Linkage between Scheduling Process Maturity and Schedule Performance of Construction Projects

7/31/2019 Linkage between Scheduling Process Maturity and Schedule Performance of Construction Projects

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National Cheng Kung University (NCKU)

International Program in Civil

Engineering and Management (ICEM)

Masters Thesis

Linkage between Scheduling Process Maturity and Schedule

Performance of Construction Projects

Student: Jos Mari Divas

N66987123

Advisor: Andrew S. Chang

July, 2011


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ABSTRACT

Delays are often found in construction projects in spite of numerous research

aimed at improving schedule performance. Studies address the factors affecting

project success and establish good practices to help in scheduling process. Some argue

the schedule problems are lack of support between management and project

participants, and the misuse of the scheduling methods and techniques, while others

state that is because of an existing gap between theory and practice.

This research studies the relationship between scheduling process maturity and

schedule performance. It first reviews the factors that are of critical influence on

schedule performance. A questionnaire was designed based on four parts composed of

these schedule factors: schedule theory, management theory, project participants and

project environment. The questionnaire was sent out and collected 93 sets of data from

owners, consultants and contractors in both Belize and Taiwan.

The analysis results reveal the views of project participants regarding various

scheduling aspects. Contractors replies have a better linkage with schedule

performance. Basic scheduling processes are most frequently and well used by project

participants while having a moderate relationship with schedule performance. The

scheduling formality of the project participants has a moderate relationship with project

delays. Advance scheduling processes are seldom used because they are not familiar

to participants are seldom practiced.

Keywords: Schedule theory, project management, schedule management, scheduling

process, schedule performance.


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would firstly like to give praise to Jehovah god for patience, guidance and

wisdom.

Secondly, thanks to the International Cooperation and Development Fund (ICDF)

for the opportunity to study in Taiwan at National Cheng Kung University. My

appreciation also goes to the faculty at Civil Engineering and Management, not

forgetting my thesis advisor, Professor Andrew Chang, for his kind guidance

throughout the investigation process. I would also like to extend my gratitude to my

classmates for helping with Chinese lessons.

I also want to thank my family and loved ones for the unconditional support

specially my mother, Gloria Estela Flores.


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TABLE OF CONTENT

ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................... I

........................................................................................................................ IIIACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...................................................................................... V

TABLE OF CONTENT .......................................................................................... VII

LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................... IX

LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................. X

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION................................................................................ 1

1.1 Motivation ............................................................................................... 2

1.2 Research Objectives ................................................................................. 3

1.3 Research Scope and Limitation ................................................................ 4

CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................... 9

2.1 Schedule Theory .................................................................................... 10

2.1.1 Planning, Scheduling and Control................................................ 10

2.1.2 Scheduling Methods and Techniques ........................................... 13

2.2 Management Theory .............................................................................. 15

2.2.1 Project management .................................................................... 15

2.2.2 PM Process and Benchmarking ................................................... 16

2.3 Project Participants Capabilities ............................................................. 18

2.3.1 Human Factors ............................................................................ 18

2.3.2 Skills, Training and Experience ................................................... 19

2.4 Project Environment .............................................................................. 19

2.4.1 Owners Sophistication ................................................................ 20

2.4.2 Project Complexity ...................................................................... 20

2.4.3 Schedule Specification ................................................................ 22

2.4.4 Culture ........................................................................................ 23

CHAPTER THREE FACTORS AFFECTING SCHEDULING PROCESS .............. 25

3.1 Scheduling Process Problems ................................................................. 25

3.1.1 Personnel..................................................................................... 26

3.1.2 Procedures ................................................................................... 28

3.1.3 Problems in Developing Countries .............................................. 29

3.2 Initial Survey in Belize........................................................................... 32


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3.2.1 Preliminary Results ..................................................................... 33

3.2.2 Informalities in the Industry ........................................................ 36

CHAPTER FOUR SURVEYING SCHEDULE PRACTICE LEVELS ANDRESULTS ................................................................................................................ 39

4.1 Establishing Schedule Practice Levels .................................................... 39

4.1.1 Effort to establish the scheduling practice .................................... 39

4.1.2 Maturity Level Assignment ......................................................... 41

4.2 Questionnaire Design ............................................................................. 42

4.2.1 General Information .................................................................... 42

4.2.2 Project Environment .................................................................... 43

4.2.3 Scheduling Process ...................................................................... 44

4.2.4 Schedule Performance ................................................................. 45

4.3 Survey Process and Results .................................................................... 46

4.3.1 General Information .................................................................... 47

4.3.2 Project Environment .................................................................... 51

4.3.3 Scheduling Process ...................................................................... 57

4.3.4 Schedule Performance ................................................................. 64

CHAPTER FIVE LINKAGE ANALYSIS OF SCHEDULING ASPECTS ............ 71

5.1 Linkage Strategy ......................................................................................... 71

5.1.1 Relationships to be Identified ...................................................... 71

5.1.2 Regressionandcorrelation analysis ............................................. 73

5.2 Relationship Identification ..................................................................... 74

5.2.1 General Information-Schedule Process and Performance ............. 75

5.2.2 Project Environment Scheduling Process .................................. 78

5.2.3 Project Environment Schedule Performance ............................. 82

5.2.4 Scheduling Process Schedule Performance ............................... 85

CHAPTER SIX CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ........................ 89

6.1 Conclusions ........................................................................................... 89

6.2 Recommendations .................................................................................. 90

REFERENCES ........................................................................................................ 93

Appendix A: Initial Survey Questions about Scheduling Problems ................. 97

Appendix B: Questionnaire (English Version) ................................................... 98

Appendix C: Questionnaire () .............................................................. 101Appendix C: Summary of Questionnaire Survey Results ................................ 104


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LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. 1.1 Gap between schedule theory and practice .................................................... 3

Fig. 1.2 Research Process .......................................................................................... 6Fig. 2.1 Schedule theory and practice aspects ............................................................ 9Fig. 2.2 Planning and Scheduling Phases (AACE, 2006) ......................................... 11Fig. 2.3 Scheduling Process (PMI, 2007) ................................................................. 11Fig. 2.4 Scheduling model (PMI, 2007) ................................................................... 13Fig. 2.5 Links among processes in a phase (PMBOK, 2004) .................................... 16 Fig. 2.6Project processes and knowledge areas (PMBOK, 2004) ............................ 17 Fig. 2.7Drivers of project complexity (Vidal and Marle, 2008) ............................... 21Fig. 3.1 Scheduling process problems ...................................................................... 26Fig. 3.2 Critical factors affecting project schedules .................................................. 33Fig. 3.3 Most common scheduling tool .................................................................... 33Fig. 3.4 Pre-job meeting for reviews of project scope .............................................. 34Fig. 3.5 Project Participant that affect Project Schedule ........................................... 34Fig. 3.6Are delays inevitable .................................................................................. 35Fig. 3.7Schedulers as part of project ....................................................................... 35Fig. 3.8Attention to scheduling ............................................................................... 36Fig. 3.9 Consensus of scheduling ............................................................................. 36Fig. 3.10 Average update cycle ................................................................................ 36Fig. 3.11 More challenging phase ............................................................................ 36Fig. 4.1 Schedule Practice Levels ............................................................................ 41Fig. 4.2 Respondent organizations ........................................................................... 47

