Linguistics

Linguistics’ Program 20/10/2012Part 1

1-What is language (Revision).2-What is historical linguistics (philology or historicism).3-What linguistics is not (traditional grammar).4-What is modern linguistics (principal characteristics).

Part2: Major structuralism school5-Geneva school (European structuralism with De Saussure).6-The Prague School (functionalism).7-American structuralism with (Bloomfield).

Part 3:8-Structuralism and phonology.9-Structuralism and morphology.10-Structuralism and syntax.

Part 4: Post-Structuralism11-The American linguist Zelling Harris ->teacher of Chomsky.12-Generativism with Chomsky.Reference:-Allen, J.P.B and Corder, SP (1918) papers in applied linguistics Oxford University Press.-Berry, N (1997) Introduction to systemic linguistics London. Batsford-Bolinger, D (1968) aspects of language New York Harcourt Brace.-Chomsky, N (1957) Syntactic Structures The Hague Mouton.- Crystal, D (1971) Linguistics Penguin Books.-De Saussure, F (1915) Cours de Linguistiques General (Paris Payot).- Loyons, J (1970) New Horizons in linguistics Penguin Books.- Napoli, D.J (1996) Linguistics: An Introduction Oxford University Press.-The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English language by David Crystal (1995) Cambridge University Press. -Naom Chomsky by Wolfgang Sperlich (2006) Reakton Books LTD.-Chomsky Ideas and Ideals by Neal Smith (1999) Cambridge University Press.-An Introduction to Linguistics and Language Studies by Ann Mc Cabe (2011) Equimos.- What’s linguistics: An Introduction by Napoli, D.J Oxford University Press.-Modern linguistics. The results of Chomsky Revolution by Smith, N and Wilson, D Harvest Press.- An Introduction to Linguistics by Loretto Todd 1987 Longman York Press.- A Theory of Syntax, Minimal Operations and Universal Grammar by Norbert.

1

Linguistics

DEFINITION OF LANGUAGELanguage is a means of communication that is used by the members of the same society, community (milieu).Language is a social as well as individual phenomenonIt enables human beings to communicate orally or in writing.

Language reflects (mirrors-give an idea) the culture of the society of speaker who use it. It’s the primary system through which all the components (elements) of the culture are expressed.Spoken language is primary and universal, no group of people without spoken language has never been discovered. All human beings in a given community speak well enough and understand to carry out (to do-to perform) the basic activity of life. Many of these same people cannot read or write. There is no primitive language. Every language in the world is rich enough and sufficiently complete for its speaker.-Every language speaker can produce an infinite number of sentences, he also has the competence to recognise all the sentences of the language.-Writing is considered as secondary system derived from speech and not complete in many ways (no rhythm, no intonation, no stress no gestures.The fundamentals (principals-characteristics) of language:1- Language is a sound2- Language is linear (successive succession of word e.g: I go to London, one word after another)3- Language is systematic (we have to respect an organized structure of a sentence it shoul be meaningful.4- Language is a system of system (there is morphology, syntax.....................etc 5 levels)5- Language is arbitrary 6- Language is conventional7- Language is creative8- Duality of pattering (double articulation) that relate the sub systems of sound with the sub systems of meaning. (economic)

2

Linguistics

Questions: How do we communicate? Spoken form, writing form

Speech and writing difference: speech is primary writing secondly

Writing lakes gesture: no intonation, no stress no melody, no rhythm... Incomplete in

comparacy

Relationship between culture and language?

- Language is used to give an idea about culture/ - Reflecting culture/language mirrors culture.

What is culture? Set of values (history...etc) shared by the members of the same society

Does language change all the time? Yes

Dialect changes from a place to another because of geography, history, culture, educational

background, gender e.g: men don’t use the same language as women

Functions of language:

-Informative function

-Interactive function (expression of feeling)

Majors element in a conversation

Speaker ->encode the message / Listener-> decode the message

Situation (context: message)

Sometimes there is a gap (disfonctionnement-fr-)

Language disorder (I don’t get the meaning)

Difference between arbitrary and conventional? Language is:

Arbitrary: no bound, no direct connection between an object and the name given to that

object.

Conventional: people agree about the name e.g: windows

Characteristics of language?

-Language is creative, is sound, linear, systematic, system of systems, arbitrary, conventional.

-Double articulation; language is a system that relates 2 sub systems, sub system of sound and

sub system of meaning.

-Language is economic: with a small number of words, we can produce an infinite number of

sentences.

