible components, such asX window managers, a non-obvious but quite central role is played by the programs hosted byfreedesktop.org, such asD-BusorPulseAudio; both major desktop environments (GNOME and KDE) include them, each offering graphical front-ends written using the corresponding toolkit (GTK+orQt). Adisplay serveris another component, which for the longest time has been communicating in the X11 display server protocol with its clients; prominent software talking X11 includes theX.Org ServerandXlib. Frustration over the cumbersome X11 core protocol, and especially over its numerous extensions, has led to the creation of a new display server protocol, Wayland.Installing, updating and removing software in Linux is typically done through the use of package managers such as theSynaptic Package Manager,PackageKit, andYum Extender. While most major Linux distributions have extensive repositories, often containing tens of thousands of packages, not all the software that can run on Linux is available from the official repositories. Alternatively, users can install packages from unofficial repositories, download pre-compiled packages directly from websites, or compile the source code by themselves. All these methods come with different degrees of difficulty; compiling the source code is in general considered a challenging process for new Linux users, but it is hardly needed in modern distributions and is not a method specific to Linux. Samples of graphical desktop environments Cinnamon Common Desktop Environment(CDE) Enlightenment GNOME Shell(GNOME3) KDE Plasma(KDE4) LXDE MATE(GNOME2) Pantheon Sugar Trinity(KDE3) Unity XfceNetbooks[edit]Linux distributions have also become popular in thenetbookmarket, with many devices such as theASUS Eee PCandAcer Aspire Oneshipping with customized Linux distributions installed.[79]In 2009, Google announced itsGoogle Chrome OS, a minimal Linux based operating system which application consists only of the Google Chrome browser, a file manager and a media player.[80]Thenetbooksthat shipped with the operating system, termedChromebooks, started appearing in the market in June 2011.[81]Servers, mainframes and supercomputers[edit]

Broad overview of theLAMP software bundle, displayed here together withSquid. A high-performance and high-availability web server solution providing security in a hostile environment.Linux distributionshave long been used asserveroperating systems, and have risen to prominence in that area;Netcraftreported in September 2006, that eight of the ten most reliable internet hosting companies ran Linux distributions on theirweb servers.[82]Since June 2008, Linux distributions represented five of the top ten,FreeBSDthree of ten, andMicrosofttwo of ten;[83]since February 2010, Linux distributions represented six of the top ten, FreeBSD two of ten, and Microsoft one of ten.[84]Linux distributions are the cornerstone of theLAMPserver-software combination (Linux,Apache,MariaDB/MySQL,Perl/PHP/Python) which has achieved popularity among developers, and which is one of the more common platforms for website hosting.[85]Linux distributions have become increasingly popular onmainframesin the last decade partly due to pricing and the open-source model.[15][citation needed]In December 2009, computer giantIBMreported that it would predominantly market and sell mainframe-based Enterprise Linux Server.[86]Linux distributions are also commonly used asoperating systemsfor supercomputers; in the decade sinceEarth Simulatorsupercomputer, all the fastest supercomputers have used Linux. As of November 2014, 97% of the world's500 fastest supercomputersrun some variant of Linux,[87]including the top 80.[88]Smart devices[edit]

Android smartphonesSeveral operating systems forsmart devices, e.g.smartphones,tablet computers,smart TVs, andin-vehicle infotainment(IVI) systems, are Linux-based. The three major platforms aremer,Tizen, andAndroid.Android has become the dominant mobile operating system forsmartphones, during the second quarter of 2013, 79.3% of smartphones sold worldwide used Android.[89]Android is also a popular operating system for tablets, and Android smart TVs and in-vehicle infotainment systems have also appeared in the market.Cell phones and PDAs running Linux on open-source platforms became more common from 2007; examples include theNokia N810,Openmoko'sNeo1973, and theMotorola ROKR E8. Continuing the trend,Palm(later acquired byHP) produced a new Linux-derived operating system,webOS, which is built into its new line ofPalm Presmartphones.Nokia'sMaemo, one of the earliest mobile operating systems, was based onDebian.[90]It was later merged withIntel'sMoblin, another Linux-based operating system, to formMeeGo.[91]The project was later terminated in favor ofTizen, an operating system targeted at mobile devices as well asin-vehicle infotainment (IVI). Tizen is a project withinThe Linux Foundation. SeveralSamsungproducts are already running Tizen,Samsung Gear 2being the most significant example.[92]Samsung Zsmartphones will use Tizen instead of Android.[93]As a result of MeeGo's termination, theMerproject forked the MeeGo codebase to create a basis for mobile-oriented operating systems.[94]In July 2012,JollaannouncedSailfish OS, their own mobile operating system built upon Mer technology.Mozilla'sFirefox OSconsists of the Linux kernel, ahardware abstraction layer, aweb standardsbased runtime environment and user interface, and an integrated web browser.[95]Canonicalhas releasedUbuntu Touch, its own mobile operating system that aims to bring convergence to the user experience on the operating system and its desktop counterpart,Ubuntu. The operating system also provides a full Ubuntu desktop when connected to an external monitor.[96]Embedded devices[edit]See also:Embedded LinuxandLinux devices