Fig. 4.3 Relative size of organization ....................................................................... 48Fig. 4.4 Positions of respondents ............................................................................. 49Fig. 4.5 Number of years of experience ................................................................... 49Fig. 4.6Scheduling as part of the respondents job description ................................ 50Fig. 4.7Source of scheduling knowledge ................................................................. 51Fig. 4.8Average project duration ............................................................................. 52Fig. 4.9 Project complexity increasing efforts to project schedules........................... 52Fig. 4.10 Owners view on project schedule ............................................................. 53Fig. 4.11 Owners knowledge and experience effect on project scheduling .............. 54Fig. 4.12 Project participants view of project planning and scheduling ................... 55Fig. 4.15 Specifications similarity for projects ......................................................... 56

Fig. 4.15 Schedule requirements affecting scheduling process ................................. 57Fig. 4.16Types of scheduling method often used ..................................................... 58 Fig. 4.17Type of scheduling tool often used ............................................................ 59Fig. 4.18Use of WBS for planning .......................................................................... 59Fig. 4.19 Use of sequencing relationship other than finish-start on PDM .............. 60Fig. 4.20 Use of CPM techniques for project schedule ............................................. 61 Fig. 4.21 Use of resource loading on project schedules ............................................ 62Fig. 4.22 Use of earned value analysis ..................................................................... 62Fig. 4.23 Update cycle ............................................................................................. 63Fig. 4.24 Calculations of time to complete upon project updating ......................... 64Fig. 4.25 Average schedule delay ............................................................................. 64


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Fig. 4.26Cost spent toward project schedules .......................................................... 65Fig. 4.27Scheduling as a result of good planning .................................................... 66Fig. 4.28Opinions of project schedule improving communication ........................... 67Fig. 4.29 Schedules being used for project time control ........................................... 68 Fig. 4.30 Overall satisfactions with current scheduling practice ............................... 68

Fig 5.1 Scheduling aspects tested for relationships .................................................. 72


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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

The need for scheduling in the project management can be argued from

economical, technical and continued control points of view (Cole, 1991). Research

has shown that where scheduling is fairly and consciously practiced throughout the

project life cycle, the project results in favorable schedule and cost performance

(Griffith, 2005). However, schedule practices are still deficient in the construction

industry. One main reason is that there is a gap between the schedule theory and

general practice.

Project schedule is essentially a management tool used as basis for decision

making by project participants. They reflect the schedule baseline and the subsequent

changes as project progresses (Hartley, 1993). The main objective of schedules is to

provide a roadmap that represents how and when the project will deliver the products

defined in the project scope (PMI, 2007). Schedules provide a holistic view of the

project while communicating the project scope both vertically and horizontally to all

participants (PMI, 2007; Sappe, 2007).

Schedules can be an effective management tool when good practices are utilized in

the scheduling process. However this depends on competence and level of maturity of

project participants. According to Kerzner (2009), maturity implies that the proper

foundation of methods, tools, techniques, and processes exist. It generally comes from

experience gained from exposure to several types of project.


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1.1 Motivation

Construction projects are getting more complex and difficult (Chan et al, 2004)

hence the need for the use of project scheduling cannot be over emphasized. In spite of

the vast amount of research related to scheduling, most research is related to advances

in methodologies and techniques, while others research the factors affecting schedule

performance (Herroleon, 2005). However, the scheduling process involved and

schedule performance are seldom linked.

One of the most widely researched topics in project schedule performance is the

concept of project success and the criteria to measure it (Iyer and Jha, 2006). Chan et

al., (2004) categorized the factors affecting project success into four groups:

project-related, procurement-related, project management and project

participant-related factors.

In spite of all these efforts, projects are still suffering delays and going over budget.

Dos Santos (2002) reveals that part of the problem stems from the partial application of

theory, gap in knowledge amongst practitioners and the lack of support from the

organizational structure. Additionally, high reliability cannot be achieved when the

schedule preparation process is separated from the project operational reality (Son and

Rojas, 2011). Together this implies that the lack of linkage between applicable theory

and current practices make schedule practice inefficient.

Figure 1.1 shows the existence of a gap between the schedule theory and reality or

practice. The theoretical aspects are scheduling and management theory, while the

project participants and the project environments compose the reality of the schedule

practice.


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Fig. 1.1 Gap between schedule theory and practice

Efforts are being established to better bond and link these four aspects. The Project

Management Institute (PMI) has added a college of scheduling as part of its

organization (Galloway, 2006). This was done in an effort to standardize and achieve

consistency in its application, requirements for schedule development, and use in the

construction industry. PMI developed the Practice Standard for Scheduling Manual

to regulate the scheduling practice (Galloway, 2006), in addition to providing the

Project Management Book of Knowledge (PMBOK) which serves as a guide to project

management.

1.2 Research Objectives

The objective of this research is to analyze the linkage between scheduling process

maturity and schedule performance in the construction industry. This research aims to

find a linkage by evaluating responses from a survey in areas of project environment,

scheduling process and schedule performance. As a secondary objective, by

assigning numeric levels to the responses it will be possible to define the general


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schedule maturity level of the respondents. The responses level will indicate which

areas are in more need of attention by the respondents. In return recommendation can

be given on specific areas to increase the scheduling process maturity.

Additionally the level maturity can be used to compare and rank the level of

schedule maturity between the two countries and surveyed groups of project

participants. The results of such research should enable individual to promote

schedule maturity and schedule consciousness in construction project. This will

enhance the scheduling process and consequently should improve performance.

Though scheduling process maturity may be linked to schedule performance, this is

limited to the commitment and competence of the scheduler and other direct project

participants.

1.3 Research Scope and Limitation

This research intends to surveys the scheduling practices of construction

professionals in the Belize and Taiwan. The analysis and results provide insight of the

scheduling process maturity currently being practiced. The research objective and

method outline the process of this research and provides the objective aimed to

achieve.

During this investigation some limitations were encountered. Some of these

limitations are:

- Sample size: though the number of total responses totals 93, this includesresponses for both Belize and Taiwan. The responses are not even

distributed among owners, consultants, and contractor, and though the

responses represent the scheduling practice in both countries, is some areas


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the sample size is too small to find a significant relationship between the

schedule process and the schedule performance. The results of this

research may be used only as reference material in identifying the level of

maturity of Belize and Taiwan given the size of the sample size

- Lack of prior research: previously, linking the respondents capabilities withthe schedule usage was researched. However linking the schedule process

with schedule performance has not yet been researched, therefore this

research is more exploratory, than explanatory.

- Methodology used in data collection: the main focus of this research isbased on the questionnaire sent to Belize and to Taiwans project

participants. A better approach would have being to self fill out the

questionnaire in face to face interviews this would probably have yielded

better results.