3

Linguistics

Two major function of language

Interactive informative

Communication (function) Askingresponding*In any communicative situation

channelSpeaker ==== listener(encode) msg (decode)

We have to share the same code to understand each other.Sometimes there is a gap because of: disorder of language (they don’t pronounce correctly for that there is no understanding)CHARACTERISTICS OF LANGUAGE: Language is sound: speak comes before writing Linear: e.g: I go to London => one word after another => succession of wordsSystematic: combination of words according to rules which must be respected (grammar, structure) System of systems: phonology, phonetics, syntax, semantics, morphology.Arbitrary: there is no direct relationship between the shape/object and the noun e.g: window there is no connection between the object and the name given to this object.Conventional: agreement between people to call things for example people agreed to call window in this way.Creativity: using rules we can produce an infinite number of sentences.Double articulation: (duality of pattering)

System relates two systems

Sound meaningSmall number of sound=> we can produce=>a large number of units (words, sentences)Sounds in any language are limitedEconomic: with small number of words we can produce an infinite number of sentences.The relationship between language and culture: language is used to express or to give some ideas about culture (language reflects culture)What is culture?Is a set of values (civilization, traditions, art, history, religion...) shared by the members of the same society.

4

Linguistics

HISTORICAL LINGUISTICS

Historical linguistics is the study of language change and how different languages have

developed over time because in the course of history languages have been subject for change.

The study of language change over time, among the most famous figure of historicism we can

mention: Jasperson, Herman and Sumpson (most important).

Historicism has 5 main concerns

1-To describe the changes in languages

2-To reconstruct the history of languages and determine their relationship (relatedness) and

group them into language families

3-To develop theories about how and why languages change

4-To describe the history of speech communities

5-To study the history of words (etymology)

Sub field of historical linguistics (branches):

1-Comparative linguistics: concerned with comparing languages to establish their historical

relatedness, reconstruct the prehistoric proto-languages and establish language families.

2-Etymology: study of the history of the words, when they entered a language, from what

source (origin) and how their forms and meanings have changed.

3-Dialectology: is the study of linguistics dialect and the varieties of languages.

4-Morphology: it study the internal structure of words and how they changed over time e.g:

old English & modern English.

5-Syntax: it’s the study of the internal structure of sentences and the rules for constructing

them e.g: old English we didn’t use auxiliary verb in question like: you know? –NOT- do you

know?

6-Phonology: it’s study the phonemic system of the language and the sound change over time

e.g: in old English: we didn’t say house but hoos.

7-Symantic: studies the change in the meaning of words and sentences.

5

Linguistics

Why does language change? Technological developmentThe sociolinguistic factor (exchange of knowledge between people)The psychological factor: language acquisition by children for example: parents use abbreviations and new words to talk to their children.-change in pronunciation: I’m going to => I’m gonna-The shift from old English to Middle English to Modern English.How did historical linguistic start? With philology (study of ancient text script and document (writing record....) then comparative linguistics: comparing languages & relatedness between them & grouping languages into families according to similarities & differences.Then diachronic then modern linguisticsWhy studying historical linguistics? Show how they are related to each other to classify(to group languages in families).19th century diachronic study of language? Development of language (De Saussure 1st who gives that name)20th century synchronic linguistics? The study of language at a particular point in time not all the time (un état de langue)What is meant by proto language? The origin language: very first language, from what origin did language descend.Why do languages change? Different culture, people, borrow word from other language e.g English-> French New means of technology (revolution...Sociological factors e.g: language acquisition by children e.g: use abbreviation for children by parentFunctional explanation e.g: change in pronunciation shift of ancient English to modern English (easier, not like Shakespeare English)What is meant by Etimology? Study of sub field (branch) of historical language (origin changes)Language is called living phenomenon because it is used in our daily life everywhere

Philology

Comparative linguistics

Diachronic

Modern linguistic -> structuralism

6

Linguistics

-What is traditional Grammar?Generally speaking Traditional Grammar is an old school refers to Greek and Latin philosophers who wanted to know the origin of languages and the relationship between words and meanings.-Why it is called Traditional? It was called in the past at the 18 century Prescriptive School but nowadays Traditional Grammar because the rules used by Greek and Latin are no longer used now.What is Grammar?Is the set of the structural rule that are used in the construction or combination of phrases, clauses, sentences...-What is the difference between Grammar, syntax and morphology?From Grammar we have branches: morphology, syntaxMorphology: it studies the internal structure of words and how they changed over time e.g:

old English & modern English.

Syntax: it’s the study of the internal structure of sentences and the rules for constructing

them e.g: old English we didn’t use auxiliary verb in question like: you know? –NOT- do you

know?

-What are the principals of Traditional Grammar?1-Prescriptive (normative approach): tells us how we should write and speak, are called norms or rules of correctness and we should follow (called: say and don’t say) this is true you have to follow and this is wrong you have to avoid.2-Subjectivity: Giving personal evaluation (in the past grammar gathered and say let’s say this and not say that) base on personal or humanistic approach of language.They thought that writing is more important and has the priority over speaking.3-Traditional grammarians restrict themselves on a particular style of writing (formal) and impose it on people. (priority to the written form over the spoken ones)

Critics of Traditional Grammar-Illogical because it is normative (impose rules), subjective (so is not scientific study).-Neglect speech (write first)-Literary style, impose the style restricted to upper social class and wanted to impose this to all class.-No social variety no dialect, they neglected this-Traditional Grammar is diachronic De Saussure disagree-Literary style itself, is a subject of change, we cannot impose it as a standard.