TheJolla Phonehas the Linux-basedSailfish OS

In-car entertainmentsystem of theTesla Model Sis based onUbuntu[97]

NokiaX, a smartphone that runs Linux kernelDue to its low cost and ease of customization,Linuxis often used inembedded systems. In the non-mobile telecommunications equipment sector, the majority ofcustomer-premises equipment(CPE) hardware runs some Linux-based operating system.OpenWrtis a community driven example upon which many of the OEM firmwares are based.For example, the popularTiVodigital video recorder also uses a customized Linux,[98]as do several networkfirewallsandroutersfrom such makers asCisco/Linksys. TheKorg OASYS, theKorg KRONOS, theYamaha Motif XS/Motif XFmusic workstations,[99]Yamaha S90XS/S70XS, Yamaha MOX6/MOX8 synthesizers, Yamaha Motif-Rack XStone generator module, and Roland RD-700GXdigital pianoalso run Linux. Linux is also used instage lightingcontrol systems, such as the WholeHogIII console.[100]Gaming[edit]Main article:Linux gamingThere had been several games that run on traditional desktop Linux, and many of which originally written for desktop OS. However, due to most game developers not paying attention to such a small market as desktop Linux, only a few prominent games have been available for desktop Linux. On the other hand, as a popular mobile platform, Android has gained much developer interest and there are many games available for Android.On 14 February 2013,Valvereleased a Linux version ofSteam, a popular game distribution platform on PC.[101]Many Steam games were ported to Linux.[102]On 13 December 2013, Valve releasedSteamOS, a gaming oriented OS based on Debian, forbeta testing, and has plans to shipSteam Machinesas a gaming and entertainment platform.[103]Valve has also developedVOGL, anOpenGLdebugger intended to aid video game development,[104]as well as porting itsSourcegame engine to desktop Linux.[105]As a result of Valve's effort, several prominent games such asDotA 2,Team Fortress 2,Portal,Portal 2andLeft 4 Dead 2are now natively available on desktop Linux.On 31 July 2013,NvidiareleasedShieldas an attempt to use Android as a specialized gaming platform.[106]Specialized uses[edit]Due to the flexibility, customizability and free and open-source nature of Linux, it becomes possible to highly tune Linux for a specific purpose. There are two main methods for creating a specialized Linux distribution: building from scratch or from a general-purpose distribution as a base. The distributions often used for this purpose includeDebian,Fedora,Ubuntu(which is itself based on Debian),Arch Linux,Gentoo, andSlackware. In contrast, Linux distributions built from scratch do not have general-purpose bases; instead, they focus on theJeOSphilosophy by including only necessary components and avoidingresourceoverhead caused by components considered redundant in the distribution's use cases.Home theater PC[edit]Ahome theater PC(HTPC) is a PC that is mainly used as an entertainment system, especially aHome theater system. It is normally connected to a television, and often an additional audio system.OpenELEC, a Linux distribution that incorporates the media center softwareKodi, is an OS tuned specifically for an HTPC. Having been built from the ground up adhering to the JeOS principle, the OS is very lightweight and very suitable for the confined usage range of an HTPC.There are also special editions of Linux distributions that include theMythTVmedia center software, such asMythbuntu, a special edition of Ubuntu.Digital security[edit]Kali Linuxis a Debian-based Linux distribution designed fordigital forensicsandpenetration testing. It comes preinstalled with several software applications for penetration testing and identifyingsecurity exploits.[107]System rescue[edit]LinuxLive CDsessions have long been used as a tool for recovering data from a broken computer system and for repairing the system. Building upon that idea, several Linux distributions tailored for this purpose have emerged, most of which useGPartedas a partition editor, with additional data recovery and system repair software: GParted Live a Debian-based distribution developed by the GParted project. Parted Magic a commercial Linux distribution. SystemRescueCD a Gentoo-based distribution with support for editing Windowsregistry.In space[edit]SpaceXuses multiple redundantflight computersin afault-tolerant designin theFalcon 9rocket. Each Merlin engine is controlled by threevotingcomputers, with two physical processors per computer that constantly check each other's operation. Linux is not inherently fault-tolerant (no operating system is, as it is a function of the whole system including the hardware), but the flight computer software makes it so for its purpose.[108]For flexibility,commercial off-the-shelfparts and system-wide "radiation-tolerant" design are used instead ofradiation hardenedparts.[108]As of September 2014, SpaceX has made 13 launches of the Falcon 9 since 2010, and all 13 have successfully delivered their primary payloads toEarth orbit, including some missions meant for to theInternational Space Station.In addition, Windows was used as an operating system on non-mission critical systemslaptops used on board the space station, for examplebut it has been replaced with Linux; the first Linux-powered humanoid robot is also undergoing in-flight testing.[109]TheJet Propulsion Laboratoryhas used Linux for a number of years "to help with projects relating to the construction of unmanned space flight and deep space exploration";NASAuses Linux in robotics in the Mars rover, andUbuntuLinux to "save data from satellites".