1.4Research Method and ProcessThe main research methods used were an initial survey of semi-open question

interviews and a questionnaire survey. The initial survey rendered a picture of the

scheduling practices problems in Belize. The initial survey was followed by a Likert

scaled questionnaire. The questionnaire was developed after schedule literature

review and analysis of the initial survey. This questionnaire was distributed to owners,

consultants, and contractors both in Belize and Taiwan. The respondents selected

from Belize were all those listed in the Association of Professional Engineers of

Belize. While in Taiwan the respondents that have certain relationships with NCKU

were asked to participate in this survey.

The questionnaire was divided into four parts. The first part addresses


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background of the respondents: their job positions, types of organization, and sources

of scheduling knowledge and whether scheduling is a major or minor job. The second

covers the project environment in which scheduling is practiced. This includes the

views of the project participants toward project planning and scheduling, project

complexity and scheduling specifications issues. Part three addresses the scheduling

process practiced in the industry. This includes the scheduling tools and methods in

developing and controlling of schedules. The final part covers the of project schedule

performance: the average delays, cost spent, and the overall satisfaction the respondent

have of scheduling practice.

This research process can be summarized into five general steps as seen in Figure

1.2.

Conclusion and recommendation

Step 1

Step 2

Step 3

Step 4

Step 5

Literature review and initial survey

Identification of the problems related to scheduling

process

Questionnaire design and survey

Data analysis and linkage

Fig. 1.2 Research Process

1.5Thesis StructureThis thesis contains six chapters. Chapter 1 is the introduction of this thesis which

contains the motivation, research objectives and research scope and limitation and

research methodology. Chapter 2 contains a summary of the literature read and


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reviewed for the development of this thesis. Chapter 3 presents an analysis of the

general schedule problems encountered in Belize. Chapter 4 describes the

questionnaire design and development. Chapter 5 presents the results and the efforts

using correlation to establish a linkage between the scheduling process and the

schedule performance. Finally, Chapter 6 presents the conclusion and

recommendation of this research.


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CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW

Researches has shown that scheduling practice involves integration of

scheduling methods and techniques, management procedures and guidelines, the

experience of the project participants, and the skills to adapt to existing project

environment. Figure 2.1 shows these schedule aspects.

ParticipantCapabilities

ProjectEnvironment

ScheduleTraining

SchedulingExperience

SchedulingSkills

OwnersSophistication

ProjectComplexity

SchedulingSpecification

Culture

Schedule aspects

ScheduleTheory

ManagementTheory

Planning,SchedulingControl

SchedulingMethods andTechniques

ProjectManagement

ProjectManagementProcess andBench Marking

Fig. 2.1 Schedule theory and practice aspects

This chapter reviews the four aspects of schedule theory and practice as

shown in Figure 2.1. Section 2.1 reviews schedule theory, Section 2.2 management

theory, Section 2.3 project participants, and Section 2.4 the Project-Related

environment.


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2.1 Schedule Theory

Much has been written about project scheduling dealing with the mechanics of

creating the schedule document itself (Hartley, 1993). This happened as extensive

documentation requiring the need for planning and schedule methodologies (Cole,

1991).

Scheduling has been around for sometimes. Henry Gantt first used bar chart as

a mean to represent and sequence activities in early 1900s (Kerzner, 2009). Bar

charts are advantageous in that they are easily understood and represent a picture of

the project in progress. When a project becomes larger and complex, the bar chart

has a disadvantage (Kerzner, 2009). This gives way to the CPM and PERT scheduling

methods which were introduced in the late 1950s, and since then they have been

vastly researched (Herroelen, 2005). Nonetheless, after their establishment, the

basic principles of project scheduling and control have gone unchanged for the major

parts. However, their application in the construction industry has still not received

100% acceptance or consistency (Galloway, 2006).

2.1.1 Planning, Scheduling and Control

The American Association of Cost Engineers (AACE, 2006) provides various

definitions for scheduling. A time-sequence of activities and events that represent

and operating timetable, specifying the relative beginning and ending times of

activities and the occurrence of events is a better suited definition. Figure 2.2

define Planning and Scheduling as per AACE (2006).


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Planning and Scheduling Phases

Planning ScheduleDevelopment

Scheduling Control

Fig. 2.2 Planning and Scheduling Phases (AACE, 2006)

Scheduling commonly starts at the planning phase and continues to the

execution as a control system. Furthermore it has its place and time after project

completion, usually in court when conflicts arise regarding the completion time

(Gould and Joyce, 2009). Nonetheless for schedules to be rendered useable for

planning, executing, monitoring and communication, it should adhere to standard

practices (PMI, 2007).

Project Start

SelectingScheduling

Method

Instances ofProject

Schedules

Enter ProjectScecific Data

SelectScheduling

Model

ProjectSchedule

Updateand

Status

ProjectComplete

Fig. 2.3 Scheduling Process (PMI, 2007)


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As Figure 2.3 shows, the scheduling process includes selecting a scheduling

method and tool, incorporating project specific data to develop a project specific

project schedules (Fig. 2.4) (PMI, 2007)

A schedule model should include five major processes in developing the

project schedule (PMBOK, 2004): activity definition, activity sequencing, activity

duration estimating, schedule development, and schedule control. Once developed,

the schedule model is regularly updated to reflect progress and changes, in areas such

as scope of logic (PMI, 2007).

Given that the construction industry is dynamic in nature, project planning

cannot be consider as a straight-through process but rather it is best thought of as a

planning cycle (Chan et al., 2004). Project planning starts early and continues

throughout the various phases of the project life cycle. Planning encompasses

defining the project objectives and determination of activities, selection of methods,

resources and establishing responsibilities to accomplish completion as required

(AACE, 2006). The methods, tools and techniques play important role in both the

planning and scheduling phases. This selection depends on the project

characteristics, the participants involved and the environment (Hartley, 1993).

The purpose of the schedule development is to implement the project schedule

by converting the project plan into a logical arrangement and sequence of activities.

During the schedule development phase, the project activities are refined, activity

durations are determined, activity relationships and sequencing are detailed, and key

milestones are confirmed. Resource and cost may be included in the schedule

activities (AACE, 2006). Construction managers need to develop a schedule for

directing and controlling resources (Lu and Lam, 200).

The PMBOK(2004) considers that schedule control is concerned with


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influencing the factors that create schedule changes to ensure that changes are agreed

upon, provided that the schedule has changed, and managing the actual changes

when and as they occur.

Nothing goes according to plan, and schedules have to be modified.

Excessive change orders can cause changes in the planned schedules and,

consequently, cause significant disruption to construction projects (Long et al., 2003).

Thus the reason exists to keep a good control on project schedules. Proper planning

and control are usually among the top five factors required to avoid project delays

(Tumi et al, 2009).

2.1.2 Scheduling Methods and Techniques

Selecting scheduling methods occurs in the early part of the scheduling process.

The scheduling methods provide the framework within which the scheduling model is

developed with its specific tool and techniques applicable to manipulate the project

information, as seen in Figure 2.4 (PMI, 2007).