7

Linguistics

Traditional grammar Linguistics T.G pays more attention to the written form of the language

Linguistics puts emphasis on the spoken medium

T.G is prescriptive Linguistics is descriptive. T.G is interested more in syntax Linguistics has a broader scope for research T.G puts emphasis on grammar than on any other aspect of the language

Linguistics analyses all the aspects of language

T.G deals with language mostly from the diachronic point of view

Linguistics assumes that synchronic study has a priority over diachronic study

No notational conventions were used Specific notational conventions used to refer to the date of language.

8

Linguistics

Modern linguistics

Modern linguistics is a scientific study of language, it follows a scientific methodology and

procedures (steps). Steps are:

1-Objectivity: the linguist should observe the language, set up by hypothesis, test them and

then accept or reject them accordingly; he should also study language away from his personal

judgement or feelings.

2-Descriptivism: the linguist tries to describe and explain how a language works and not to

impose norms (standards) on people on how it should work or what is correct or incorrect (it

is explanatory)

3-Consistency: the absence of contradictions between the different parts of the total

statements (it’s a sort of link between the parts)

4-Exhaustivism: the adequate (complete) treatment of the different element of the language

from the smallest to the highest, from sound to sentence.

5-Economy: the linguists should use short statements and use as few terms as possible.

6-Systematicness: the linguists should be selective and should give organization to his work by

concentrating on one aspect of his subject matter.

7-Explicitness (clarity) any scientific methodology should explain things in a clear way i.e each

data should be clear.

8-Specticism (there is doubt): the linguist should always discuss and re-question the truth of

the statements, they should prove it, base his experience.

The linguistic should always discuss and re-question the truth for its statements, he should

take as little as possible for granted and examine language as for the 1st time i.e the ability to

be verified in time and space.

9-The linguist should never pay attention to the laymen’s (someone who is not trained in or does not

have a detailed knowledge of a particular subject) prejudices (judgement-opinion) e.g: it is wrong to say that classical Arabic is purer than the Algerian Arabic (not based on scientific methodology), but the linguistic should say give me the evidence.

Questions:9

Linguistics

The linguists are scientific (should use short sentences and go to the point)

What is the difference between empiricism and rationalism?

Empiricism: all language comes from experimentations (opposed to rationalism):

1-observation

2-make hypothesis

3-make experimentation (to check)

Rationalism: based on reason of mind (it’s logical)

2-The linguists should study language for sake of language? Study language for itself (how

language is.......................and how it works) no in relation with other fields or language, the

purpose is for that language.

Microlinguistics (or core linguistics): phonology (study the level of language), phonetics,

morphology, syntax, lexicology, semantics and pragmatics.

Macrolinguistics: (major branches deal with sub-fields derived from social, cutural............)

Sociolinguistic, neurolinguistics, discourse analysis, evolutional linguistics, applied linguistics,

computational linguistics, psycholinguistics.

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Linguistics

16/12/2012Geneva school “European Structuralism”

البنيوية المدرسة

De Saussure’s major dichotomies are :1-Synchronic/Diachronic2-Langue/Parole3-Syntagmatic/Paradigmatic

4-signifiant/Signifié5-Prescriptive/Descriptive

Language:Saussure studies language for itselfSaussure studies language as a living phenomenonLanguage is a dynamic social activity which people use to communicate this def..........Language is a system of signs.Diachronic study is the total study of Synchronic study19th century diachronic study of language? Development of language (De Saussure 1st who gives that name) and examine the evolution of language through time.20th century synchronic linguistics? The study of language at a particular point in time not all the time, as a living whole (un état de langue)Saussure emphasizes on Synchronic study Study language for language (social code)

Utterance => pronounced (sentences, words...)

Dichotomies

langue

Language system

Parole -act of speaking-

DichotomiesSyntagmatic (distributional)

The combination of wordsParadigmatic (substitutional)

To change a word in a sentence by a word in our mind and who doesn’t exist in the sentence

DichotomiesSignifiant

Combination of letter e.g: c.u.pacoustic image

Signified (semantic image)The meaning e.g: a cup

The name is the result of conventionDichotomies

Synchronic- The study of language at a particular point in time not all the time (un

état de langue)

Diachronic - Development of language (De Saussure 1st who gives that name)

Questions:11

Linguistics

De Saussure is the chief runner of structural linguistics

What is semiotics?

Is the science of linguistic signs.

What is the definition given to language by De Saussure?

He was the 1st to consider language as a system of signs and also a structure.

2-What is the difference between syntegmatic and Paradigmatic?

Syntagmatic (distributional) combination of words according to rules.