[110]Teaching[edit]Linux distributions have been created to provide hands-on experience with coding and source code to students, on devices such as theRaspberry Pi. In addition to producing a practical device, the intention is to show students "how things work under the hood".Market share and uptake[edit]Main article:Linux adoptionSee also:Usage share of operating systemsMany quantitative studies offree/open-source software focus on topics including market share and reliability, with numerous studies specifically examining Linux.[111]The Linux market is growing rapidly, and the revenue of servers, desktops, and packaged software running Linux was expected to exceed $35.7 billion by 2008.[112]Analysts and proponents attribute the relative success of Linux to its security, reliability, low cost, and freedom fromvendor lock-in.[113][114]Desktops and laptopsAccording toweb server statistics, as of March 2015, the estimated market share of Linux ondesktop computersis around 1.5%. In comparison,Microsoft Windowshas a market share of around 91.5%, whileMac OScovers around 7%.[16]Web serversIDC's Q1 2007 report indicated that Linux held 12.7% of the overall server market at that time.[115]This estimate was based on the number of Linux servers sold by various companies, and did not include server hardware purchased separately which had Linux installed on it later. In September 2008 Microsoft CEOSteve Ballmerstated that 60% of Web servers ran Linux versus 40% that ranWindows Server.[116]Mobile devicesAndroid, which is based on the Linux kernel, has become the dominant operating system forsmartphones. During the second quarter of 2013, 79.3% of smartphones sold worldwide used Android.[89]Android is also a popular operating system for tablets, being responsible for more than 60% of tablet sales as of 2013.[117]According to web server statistics, as of December 2014Android has a market share of about 46%, withiOSholding 45%, and the remaining 9% attributed to various niche platforms.[118]Film productionFor years Linux has been the platform of choice in the film industry. The first major film produced on Linux servers was 1997'sTitanic.[119][120]Since then major studios includingDreamWorks Animation,Pixar,Weta Digital, andIndustrial Light & Magichave migrated to Linux.[121][122][123]According to the Linux Movies Group, more than 95% of the servers and desktops at large animation and visual effects companies use Linux.[124]Use in governmentLinux distributions have also gained popularity with various local and national governments. The federal government of Brazil is well known for its support for Linux.[125][126]News of the Russian military creating its own Linux distribution has also surfaced, and has come to fruition as the G.H.ost Project.[127]The Indian state ofKeralahas gone to the extent of mandating that all state high schools run Linux on their computers.[128][129]Chinauses Linux exclusively as the operating system for itsLoongsonprocessor family to achieve technology independence.[130]In Spain, some regions have developed their own Linux distributions, which are widely used in education and official institutions, likegnuLinExin Extremadura andGuadalinexin Andalusia.FranceandGermanyhave also taken steps toward the adoption of Linux.[131]Copyright, trademark, and naming[edit]See also:GNU/Linux naming controversyandSCO-Linux controversiesLinux kernel islicensedunder theGNU General Public License(GPL), version 2. The GPL requires that anyone who distributes software based on source code under this license, must make the originating source code (and any modifications) available to the recipient under the same terms.[132]Other key components of a typical Linux distribution are also mainly licensed under the GPL, but they may use other licenses; many libraries use theGNU Lesser General Public License(LGPL), a more permissive variant of the GPL, and theX.orgimplementation of theX Window Systemuses theMIT License.Torvalds states that the Linux kernel will not move from version 2 of the GPL to version 3.[133][134]He specifically dislikes some provisions in the new license which prohibit the use of the software indigital rights management.[135]It would also be impractical to obtain permission from all the copyright holders, who number in the thousands.[136]A 2001 study ofRed Hat Linux7.1 found that this distribution contained 30 millionsource lines of code.[137]Using theConstructive Cost Model, the study estimated that this distribution required about eight thousand man-years of development time. According to the study, if all this software had been developed by conventionalproprietarymeans, it would have cost about $1.48billion (2015 US dollars) to develop in the United States.[137]Most of the source code (71%) was written in theCprogramminglanguage, but many other languages were used, includingC++,Lisp,assembly language,Perl,Python,Fortran, and variousshell scriptinglanguages. Slightly over half of all lines of code were licensed under the GPL. The Linux kernel itself was 2.4 million lines of code, or 8% of the total.[137]In a later study, the same analysis was performed forDebianversion 4.0 (etch, which was released in 2007).[138]This distribution contained close to 283 million source lines of code, and the study estimated that it would have required about seventy three thousand man-years and cost US$8.16billion (in 2015 dollars) to develop by conventional means.