Scheduling

Method

Scheduling

Tools

Schedule

Model

Project

Information

Output

ProjectSchedule

Fig. 2.4 Scheduling model (PMI, 2007)


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The PMBOK (2004) states the usual and accepted scheduling method: the

ADM (AOA) and PDM (AON). Hinze (2008) also mentions the LOB for repetitive

vertical and horizontal construction, and the bar chart as the popular method of

sequencing activity at an initial stage of the scheduling process.

Most efforts in research have been directed to the developing of

methodologies and techniques for optimizing resources for single project. However

practice has shown that many of these methodologies have proven to have limitations

and in real cases project managers often find themselves managing up to four projects

on average (Herroleon, 2005).

The use of project scheduling techniques early in the project correlates with

better project outcome (Griffith, 2005). These techniques are clearly defined during

the schedule development stage. PMBOK (2004) mentioned the CPM, PERT and

GERT as mathematical analysis techniques to calculate the delivery dates of the

activities. Thought some scheduling techniques are better than others, all have their

advantages and disadvantages (Kerzner, 2009).

The scheduling tool is used to assemble the schedule model and provide

means of adjusting various parameter and components that are typical during

modeling process. The scheduling tool contains the scheduling components and the

rules for relating and using the components to represent the process for completing a

project. This is easily visualized by running scheduling software tool (PMI, 2007),

though other tools have the form of forms and templates (PMBOK, 2004).


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2.2 Management Theory

Modern project management appeared during World War II and was initially

used for large military and construction projects (Vidal and Marle, 2008). Though its

growth and acceptance has changed significantly since its appearance, these changes

continue into the twenty-first century (Kerzner, 2009).

2.2.1 Project management

Project involves doing something that has not being done before and is unique

(PMBOK, 2004). Project management (PM) is the planning, organizing, directing,

and controlling of company resources for a relatively short-term objective that has

been established to complete specific goals and objectives (Kerzner, 2009).

PMBOK (2004) describes PM as the application of knowledge, skills, tools and

techniques to project activities to meet the project requirements established. Others

perceive management by project as temporary organizations for the performance of

complex processes, such as contracts for external clients (Garies and Huemann,

2000).

PM has gone through three major development phases (Kerzner, 2009).

Initially line manager used the concept of over-the-fence management to manage

project. Executives began searching for new management techniques and

organizational structures that could be quickly adapted to a changing environment.

Thereafter, companies in general consensus begun to realize that PM was a necessity

not a choice.

Projects are getting bigger and invariably more complex than ever (Baccarini,

1996), and the project team is required more than ever to more competent in PM.

Corporate organizations are in favor of PM tools and practices that are well suited for


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todays rapidly changing industry. This however poses a question, how well is the

organization using these tools and practices. To answer to this question the Project

Management Process Maturity (PM2) model measures the relative PM maturity level

of an organization (Kwak and Ibbs, 2002).

2.2.2 PM Process and Benchmarking

PMBOK (2004) define the PM processes in five groups. PM processes are:

- Initiating: authorizing the project or phase.- Planning: defining and refining objectives and selecting the best of the

alternatives courses of action to attain the objectives that the project was

undertaken to address.

- Executing: coordinating people and other resources to carry out the plan.- Controlling: ensuring that project objectives are met by monitoring and

measuring progress regularly to identify variance from plan so that

corrective action can be taken when necessary.

- Closing: formalizing acceptance of the project or phase and bringing it toan orderly end.

Fig. 2.5 Links among processes in a phase (PMBOK, 2004)

InitiatingProcesses

ClosingProcesses

ControllingProcesses

ExecutingProcesses

PlanningProcesses


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Each of the five PM processes in Figure 2.5 includes nine knowledge areas as

shown in Figure 2.6.

Fig. 2.6Project processes and knowledge areas (PMBOK, 2004)

Despite the broad usage of PM tools and practices, organizations are often

confused and uncertain about their current application of such tools. The five-level

PM2 model has become the basis to evaluate and position an organization current PM

maturity and level of sophistication. The model motivates organizations and

people to accomplish higher and more sophisticated PM maturity by a systematic and

incremental approach. It also provides and guides the necessary processes and

requirements to achieve a higher PM maturity level. It allows an organization to

determine the strength and weakness of current PM practices and focus on the weak

PM practices to achieve higher PM maturity.


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2.3 Project Participants Capabilities

Project participants related problems that reflect the deficiency in project

scheduling appears in various forms. The often cited problems or reasons for

project failure that are related to the participants are: inadequately trained and/or

experience project managers; poor leadership; failure to adequately identify,

document and track project requirement; poor planning process; inadequate or

misused methods; inadequate communication, including project tracking and

reporting (Herroelen, 2005). Therefore it is absolutely necessary that practitioner be

competent, capable and possesses knowledge in management, this can only be

achieved by training, possessing former experience and planning skills.

2.3.1 Human Factors

There are few things more disheartening than to see an untouched, project

schedule rolled in a corner or even being used as wall paper in a project office. This

is a usual occurrence of good intentions, but failed scheduling efforts (Hartley, 1993).

Project participants must be proactive and committed to meet time and cost

requirements as planned. In order to achieve project success the project team is

required to possess motivating, organizing and planning skills (Chan et al., 2009). Be

able to coordinate resources and labor through continued involvement in the project.

The adaptability of project participants to changes in the project plan is essential (Iyer

and Jha, 2009).

Iyer and Jha (2009) stated that a competent project manager has the technical

and monitoring capabilities for effective leadership. Furthermore, the project

manager should be able to delegate authority and responsibilities to the project team

and all other project participants involved in the project execution. Project


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managers competence is related to the skills, training and experience that he

possesses.

2.3.2 Skills, Training and Experience

Every participant has skills and knowledge that may be useful in developing

the project plan (PMBOK, 2004). Given that all construction projects are different,

the use of skills play a significant role in identifying the aspects that add value to

project scheduling (Chan et al., 2004). Iyer and Jha (2006) emphasized the

importance of project planning and suggested that project planning be carried out by

skilled individuals.

Many organizations acknowledge the need to improve the level of knowledge

and skills in the construction community by providing training in the form of

continuing education, workshops, lunch and other learning programs (Buziak, 2008).

Training of highly regarded that PMI has recently added a college of scheduling

(PMICOS) as part of it organization (Galloway, 2006b).

The key to project success is to apply knowledge, experience and intuition to

the project plan, and then attempt to execute according to plan (PMI, 2007). Chan et

al. (2004) mentioned that previous related experience is key to project success.

Project participants experience is the backbone for the development of planning and

scheduling (AACE, 2006).

2.4 Project Environment

Project scope is widely accepted to be a contributing factor to the project

success. It is thought to be a useful indicator of the expected project construction

timeline. The attributes related to the project scope are: type of project, nature of


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project, complexity, and project size (Chan et al., 2004).

Construction projects are unique and temporary in nature and so their

management. This uniqueness in project activities often requires consumption of

initial time getting used to the project and the demands of the project scope. Though

the commitment of the all the project participants is essential to project completion,

the sophistication (competence) of the owner weighs in project schedule success (Iyer

and Jha, 2006).