Paradigmatic (substitutional) substitute words that can replace another word but must be

from the same category.

3-What is meant by syntagmatic relationship?

Words are combined to form a meaningful sentence under specific rules.

What is syntagme?

Sentence itself (the construction, the combination, the structure itself)

What is paradigmatic relationship?

Replacing (substituting) words from the same category?

What is meant by paradigm?

class of element that share grammatical function (equivalent in function)

What is meant by dichotomies?

Dichotomies means 2 opposite aspect of same things (like *2 face of a coin) or opposite pairs.

De Saussure is a scientific linguist

What was the basic ........................................................................................................................................................................

Considering language as a living phenomenon

Language as a system of signs

independent........................................................................................................................................................................................

The purpose: 1- consider language as a system/2-study the organization of the system

(language)/3-study the relationship between the elements of language.

12

De Saussure’s

major dichotomies

1-Synchronic/Diachronic

Studying language

differently

2-Langue/Parole

Competence performance

(speech act)

4-signifiant/SignifiéSignifier/ Signified

دال / مدلولSign

form meaning

sound concept/idea acoustic semantic

Image image /teɪbl /

e.g: table

3-Syntagmatic/Paradigmatic

Axis of combination

(Select the rules)

Paradigmatic relationship

(The elements are

equivalent in function)

Linguistics

13

FUNCTIONALISM WITH PRAGUE SCHOOLFunctionalism was born into structuralism. The best representatives of functionalism were the linguistic of Prague School which was founded in 1926. This circle was dealing not only with Slavic language but also with English. They were considered as functionalists or they saw language in terms of function. They tried to understand the functions of the different components of language and how the nature of one component can determine the function of the nature of others. They produced a set of principles:1- They made a distinction between phonetics and phonology. Phonetics: Physical study.Phonology: linguistic study-Studies sounds in relations to language.2- Studied phoneme and its distinctive features. According to them a phoneme (the smallest phonological unit) is a set of distinctive features that distinguish one sound from another. This idea of distinctive features was formulated by Roman Jockobson in 1942.3-They established the minimal pairs test. It’s used to establish the phonemes of a language.4-They introduced the Notion of Binarity (P/b).= a kind of classification to make comparison between sounds.5-They made difference between the psychological subject and the Grammatical subject.The psycho is performing the action or the real doer, even though it’s not the grammatical subject.6- Difference between theme and rheme. The psyco subject is the theme about which a comment is made in the sentence. This king of analysis is called “Functional sentence perspective”. It deals with how information is presented over the sentence.-Functionalism is to study the function of the sentence, they were interested in the different functions of the different elements of the language itself, they were interested in studying phonemes and how do these phonemes ………………………… to meaning.Functionalists work was based on De Saussure’s work, It’s a continuation. They followed his way.They rejected something and put emphasis on other thing. Functionalism was born into structuralism.Interests: studying the function of language.Different elements of the sentenceWe should look at structure but we should look at the function itself. They based their study on communication because language is used to communicate. They emphasized communicative act before dealing with constituents of sentence.How the sentence is preventativeFunction Communicative actPrinciples

} Before dealing with structure

Principles1- They made difference between phonetics* and phonology (sound system of language)* perception of speech sound (physiological)Functionalists were the 1st to make the difference 2- they studied the distinctive phonemes of language (what makes these phonemes different from each other/voiced/voiceless, fortis/lenis….3-They establish the function of the notion4-they introduced the minimal pair test (two words that differ in only one phoneme. (hat-bat/cat-bat) 2 words differs in 1 phonemeThey differentiated between Grammatical and psychological subject.They introduced the notion of Binarity (type of comparison)

P -bilabial b -bilabial

-Plosive -voiceless

-Plosive -voiced

The door was opened by JohnG.S Psychological –the real doer-* They made difference between theme and rhemeMy mother cooked lunch theme rheme (comment on the topic/what happened)

Questions : How was functionalism born (the roots)? It was a continuation to structuralism, it was based on Saussure’s theory. In 1926, reaction or continuation of structuralism (logical succession)? It was a continuation. Functionalism was born on the base of structuralism and add on it.Why do we produce utterances? To communicate, the purpose of producing utterance is to convey message.What is a phoneme? The smallest phonological unit.The smallest linguistic unit that is able, when combined with other such units, to establish word meanings and distinguish between them.Distinctive1 feature2