The name "Linux" is also used for a laundry detergent made by Swiss company Rsch.In the United States, the nameLinuxis a trademark registered to Linus Torvalds.[3]Initially, nobody registered it, but on 15 August 1994, William R. Della Croce, Jr. filed for the trademarkLinux, and then demanded royalties from Linux distributors. In 1996, Torvalds and some affected organizations sued him to have the trademark assigned to Torvalds, and, in 1997, the case was settled.[139]The licensing of the trademark has since been handled by theLinux Mark Institute. Torvalds has stated that he trademarked the name only to prevent someone else from using it. LMI originally charged a nominal sublicensing fee for use of the Linux name as part of trademarks,[140]but later changed this in favor of offering a free, perpetual worldwide sublicense.[141]TheFree Software FoundationprefersGNU/Linuxas the name when referring to the operating system as a whole, because it considers Linux to be avariantof theGNUoperating system, initiated in 1983 byRichard Stallman, president of the Free Software Foundation.[11][12]A minority of public figures and software projects other than Stallman and the Free Software Foundation, notablyDebian(which had been sponsored by the Free Software Foundation up to 1996[142]), also useGNU/Linuxwhen referring to the operating system as a whole.[98][143][144]Most media and common usage,[original research?]however, refers to this family of operating systems simply asLinux, as do many large Linux distributions (for example,SUSE LinuxandRed Hat). As of May 2011, about 8% to 13% of a modern Linux distribution is made of GNU components (the range depending on whetherGNOMEis considered part of GNU), as determined by countinglines of source codemaking up Ubuntu's "Natty" release; meanwhile, about 9% is taken by the Linux kernel.[145]See also[edit]Linux portal