2.4.1 Owners Sophistication

Taking timely decisions, regular monitoring and feedback of the project progress

is some of the characteristics of the owners competence (sophistication). It has

been found that in projects where the owners are technically competent and

financially strong good project performance is achieved. On the other hand,

incompetent owners proceed with projects without proper planning and are not able to

recruit competent personnel to look after their interests (Iyer and Jha, 2006).

Indecisiveness or slow decision by owners is also of great concern to both consultants

and contractors in respect to timely completion of projects (Odeh and Battaineh,

2002). All this results in an unsuccessful outcome as far as schedule is concerned

(Iyer and Jha, 2006).

2.4.2 Project Complexity

The construction process may be considered the most complex undertaking in

any industry. The construction industry has displayed great difficulty in coping with

the progressive increase in complexity of construction projects (Baccarini, 1996).


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However complexity of project schedule is different from the complexity of the

project itself. The complexity of the project schedule indicates high interconnection

between activities. When the resources needed for the project are widely spread, the

project is considered complex. Project complexity can be an important criterion in

the selection of an appropriate project organization form. Conversely, the complexity

of a project can affect the projects objectives of time, cost, and quality; it is

frequently used as a criterion in the selection of a suitable project procurement

arrangement (Nassar and Hegab, 2006).

Project complexity can be characterized through some factors that can be

classified into four categories as see in Figure 2.7. The project size is a project

complexity factor. Identifying the parameters that characterize the size of the

project system gives a first list of drivers of project complexity. A project system

must be over a minimum critical size to be considered a complex system. Factors

that are contemplated for the project size are: the duration of project, number of

activities, resources, decisions, departments, investors, objectives, stakeholder and the

largeness of scope.

Project Complexity

Project interdependence

Elements of contextProject Variety

Project Size

Fig. 2.7Drivers of project complexity (Vidal and Marle, 2008)


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Project variety relates closely to the diversity of the number of emergent

properties (factors) and is a necessary condition for project complexity. The factors

underlined are: diversity of staff experience, and variety of financial resources,

organizational interdependencies, organizational skills, stakeholders, resources

manipulated, project components, technical skills and dependencies.

Project interdependence is likely the greatest driver of project complexity.

Components of complexity will depend on and influence each other, making it

problematic in project scheduling. The following components make up the

interdependencies within a project system: interdependencies between the

components of the product, resource and raw material interdependencies,

specification interdependencies, amongst others.

Project complexity cannot be neither analyzed nor managed without

considering the elements of project context. The project context cannot be

transferred from project to project with different institutional and cultural

configuration. Elements of contextuality are: competition, culture, environment

complexity, local laws and regulation, public agenda and existing technological

innovation.

2.4.3 Schedule Specification

A critical step in the execution of a construction project is the selection of

planning and scheduling specification clauses to be included in the construction

contract (Ballast and Popesco, 2001). According the PMI (2007), a specification is a

document that specifies, in a complete, precise, verifiable manner, the requirements,

design, behavior, or other characteristics of a system, component, product, result or


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service and, often the procedures for determining whether these provisions have been

satisfied.

Currently the scheduling specifications have become over burdened with the

challenge of addressing the entire range of roles now encompassed by the activity of

scheduling. As a result, scheduling specification advancements over the years have

been extremely uneven, resulting in contract specification with schedule provision

ranging from two sentences to two dozen pages. This lack of standards and wide

variety of scheduling methodologies are the reasons for establishing standards and

best practices (Levin, 2006).

2.4.4 Culture

Culture is important to determine and analyze the ways of perception,

evaluation and application of techniques and technology in society (Kuruoglu and

Ergen, 2002). Culture is the totality of socially transmitted behavior patterns, arts,

beliefs, institution, and all other products of human work and thought. Every project

must operate within a context of one or more cultural norms. This area of influence

includes political, economic, demographic, educational, ethical, ethnics, religious,

and other areas of practice, belief, and attitudes that effects the way people interact

(PMBOK, 2004).


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CHAPTER THREE FACTORS AFFECTING SCHEDULING

PROCESS

Schedule delays and cost over runs are not a recent phenomenon (Son and

Rojas, 2011). The dynamic and unique nature of construction projects makes it

difficult to plan, schedule and control. Most research in factors affecting scheduling

has been taken up by developed countries. The difference in context, the

applicability in developing countries may not be the same and is therefore in need of

exploration (Iyer and Jha, 2006). Kuruoglu and Ergen (2002) explained that

developing societies do not approach problems the same ways developed societies do.

Though this may be partly due to cultural differences, other factors have significant

effects.

This chapter explores the common problems affecting the scheduling process

and provides a background of the problems. A brief summary of an initial survey is

presented about the schedule phenomena in the Belizean construction industry.

3.1 Scheduling Process Problems

Project schedules by nature are evolutionary documents and contain varying

amounts of detail. As a project progresses, more information is available and the

schedule is appropriately refined to reflect the available data (Hartley, 1993).

Planning and scheduling cannot be though as a one-time task, but rather a process

throughout the life of the project (PMBOK, 2004).

The dynamics of the project, the characteristics of the participants and the

nature of the environment constitute the factors that constantly influence changes and


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the schedule performance. However, Hartley (1993) commented that successful

planning and schedule development and control process is inherently affected by a

scheduling system. This scheduling system consists of the characteristics of

personnel and procedures that cause problems in the scheduling process as shown in

Figure 3.1. This will determine how well the schedule will serve as an efficient

management tool (PMI, 2007).

Personnel Procedures

Lack of commitment,

competence and

coordination

Lack of experience and

knowledge

Lack of communication

Poor Management

Improper Planning

Improper use of

scheduling methods

and techniques

Lack of standards and

schedule specification

Improper use and

knowledge of software

Fig. 3.1 Scheduling process problems

3.1.1 Personnel

Lack of commitment, competence, and coordination

Project managers competence, commitment of the project participants,

owners competence and coordination among project participants predominantly

contribute towards success of the project. Competence enables the project

participants to make appropriate decisions on time including corrective actions if

necessary. Commitment motivates the team toward successful and on-time

completion of the project. While, coordination keeps the flow of information,

resources and skills among the various participants engage in a project (Jha and Iyer,

2007).


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Lack of experience and knowledge

Individuals with construction knowledge and experience should carry out the

early project planning so that interference between design and construction can be

avoided (Nima et al., 2002). Hartley (1993) stated that without the involvement of

skilled and experienced personnel, scheduling is doomed to fail.

There are many short comings when schedule personnel are inexperienced.

The most common of this is unrealistic planning (Nima et al., 2002) and unrealistic

base-lined schedules (Son and Rojas, 2011). This is mainly because todays

schedulers have been taught a mechanized approach to scheduling that downplays or

even ignores the planning process (Ponce de Leon, 2008).

Lack of communication amongst project participants

Lack of communication is always listed as one of the short comings for poor

project schedule performance. Communicating involves the exchange of information.

The sender and receiver are responsible for clear, unambiguous and complete

diffusion of information (PMBOK, 2004). Projects schedules are the medium

through which information is presented for the clear execution of the project. To

attain maximum benefits, the continual use of the project schedule by all project

participants is necessary.