1-Distinctive: distinguish between 2 sound thanks to them we distinguish between features.2-Features: characteristics-series Minimal pairs: 2 words that differ only in one phonemeFunctionalism was born into structuralism (logical succession)The structure itself is not enough but we have to add the function they study the function of the sentence (which is to communicate a message) they study how the information are presented not what are the constituents of the sentence.The structure comes after this is the difference between functionalism and structuralismThe basic principal of functionalismStudy different function of the different element of language.Made distinction between phonetic and phonologyPhonetics is the physical study of the production or perception of soundPhonology deals with the sound function in the language, study the sound system of one language.Establish minimal pairChanging meaning fat/hatNotion of :1- Binarity: (kind of classification that let us makes comparison between sounds)e.g: P and B are bilabial plosive but p is voiceless ans B is voiced (absence of voice or vibration in the vocal folds)2- Psychological and grammatical: The book was reads by John (psychological : John (real doer/performer of the action)Grammatical object: book3-Theme and Rheme: e.g: my mother is cooking lunch theme or the topic Rheme (comment on the topic/what happened)My mother is the topicWhat happening to my mother: the comment is the rheme made about the topic addition information.e.g: Jane stands on the table Team Rheme

On the table stand James Team Rheme

This king of …………….. functional sentence perspective analyzing rheme and teamNotion of neutralization

Feburary, 2013Second year (all groups)

Duration: 2 hoursFirst Examination in Linguistics

Choose one of the following questions (20pts) 

Question 01: Write a well organized composition in which you discuss the contribution of F.DE Saussure in the development of Modern Linguistics 

Question 02: Traditional Grammar is prescriptive rather than descriptive.Write a well organized composition in which you discuss the above statement.

Best of luck Correction

Rules in the exams of Mme BenzeroukPay attention to your style of writing (use the techniques you have learned in the other modules e.g: writing: introduction, 2 paragraphs at least, concludingBe careful the spelling and grammatical mistakesDon’t forget the punctuation and cohesionsDon’t give the same examples seen in class with Madam Benzerouk.Never use abbreviation like lg for language and st for sentence.Topic 1:It is about what De Saussure bring like language is a system of system, a structure and a living phenomenon + dichotomies Topic 2: It is not a comparison between traditional grammar and modern linguistics

Question 01:

Write a well organized composition in which you discuss the contribution of F.DE Saussure in

the development of Modern Linguistics

Modern linguistics started to develop in 18th century and reached the golden age of philology in 19th century under the heading of the Swiss linguists Ferdinand De Saussure.

In opposition to the totally historical view of language of the previous hundred years. Saussure emphasized the importance of seeing language from two distinct and largely exclusive points of view. Which he called synchronic and diachronic. For De Saussure the distinction was essential. Synchronic linguists sees language as a living whole, existing as a state at a particular point in time (un état de langue, as Saussure put it). To consider historical material is to enter to domain of diachronic linguistics. This deal with the evolution of a language through time, as a continually changing medium a never ending succession of language states. So, this important concept introduced because FDS, who saw it as a major dimension of language study until the twentieth century, most studies of language were diachronic in character investigation long-term changes in pronunciation, grammar, or vocabulary, such as from Indo-European into Latin, from Germanic into English, or from Middle English into modern English. After De Saussure, the emphasis shifted away from the historical approach; modern linguistics became primarily a synchronic subject.

Significant and signifié

Saussure accepted that there must be two sides to meaning, but emphasized that the relationship between them was arbitrary. His labels for the two sides were signifé (that is, ‘the thing signified’) and significant (that is, ‘the thing which signifies’). Other pairs of terms could be used to make the same kind of distinction:’concept’ versus ‘acoustic image’ is one possibility which Saussure himself suggested; ‘content’ versus ‘expression’ is another, later suggestion. Saussure calls this relationship of signified to signifier a linguistic sign. The sign for him, is the basic unit of communication; a unit within the language of the community. Being a relationship, and part of langue, it is thus a mental construct-but we must remember that Saussure viewed such construct as nonetheless real (he refers to the sign as a ‘concrete entity’, at one point). Langue, in this way, can be viewed as a ‘system of signs’.

07/04/2013

American structuralism “Bloomfield”Spoken language is importantAmerican Structuralism appeared as a reaction to traditional grammar. It started with the book of Bloomfield entitled “Language”Language is considered as a structureStudy is scientific: Step up hypothesis then verification in order to draw a conclusion (to generalise the rule to the rest..)Bloomfield wanted to study word and sentence structure both belong to grammar.He made the difference between syntax and morphologyThe relationship existing within the sentence and between sentence and other sentencesIntroduced the notion of form class (category) that have similar functionOpen close: form class of verb which are substitutional (we can change them) Saussure said paradigmBloomfield Studied language in terms of stimulus-responseBloomfield studied language from a behaviouristic approach (based on behaviourism. Stimulus and response (Pavlov’s experience was the 1st who study it) American Structuralism is corpus based, Bloomfield reject the isolation we should study language as a whole no separation of data.American Structuralism is taxonomic we observe – we describe-classification but not explanation we are not obliged to explain.American Structuralism excludes the study of meaning and gave priority not to meaning (it’s abstract), the meaning is something abstract so not scientific, the form...........Bloomfield studied the surface structure not the deep structure (which is the meaning).The major point is the analyse of the sentence.

Immediate constituent analysis

For Bloomfield each sentence can be analyzed in term of 2 things.