Free software portal

Comparison of Linux distributions Comparison of open source and closed source Comparison of operating systems Comparison of X Window System desktop environments Criticism of Linux Linux Documentation Project Linux Foundation List of Linux distributions List of games released on Linux List of operating systems Loadable kernel module Linus Torvalds Possible NSA approach Usage share of operating systemsNotes[edit]1. Jump up^"Linux" trademark is owned byLinus Torvalds[3]and administered by theLinux Mark Institute.References[edit]1. Jump up^Linux Online (2008)."Linux Logos and Mascots". Archived fromthe originalon August 15, 2010. RetrievedAugust 11,2009.2. Jump up^Is Linux Kernel Free Software?3. ^Jump up to:ab"U.S. Reg No: 1916230". United States Patent and Trademark Office. RetrievedApril 1,2006.4. ^Jump up to:ab"Re: How to pronounceLinux?".Newsgroup:comp.os.linux. 23 April 1992.Usenet:1992Apr23.123216.22024@klaava.Helsinki.FI. RetrievedJanuary 9,2007.5. ^Jump up to:abcdFree On-Line Dictionary of Computing (June 2006)."Linux". RetrievedSeptember 15,2009.6. ^Jump up to:abSafalra (14 April 2007)."Pronunciation of 'Linux'".Safalra's Website. RetrievedSeptember 15,2009.7. Jump up^"Conflicts between ISO/IEC 9945 (POSIX) and the Linux Standard Base".opengroup.org. 2003-07-29. Retrieved2014-04-27.8. Jump up^Eckert, Jason W. (2012).Linux+ Guide to Linux Certification(Third ed.). Boston, Massachusetts: Cengage Learning. p.33.ISBN978-1111541538. RetrievedApril 14,2013.The shared commonality of the kernel is what defines Linux; the differingOSSapplications that can interact with the common kernel are what differentiateLinux distributions.9. Jump up^Linus Benedict Torvalds (5 October 1991)."Free minix-like kernel sources for 386-AT".Newsgroup:comp.os.minix. RetrievedSeptember 30,2011.10. Jump up^"What Is Linux: An Overview of the Linux Operating System". Linux Foundation. April 3, 2009. 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If you do not know the gist of the GNU copyright read it.30. ^Jump up to:abTorvalds, Linus and David Diamond,Just for Fun: The Story of an Accidental Revolutionary, 2001,ISBN 0-06-662072-431. Jump up^Torvalds, Linus (March 1994)."Index of /pub/linux/kernel/SillySounds". Retrieved2009-08-03.32. Jump up^Garfinkel, Simson; Spafford, Gene; Schwartz, Alan (2003).Practical UNIX and Internet Security. O'Reilly. p.21.33. Jump up^Santhanam, Anand; Vishal Kulkarni (1 March 2002)."Linux system development on an embedded device".DeveloperWorks. IBM. RetrievedJuly 26,2007.[dead link]34. Jump up^Schrecker, Michael."Turn on Web Interactivity with LAMP".35. Jump up^Galli, Peter (8 August 2007)."Vista Aiding Linux Desktop, Strategist Says".eWEEK(Ziff Davis Enterprise Inc.). RetrievedNovember 19,2007.36. Jump up^Paul, Ryan (3 September 2007)."Linux market share set to surpass Win 98, OS X still ahead of Vista".Ars Technica(Ars Technica, LLC). RetrievedNovember 19,2007.37. 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Our new sublicense agreement is: Free approved sublicense holders pay no fees; Perpetual sublicense terminates only in breach of the agreement or when your organization ceases to use its mark; Worldwide one sublicense covers your use of the mark anywhere in the world142. Jump up^Richard Stallman (1996-04-28)."The FSF is no longer sponsoring Debian". tech-insider.org. RetrievedFebruary 8,2014.143. Jump up^"About Debian". debian.org. 2013-12-08. RetrievedJanuary 30,2014.144. Jump up^Andrew D. Balsa;Coauthors."The linux-kernel mailing list FAQ".The Linux Kernel Archives. Kernel.org. Archived fromthe originalon 2012-10-01. Retrieved2013-06-13....we have tried to use the word "Linux" or the expression "Linux kernel" to designate the kernel, and GNU/Linux to designate the entire body of GNU/GPL'ed OS software,... ...many people forget that the linux kernel mailing list is a forum for discussion of kernel-related matters, not GNU/Linux in general...145. Jump up^Crte-Real, Pedro (31 May 2011)."How much GNU is there in in GNU/Linux?".Split Perspective. RetrievedJanuary 28,2014.(self-publisheddata)External links[edit]Find more aboutLinuxat Wikipedia'ssister projects

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LinuxatDMOZ Graphical map of GNU/Linux OS Internals Linux kernel website and archives Linux.org The History of Linux in GIT Repository Format 19922010 A list of free Linux distributions, provided by theFree Software Foundation