Poor management

Participants often experience some sort of schedule pressure which often

causes out-of-order work to be corrected (Nepal et al., 2006). PM solutions need to

be flexible so that schedules can weather out these and other turbulences. Poor

management fails to integrate and respond to difficulties that may arise. Combining


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superior scheduling solutions with strong project management, close communication

among project participants and standardization of technology and procedures make a

good model for success (Sappe, 2007).

3.1.2 Procedures

Improper planning

Construction projects involve large group of activities to achieve the goals in

the project scope. These activities require vast amount of resources, having them

available at the right time and in the proper quantity is a challenge, which project

managers are constantly faced with. Additionally resources are not always provided

at construction sites upon demand because some of them are scarce in the market

(Kim et al., 2005). Some of these challenges can sometimes be mitigated or even

avoided with proper planning. Ponce de Leon (2008) concurs with this by stating

that the one common thread linking the majority of schedule slippage is having

inadequate collaborative planning. Planning is the essence of project management, the

aim of which is to achieve a defined objective within defined temporal and financial

constraints (Long et al., 2004). Glenwright (2004) also agrees that the main issue

plaguing scheduling planning and development is not doing enough planning of the

details of the contract execution.

Improper use of scheduling methods and tools

The drivers of success are not in the relative advantage of one scheduling

algorithm over the other, but in how your project scheduling process uses the tools

and methods available to the projects best advantage (Griffith, 2005). When properly


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used, scheduling methods and tools force the project team to break down the project

into discrete activities, estimate the duration of each, and think through the possible

and preferable sequencing of the activities (Griffith, 2005).

Inefficient standards and specification

I cant stress enough the correlation between standardization and success,

writes Richard Sappe (2007). A comprehensive planning and scheduling specification

system can aid in the planning and job sequencing of financing, workforce, material

and equipment (Ballast and Popescu, 2001).

Schedule provisions are necessary for a number of issues (Levin, 2006).

They contain information regarding the qualification of the scheduler, the scheduling

methods, tools and techniques that are to be used. They establish the ground rule for

owner-supplied materials or actions required in given events. Additionally, schedule

specifications transfer risk to the respective project participants.

Incompetent use of software

Many of the schedules were modeled in scheduling software packages, but the

activities were not networked together systematically (Griffith, 2005). Many

researchers have found out the scheduling software in many instances is used mainly

for representation purposes and not for communicating the project deliverable and

time of deliverables (Herroleon, 2005).

3.1.3 Problems in Developing Countries

Good project performance or project success is not common in the

construction industry. Hence, many professionals and scholars have been motivated


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to take extensive efforts to meet this challenge (Long et al., 2004).

Previous research has found that the major problems contractors in developing

countries are faced with can be classified into four groups. They are: problems

imposed by the industry, problems of inaccurate information, failure to meet

obligations on the part of project participants, and problems imposed by their own

short comings (Odeh and Battaineh, 2002). Ogunlana et al. (1996) stated that the

construction industry problems in developing countries are nested in three layers:

inadequacies in the industry infrastructure, problems caused by owners and

consultants, and problems caused by the contractors incompetence.

Inadequacies of the infrastructure

Lack of management skill and technical personnel is one of the most noted

shortcomings of the industry in developing countries. The few individuals that

practice project management are at the mercy of uncertainty of resource shortage and

a fluctuation of work force with variable productivity. The productivity may be

attributed to the lack of improper training and associations that regulates the

acceptable productivity yield (Odeh and Battaineh, 2002).

Accurate estimation needs accurate information in terms of quality, flow and

availability (Long et al., 2004). It is commonly perceived that the contractor is

ultimately responsible for the schedule performance, but the project involves owners,

designers and other people who are also responsible for the problems.

Schedule specifications are often inconsistent, confusing and poorly written,

and the owners construction management staff lacks the expertise to verify

compliance. Therefore causing a lack of respect to the schedule specification and

standard that are usually part of the contract requirement (Warhoe, 2009)


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Problems caused by owners and consultants

Owners are unwilling to delegate authority to consultants to do the project

management (Odeh and Battaineh, 2002). This causes managing the contract

ineffectively. This may be the outcome of the general practice where designers

/consultants and construction management is usually not well defined. Owners are

constantly causing interference, setting unrealistic contract duration, delaying

payments for completed works (Long et al., 2004). Owners and consultants with

slow decision making and limited support in project management plague the general

construction practice.

Problems caused by contactors

Contractors are reluctant to use scheduling techniques and to update schedules on

a regular basis (Odeh and Battaineh, 2002). Despite the fact that contractors are

required to submit schedules on most work, the schedules are often summary that are

hard used and updated. The inadequate contractor experience is the most common

known phenomenon which is caused by the selection carried out by the consultants

and owners when considering the lowest bidder as candidate for the project (Long et

al., 2004). Contractors lack management skill and are reluctant to invest in planning

and control or to hire construction managers. It is common to find that most on-site

manager are experienced civil engineers but with little training or education in

management.


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3.2 Initial Survey in Belize

The purpose of this initial survey was to get an initial understanding of

scheduling practice in Belize, a developing country. A questionnaire of 10 questions

related to factors affecting project scheduling process was designed (Appendix A).

These questions were derived from references such as AACE (2006), Buziak (2008),

and Iyer and Jha (2006). The questions were formatted to allow the respondents the

freedom to comment. This was done to enable to grasp an idea of the practice in

project scheduling in the Belizean construction industry.

Belize is a young nation that progressively is making improvements in its

construction industry. Nonetheless, it can be said that there is much to be done.

The construction industry over the last decade accounted for approximately 25% of

the GDP; however the industry is suffering from extreme delays due to many

shortcomings. Some efforts have being made and Belize now has a certified body of

professionals in the construction industry. There is still quiet more to be done in

establishing best practice, standards and regulations.

Many respondents contacted were willing to grant an interview. However,

contractors were more skeptical about granting an interview. It was realized later

that the reluctance was due to their lack of management knowledge.

A total of 15 professionals were surveyed, amongst were contractors, owners and

architects. These individuals represent a picture of the current practice in the

construction industry in Belize, given that the least years of experience was 4 and the

most was 20, with an average of about 12 years.


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3.2.1 Preliminary Results

The first question was to pinpoint the critical factors in the practice. Many of

the interviewees claimed that the main issue affecting project schedule is the lack of

project management and scheduling by the contractors. Figure 3.2 shows that 41%

of the interviewed agrees with this.

Fig. 3.2 Critical factors affectingproject schedules

Fig. 3.3 Most common schedulingtool

Most contractors are individuals with some experience as tradesmen and

entrepreneurial skills. These individuals often run into problems such as under pricing,

establishing unrealistic deadlines and often breaching initial contract agreement.

This, however, does not imply that there are not capable professionals, but reflects the

attitude of contractors toward planning and scheduling.

The second question surveyed the use of scheduling tools. Figure 3.3 shows

majority of the respondents use MS Project as their preferred scheduling tool.