Banniery cut

(done by two-step by step-always per 2)

Analyse this sentence

(subject+predicate)

Immediate constituent Analysis I.C.A

Construction (the sentence =the sentence itself) Constituents

1- The young girl eats a kiwi1st constitution (the sentence)

Predication subj-….

The young girl eats a kiwi

The young girl Complementation

eatsmodification a kiwiyoung girl

eat s a kiwi

The example of Bloomfield:

Grammatical ties (relationship): relate the constituent to each other

5-Grammatical complementation:1- Predication (relationship between subject and predicate.)2-Coordination ((,)(.)(;)) means of punctuation.3-Subordination (who,that,which)……………….from, at… relative pronouns, prepositions.4-Complementation: direct object, indirect object5-Modification: Happy / unhappy (we modify), write-> writes

I-C-AJust analyze the elements we do not label them. We don’t give them structure (N.P/V/VP..)

Tree Diagram+phonetic transcription

Ultimate (final) constituentcannot go further

Immediate constituent

Poor John ran away

Poor John ran away

ran away Poor John

The example of Bloomfield

Questions-Origin of American structuralism?Anthropologist “Franz Boas” who was interested in Indian tribes’s languages.Then Bloomfield -How did Bloomfield consider language?As structure as De Saussure, he “Bloomfield” accepted something and rejected others.-What do you mean by scientific methods? Empirical study based on observation.........etc.- American structuralism is descriptive? It’s modern so descriptivism (study how people use the language)-Major contribution of Bloomfield to structuralism:Immediate constituent.Language is considered as a structureStudying language scientific: Experience-> hypothesis -> verification-> in order to draw a conclusion (to generalise the rule to the rest)Bloomfield wanted to study word and sentence structure both belong to grammar.Made difference between syntax and morphologyThe relationship existing within the sentence and between sentence and other sentences...................?Introduce the notion of form class (category) that have similar function...................... open close form class of verb which are substitutional (we can change them) Saussure called them paradigm.7- Mentalism: Behaviourism considers language as a kind of Behaviour in terms of stimulus response. Mentalism considers language as related to the mind and not to an external stimulus.2.2. American structuralism : L. Bloomfield 2.2.1.Behaviorism and ScienceBehaviorism was a school of psychology. According to this school science can only deal with physical facts. Statements must be based on these physical characteristics. Thus, science must observe, describe physical facts and induce descriptive generalizations.2.2.2. Language : Stimulus and ResponseHuman behaviour is studied in terms of stimulus and response, consequently linguistic behaviour becomes also a pattern of stimulus and response, where language plays a mediating role.2.3. American and European structuralismAmerican and European structuralism had the same objective : describe and classify linguistic units, though they do not share the same perspective. European structuralists deal with Saussure's notion of langue, whereas Americans' perspective derived from the limitations of their behaviorist method.3.1.1 European StructuralismThe method that a science should follow is called Descriptive Grammar. It is based on observation• description (of data)• classification

Leonard Bloomfield (American linguist)

Language 1933-Behaviouristic approach to the study of language, including a behaviorist theory of semantics in which meaning is the relationship between stimulus and verbal response.-Complete neglect of semantics (No semantic theory which contains the law of contradiction as one of its principles is expressible in behaviourist terms. Ultimately (finally), American structural linguistics failed not for its inadequacies in phonology, morphology, and syntax but because behaviourism doesn’t provide an adequate basis for the development of a semantic theory for matural languages.-In syntax, he led the foundations of the theory of constituent structure. He generated so much enthusiasm for syntactic analysis that his ………. felt that they were doing syntax for the 1st time in the history of linguistic.-Bloomfieldian linguistics is often referred to as “distributional”, its aim is to establish a full description of all the contexts in which the various categories of words can be found in every day usage.-Every language should be considered as a system of relations. Every unit, every element in this system has no value by itself, if isolated.-Bloomfield said:”To put it briefly, in human speech, different sounds have different meanings. To study this coordination of certain meaning is to study language”.

American Vs European Structuralism- They shared number of features in studying language. They had the same objective. Describing and classifying linguistic units.-Both insist on the structural uniqueness of each language, and the necessity of treating each language as a more or less coherent and integrated system.-They were working on the same thing but they did not know each other.

European American-Language is a system -Language is a behavior-Emphasize his study on language upon the synchronic, focused on the present state of language.

- Took interest in both diachronic, synch arguing that language change through time (diachronic) as well as a specific point in time.

- Focused on Indo European languages. They didn’t go to the field.

-Indian languages, they consider that language is a living phenomenon. They went into the field.

- Language is socially shared system that makes production and comprehension possible.

-Describe language in term of stimulus approach.