This majority of the interviewees are in design and consulting firms. The 21%

represents the contractors who often use MS Excel table or other writing tools. This

indicates that scheduling knowledge is mostly within the consultants, which may

create a barrier for communication by using scheduling tools between project parties

Question 3 surveyed the use of pre-job meeting practices. These pre-job

17%

6%

12%

24%

41%

Information

Control

Participants'

Resources

Management

21%

7%

71%

Others

P3/6

Ms Project


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meetings for reviews of project scope are very important. Griffith (2005) comments

this provides a check to ensure accuracy and opportunity for functional personnel to

very their plans and expectation. However, Fig. 3.4 shows that this is not a common

practice and reinforces the fact that there is a lack of communication.

Fig. 3.4 Pre-job meeting for reviewsof project scope

Fig. 3.5 Project Participant thataffect Project Schedule

When question 4 was answered, Figure 3.5 shows that the owners and

contractors cause most of the delays. This question emphasizes that scheduling

knowledge on the part of the contractors is one of the causes for deficient schedule

performance. Additionally, designers/consultants and contractors suggest that

owners demand often cause delays. Owners cause schedules to be constantly

adjusted and no-value activities are sometimes done out of sequence in order to

maintain a workforce, as consequence of delays in payments of work completed.

This causes an increase in project cost due to rework in the tasks that are

out-of-sequence.

This trend has caused project participants to accept delays as part of project

operations. Contractors blame owners of indecision, lack of timely payment and

excessive change orders, while owners and designers blame contractors of lacking

management and scheduling knowledge to execute and deliver a project in time. Fig.

3.6 shows the responses to question 5, which asks how delays are seen.

75%

25%

no

yes

19%

38%

6%

38%

Suppliers

Sub/Contractor

Designer/Consultants

Owners


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Fig. 3.6Are delays inevitable Fig. 3.7Schedulers as part of project

Schedulers are necessary for large companies with multimillion dollar projects

but are a commodity for others: hence the reason for project engineer/schedulers to

be employed by small to medium companies (Buziak, 2008). This means that the

project engineers should be knowledgeable to carry out project planning and

scheduling.

Fig. 3.7 shows it is not common for construction companies to hire schedulers as

part of their project team. It is common practice for engineers that are heading a

project to provide a project schedule. This makes it necessary for engineers in

Belize to possess some scheduling knowledge. These are the responses relate to

question 6.

Question 7 was a direct question of the attention focus toward project schedule.

Figure 3.8 shows that 42 % scored themselves low, 25 % as medium and 33% as high.

However, Figure 3.9 (question 8) shows a consensus that project scheduling is

essential for proper project management. Nonetheless, many claim that there is a

lack of commitment, cooperation and support from other project participants, agreeing

with Jha and Iyer (2007).

67%

33%

No

yes

83%

17%

No

Yes


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Fig. 3.8Attention to scheduling Fig. 3.9 Consensus of scheduling

Control and maintenance of scheduling dictates that schedules should be

frequently updated. Question 9 queried the average frequency that update is carried

out on project schedule. Figure 3.10 shows that 67% of the updates occur at

intervals greater than one month.

Fig. 3.10 Average update cycle Fig. 3.11 More challenging phase

Time management has two basic phases, planning and scheduling. Question 10

asked which is found to be more difficult. Figure 3.11 shows that 91 % claim

planning to be more challenging. Majority replied that planning is more time

consuming and more difficult due to lack of historical data and industry standards.

This is true for young engineers, and more experienced engineers claimed that they

collect personal data that help them with future projects.

3.2.2 Informalities in the Industry

After the survey results are presented, a culture toward project scheduling, the

lack of management knowledge, and lack of schedule specification and standards are

summarized below.

33%

25%

42%

8-10

5-7

1-4

17%

83%

No

Yes

67%

17%

17%

> 1mth

2wks - 1mth

< 2wks.

9%

91%

Schedulin

g

Planning


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Planning and scheduling are viewed as waste of time. This is because the

industry is overwhelmed with a variety of uncertainty. Amongst these uncertainties

are the shortage of supplies and fluctuation of skilled labor. Therefore, prior

planning, although practiced, is considered a useless commitment of time and efforts.

Many experienced contractors do plan prior to construction, but it is rather an ad hoc

activity. This ad hoc planning lacks many of the processes described in the PMBOK

(2004) in order to make it effective.

Most project participants that are indirectly involved with project execution

acknowledge project scheduling. However, bulk of the construction is done mostly

by experienced contractors in technical aspect of construction without schedule

management knowledge. This leads to improper planning, scheduling and control of

projects.

Most project scheduling specifications are often copied and pasted from past

projects. These are seldom updated and enforced by the owners consulting team.

This affects the efforts that contractors put into scheduling. Not having updated and

enforced scheduling specifications lead to incomplete and unusable schedules. The

levels of details presented are minimal and cannot be used to monitor and control the

project progress.

On the interviews held, the interviewees claimed that there is no documentation

for them to rely on. No set standards for the requirements, variation of views of the

importance, and the informality of the schedules influence the contractors not to use

project schedules. The limited number of professionals and the availability of an

arbitration system for contract breach disputes have made schedule delays an

acceptable part of the construction industry.


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CHAPTER FOUR SURVEYING SCHEDULE PRACTICE

LEVELS AND RESULTS

After having discussed the problems and factors that affect scheduling practice in

Chapter 3, a questionnaire was developed in this chapter to survey the scheduling

process and performance to determine the level of practice and point out those areas

that need more attention. Section 4.1 explains the need for establishing scheduling

practice levels, Section 4.2 describes the questionnaire design, and Section 4.3

explains the questionnaire survey results.

4.1 Establishing Schedule Practice Levels

Benchmarking and determining the levels of expertise in an organization is not a

new idea. A five stage model to determine or benchmark the quality of an

organization was first presented in the late 1970s (Kwak, 2001). This was later

followed by the introduction of a continuous process improvement practices for better

quality management in an organization (Kwak and Ibbs, 2002). This idea can be

used to determine the levels of practice for project scheduling process.

4.1.1 Effort to establish the scheduling practice

Projects are dynamic, unique and temporary that makes the scheduling practice

difficult (PMBOK, 2004). One schedule model cannot work for all projects. Each

project in itself determines what tools and techniques are more adequate (Hartley,

1993). This causes project managers and schedulers in both the public and private

sectors to range across an organizational spectrum, in different levels of scheduling


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knowledge and practice. Many have argued that defining the practice level can help

to improve performance (Barber, 2004).

As evidence of the effort to determine and position an organizations level of

knowledge and practice in PM, the PM2 model has been introduced (Kwak and Ibbs,

2002). Additionally the conformance index scoring using scheduling components as

described in the PMIs (2004) Practices Standard for Scheduling, reflects the

maturity and levels of scheduling practice of scheduling practitioners.

In the efforts to establish a scheduling practice standard, the Project Management

Institute College of Scheduling (PMICOS) has two publications that discuss time

management: the Project Management Book of Knowledge (PMBOK) and Practice

Standard for Scheduling. In the PMBOK (2004), chapter 6 is devoted to the time

management processes, which are required to ensure a timely completion of the

project. The Practice Standard for Scheduling (PMI, 2007) describes the methods

related to scheduling that are generally recognized as good practice for most project

most of the time. It contains the schedule components that ought to be used to make

the scheduling model useful as a planning and control tool.