2- American structuralism /(Bloomfield)It started in 1933. Bloomfield did an experiment to emphasize the relationship between the behavior and language or stimulus and response./ Bloomfield father of structuralism his book “language” has been the bible of linguistics. It’s been a continuation to his work intro to the study of language.Stimulus: something that encourages something to happens-> the girl feels hungryr-> the girl asks John to pick an apple.s-> Jack hears the girl’s request

r to s-> picking the apple and giving it to the girl.The fact of being hungry is the stimulus that causes her to ask Jack to pick apple from the tree (r) Physical response: movement of lips Linguistic response: mental movement

5 Main principles1-Their study was corpus based (a collection of written and spoken language), they rejected the idea of separating the data. They rejected dichotomies especially langue and parole. They study language as whole. They went to the field.2-It was taxonomic (the process of organizing similar things, it’s based on description that’s why It’s called description. They rejected explanation.3-American structuralism rejected the study of meaning.4-They restricted (themselves) their description of language to the surface structure (not deep which is meaning, something abstract so not scientific)5-They tried to formulate set of procedures to the analyses of language.Stimulus: something that encourages something to happen.The fact of being hungry-> stimulus which causes her to ask Jack to pick apple from the tree (Reactions).

S->R …………… S->R

{ {

SpeechS-> The girl feels hungryResponse -> The girl asks John to pick on apple.S-> Jack hears the girl’s request.R-> (Response to the stimulus) picking the apple a giving it to the girl.-> physical response: movement of linguistics-> Linguistic response: mental movementDifference between American and European structuralismThey shared number of features in studying language both insist in the structural uniqueness of each language; share a number of features in insisting upon the necessity of treating each language as a more or less coherent and integrated system.They emphasized on the structural uniqueness of individual languages. They were working on the same thing. They didn’t know each other but they shared the same point of view.SaussureBloomfield describes language in term of stimulus approach.Difference between them in studying language:American Structuralism focused on Indian language, they consider that language is a living phenomenon, they went into the field.De Saussure: focused on Indo European language. They didn’t go to the field.American Structuralism: It started with Bloomfield. It’s also called descriptivism. It was not challenged until Chomesky. Language for both of them is a system. They share the structuraliste point of view;5 principles (main): 1- Their study was corpus based. They went to the field; American structuralism rejected dichotomies especially langue and parole. They didn’t study language separately.

2- It was taxonomic. It’s based on description that’s why it’s called descriptivism. We describe language but don’t explain.3- American structuralism excludes the study of meaning from linguistic.4-They restrict their description of language to the surface structure (not deep which is meaning).5-they try to formulate set of procedures to the analyze of language.

Language is system { 6 pointsSentence is structure

Principles of language.1- Study of language should be based on scientific study, draw conclusion, generalize them-> 2-Bloomfield wanted to study word structure and sentence structure (relationship between them within language).For Bloomfield each sentence can be analyses in term of 2 things:

1- The young girl eats a red apple(__________________________v__________________________)

1st: construction (the sentence)Subj-Than the verb

Predication

The young girl Eats an appleWe can divide it into 2 major division (pair)

The Young girl eats An apple

The young Girl

the

young girleat s an Apple eat s an apple

Ultimate constituent (last stage)Chomsky->add transcriptionThere are 5 major grammatical2-Complementation: Direct object, indirect object.1-Predication: subject and predicate3-Modification: for example: write -> writes4-Coordination ((,)(.)(:)) means of punctuation5-Subordination (which, who, that,…) relative pronouns, prepositions.De Saussure vs Bloomfield1- Syntax: Saussure considered that sentences are combined thanks to syntagmatic and paradigmatic his work was mainly linguistics

Bloomfield considered reaction to a stimulus. His work is rather……..2-Meaning: For De Saussure any sentence has got 2 forms: structure and meaning.

21/04/2013

Morphology: in 1859 by august Shleider

Branch of grammar that study

Derivational (lexical) morphology

Know+ledge=knowledge

II-Inflectional morphology

To write: writes, wrote, …..

Notion of morpheme

morphemes

Free Lexical (nouns-verb-obj..)Functional (articles, prepositions, conjunction

bound Derivational (affixes, prefix, suffixes, infixesInflectional (tense, plurality, marks, possessives

Morphological description (Bloomfield?)

The boys’ wildness shocked his teachers

Function morpheme lexical morpheme derivational inflextional morpheme lexical morpheme inflectional morpheme derivational inflectional lexical

Morphemes and allomorphs

/id/Ed /d/

/t/

Take->took

Cut-> cut (zero morpheme ø)

Questions?

-Origin of morphology

Linguistics Greek philosophers

-What’s the definition of morphem?

Small

Introduced by Bloomfield and made different bound

-Difference between modern Morphology and traditional Morphology.

Derivational and reflectional morphology

e.g: How many ............in phonology

/s/es /z/

/es/

- Contribution of Bloomfield

* Developed morphology

* Sentence...

* Difference between free and bound morphem

Greek psychology ................. in Greek and .

Morphology is composed of morphology: shape of word (form)

Morphology is composed of logy......: study how they are...

Study or the internal structure of word, formed......

2 majors school..............

*Traditional morphology: interested in 2 major: description of the form of the word e.g: quickly – quick+ly

*Classifying sth

*Structural morphology as a reaction of traditional grammar: we can describe word into categories according to grammatical function e.g: the word impossible is composed of impo and ssible....hapiness

For Bloomfield morpheme is the smallest unit is..........grammatically ..;(grammatical function) can be meaningful but if we add........

Definition

A morpheme is minimal linguistic sign (De Saussure significant/signified) we have a sign is a unit that has 2 forms add meaning.

Bloomfield has add the notion of Free morpheme can’t stand

Bound morpheme must be attached to a bound morpheme

e.g: happy ness

modern morphology: can be divided into 2

*derivational: study of a lexical formation of words: I have by mean of affixation suffix

*inflectional the change may be in form and in meaning e.g: helpfull/helpless

Study the.......... of the form of the word

8 inflective forms

But for cut there is an exception only 3 forms

-4 inflective forms:

sing

singings

sung

sang

sings

cutcutting

cut

cuts

S plural, er comparative, ist superlative, s possessives

To Conclude:

Modern linguistic is ..;

-The derivation of the word

-The inflection of the word

-Compounding......hotel/motel

Contribution of Bloomfield:

5 majors contributions

Introduced the notion of morpheme minimal.. linguistic sign

Introduced the distinction of bound and free morpheme

Mad task of morphology, made it simple

Made task of morphology ........ determiner

Unfaithful -> 2 bound morpheme un+faithfull

4- difference between grammatical and lexical morpheme

Reader-readers-lexical?

5- Allomorphs: difference realisation of the same morpheme.

The environment in which it occurs

What’s is syntax?

It is a combination of morphemes, set of clause, phrases in order to make sentence

We follow given order to provide given meaning

Bloomfield

(ICD) looking for structure

Chomsky

Grammaticality of sentence

Sentence grammatical/ungrammatical

Arrangement: morphemes are arranged in given order to provide the meaning

Syntactic rules: determine how kind of morphemes are combined together to get grammatical sentence (we say that sentence is well formed)

When the sentence is not grammatically (we say that the sentence is not grammatically or ill-formed)

All these according to syntactic rules

Phrase structure rules

5 reasons to use syntactic rules

1- Syntactic help speaker to make judgement on the quality of sentence

2- Help the speaker to guess the ambiguity, whether the sentence is ambiguous or not=> sentence has double meaning.

Visiting relative is boring => out of context

Action of visiting is boring/or the relative is boring

3-determine how morpheme are combined together (the right order of morpheme)

Determine different part of sentence => how morpheme relate together this is V+S+C

Determine difference between sentence

In immediate constituent analysis

Help us to show how are basic units are combined together (find structure)

Discovery of this structure

Discovering part to discover

Structure

Eeach morpheme

Group

Sub-group

Smallest unit

We analysis from the immediate constituent to the ultimate constituent.

Free structure rules.

Transformation generative grammar of rules

Concerns with syntactic ability or grammatical competence of speaker to identify whether sentence is grammatical or ungrammatical

Syntactic ability

Chomsky prefers arrows diagrams, symbols => to give certain rules to analysis.

The constructors

5 majors features

NP+VP

NP->Determine (NP+NP)

VP->V or [V+VP]

Recursive rules => using and we can make infinit number of sentence

We can join many NP by “and”, “or”

s-> NP+VP => from this rules we can generate infinite rules

e.g the girl eats an apple.

S->NP+VP

NP->Determiners+N

VP->V+NP

NP->Det+NP

Determiner->The+an

Analysis of Chomsky

V-> eat+s

He writes rules

Phrase structure analysis

Phrase marker

Three diagram

Phrase

Go further in analysis => there is derivation.

We go derive from sentence to small ultimate smallest unit=>called morpheme.

Syntax: in Greek syntax means arrangement of words.

Is it any order? Not random

Syntax move from one level to another level.. a particular order to convey meaning.

Syntactic rule (chomesky phrase structure rule)

Help to see whether the sentence is grammatical or ungrammatical

Well formed or ill formed

Determine the rule

5 majors ..........: help speaker or list to make judgement

To make the judgement whether it is ambiguious or not

Visiting relative can be boring (in exam change this exam)

Help us to determine: kind of morpheme

How this morpheme....

Relationship between morphemes and between sentences (preposition...)

Contributions

ICA help us to discover the structure (we analyse the construction into sub group -> S.G to reach ultimate constituent till we get exact structure of our sentence).

For Chomsky talks about the sentactic rules

Syntactic sentence from

Talks phrase structure rule

Analys sent by tree diagram (phrase marker)

We analys until we reach the final morphem)

Talks about deep structure (intensive transformational generative grammar)

From this rule we can produce (S->NP+VP)

I can apply this rule to...