The American Association of Cost Engineering (AACE) has published various

Recommended Practices that delineate the responsibilities of scheduler, level of

details, methodology for schedule oriented claims and analysis (AACE, 2006). All

the above literature describes the required knowledge, process, and methods and

responsibilities that a scheduler should possess and practice. This literature

complements each other by having and sharing the same relevant principles related to

time management requirements.


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4.1.2 Maturity Level Assignment

In order to assess the maturity level of practice, reference was made to the

methodology used by the PM2 model described by Kwak and Ibbs (2002). The PM2

model has five levels of maturity, level one being the lowest and five being the

highest. Figure 4.1 shows the different PM2 levels with their corresponding PM

maturity.

Initial

Level 1

Planned

Level 2

Managed

Level 3

Integrated

Level 4

Sustained

Level 5

Adhoc PM

Process

Basic project

Planning

Standard Project

Tracking

Advanced Project Planning

and Management

Continous PM Process

Improvement

Level 1

Level2

Level3

Level 4

Level 5

PM2

LevelsScheduling Practice Levels

Very formal

Planning and scheduling methods are mostly

used and scheduling control is mostly done

Very informal

Planning and scheduling techniques almost

never used and no schedule control execution

Informal

Planning and scheduling techniques seldom

used with no schedule control.

Moderately formal

Planning and scheduling methods are

sometimes used with some schedule control

Formal

Planning and scheduling methods are often

used alone with schedule control

Fig. 4.1 Schedule Practice Levels

Numeric level assignment to qualitative responses enables such to be quantitative.

The questions in parts B, C, and D in the questionnaire (Appendix B) give the

respondents 5 options to choose from. The answers are in a Likert scale form which

surveyed the agreement, frequency, formality, and importance of the factors


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of the scheduling practice. To the five options provided, each progressive as the

level of the Likert scale from low to high, or 1 to 5, respectively, indicating the level

of maturity. This is similar to the PM2 model that was developed by Ibbs and Kwak

(2002).

Figure 4.1 shows the similarity between the PM2 and scheduling practice

maturity levels. Note that the scheduling maturity practice levels correspond to

those of the PM2 model. To evaluate the levels of any sample, the averages of each

part (B, C and D) will be indicative of such. Moreover, these averages can be further

average to indicate an overall level of performance. Note that Figure 4.1 shows that as

the practice maturity level increases, so does the formal level of planning and

scheduling methods and techniques practiced.

4.2 Questionnaire Design

A questionnaire was developed to target construction project participants in

Taiwan and Belize (Appendix B). These participants involve contractors, consultants

and owners working in the public and private sectors of the construction industry.

The design of this questionnaire took into consideration the literature regarding

the scheduling practice. The questionnaire consists of four parts: general

information, project environment, scheduling process and scheduling performance.

The general information of the respondents was collected to correlate the experience

and area of work to the level of schedule practice.

4.2.1 General Information

This part covers general information of the project participants surveyed. The

questions are related to the type and size of organization, and the position the


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respondent holds in the organization. It also covers the years of experience, how

scheduling knowledge was obtained and whether scheduling is a major part of their

job description. These questions are required to determine the quality of

knowledge available and how well it is being used and in which sector of the industry

is being more successful in implementing scheduling process.

4.2.2 Project Environment

This part covers the project environment in which scheduling process is

developed and utilized for monitoring and control. It has eight questions, the first

two questions address the size and complexity of the projects, the following four

address how project participants view project scheduling. The last two questions

survey the use of scheduling specifications.

The first question attempts to identify the size of projects that are normally

practiced in term of duration. This will provide a measure for the need of scheduling

practice that is required. The second question addresses how project complexity

affects the effort and time that are required for scheduling. This is because project

complexity usually demands an exceptional level of management (Baccarini, 1996).

Jha and Iyer (2007) have stated that commitment of project participants,

including the owner, is dominating factor for schedule compliance. Therefore

questions 3 through 6 addresses how the project participants view the use of

scheduling as a management tool in their project management.

Question 7 is directed to find out whether scheduling specifications are carefully

designed for each project. Schedule specifications are important for they contain the

necessary information regarding the type of schedules, the update cycle and specify


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ask, when will the project be completed? As a control tool the time and cost

information of the work performed is essential. To address this, question 9 was

included as part of the scheduling process section.

4.2.4 Schedule Performance

This part discusses the delays that are common in the industry, the cost spent on

scheduling and level of satisfaction the practitioner have toward the current practice.

Project delays are one of the biggest problems construction firms are facing today

(Tumi et al., 2009). This makes it noteworthy to assess the schedule performance in

order to assess it in a particular industry. Question 1 asks the delays that each

individual has experienced. The delays are measured as a percentage of the

baseline schedule: this will provide a more indicative ratio, rather than measuring the

delays in unit time, which would be dependent of the duration of the project.

Using schedule tools and techniques on projects does require investment of time

and money. Practitioners assert that using these practices drive a better outcome that

outweighs the cost to implement (Griffith, 2005), thought in its initial stage the

returns are not high (Ibbs and Reginato, 2002). Therefore, question 2 surveys the

actual cost that is being spent for working on schedules.

Project scheduling management has two phases: planning and scheduling. The

successful schedule development is only as good as the planning efforts. Improper

planning and scheduling has been identified as one of the causes of delays in the

construction projects (Long et al., 2004). Question 3 queries the developed schedule

based on initial planning. Project schedule defines the scopes of work of a project

which can be used to communicate the deliverables required to complete the project.


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The use of the project schedule as a tool to improve communication is queried in

question 4.

Change is inevitable and every project will experience it (PMI, 2007). The use

of the project schedule as control tool is dependent on accurate reporting and tracking

of the baseline. Nonetheless this is dependent on the schedule capabilities of the

project team. Question 5 addresses the degree to which project schedules are used

for time control. Overall, the last question surveys the level of satisfaction that the

respondent has toward project schedule.

4.3 Survey Process and Results

The questionnaire was first designed in English (Appendix B) and then translated

to Chinese (Appendix C). This was done in order to survey the professionals

project schedule maturity of both Belize and Taiwan.

The questionnaire was made available to the professionals of the Belizean

construction industry via e-mails containing an attached Word file and a link to a web

page. Some of the responses were e-mailed back whilst others were directly

uploaded to the online web page. Of the 70 questionnaire that were sent to Belize, a

total of 29 responses were collected. Ten of the responses were e-mailed, whilst the

remaining 19 were uploaded directly to the web page, this account to 41% of the

questionnaires sent. None of these responses were discarded.

The Chinese translated questionnaire web link was also e-mailed to professionals

of Taiwan in addition to the hard copies that were made available at seminars and

visits. Taiwanese responses were divided in to three groups: owners, consultants and

Linkage between Scheduling Process Maturity and Schedule Performance of Construction Projects

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