Lighting the Shakespearean Stage, 1567 - 1642
Transcript of Lighting the Shakespearean Stage, 1567 - 1642
title: LightingtheShakespeareanStage,1567-1642
author: Graves,R.B.publisher: SouthernIllinoisUniversityPress
isbn10|asin: 0809322757printisbn13: 9780809322756ebookisbn13: 9780585324845
language: English
subjectStagelighting--GreatBritain--History--16thcentury,Stagelighting--GreatBritain--History--17thcentury.
publicationdate: 1999lcc: PN2091.E4G731999ebddc: 792/.025
subject:Stagelighting--GreatBritain--History--16thcentury,Stagelighting--GreatBritain--
History--17thcentury.
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LightingtheShakespeareanStage15671642
R.B.Graves
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Copyright©1999bytheBoardofTrustees,
SouthernIllinoisUniversity
Allrightsreserved
PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica
020100994321
LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationDataGraves,R.B.,[DATE]LightingtheShakespeareanstage,15671642/R.B.Graves.p.cm.Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.1.StagelightingGreatBritainHistory16thcentury.2.StagelightingGreatBritainHistory17thcentury.I.Title.PN2091.E4G731999792'.025dc2199-19002ISBN0-8093-2275-7(cloth:alk.paper)CIP
ThepaperusedinthispublicationmeetstheminimumrequirementsofAmericanNationalStandardforInformationSciencesPermanenceofPaperforPrintedLibraryMaterials,ANSIZ39.48-1984.
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Contents
ListofFigures vii
Preface ix
1LightonthePlay
1
2TudorandEarlyStuartLightingEquipment
10
3EarlyLightingSystems
26
4AfternoonPerformancesattheOutdoorPlayhouses
65
5IlluminationoftheOutdoorPlayhouses
86
6DaylightintheIndoorPlayhouses
125
7TheatricalLightingatCourt
158
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8ArtificialLightintheIndoorPlayhouses
175
9PropertyLightsandSpecialEffects
201
10IlluminatingtheScene:TheDuchessofMalfiattheGlobeandBlackfriars
218
Notes 237
Index 269
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Figures
1.FrontispiecetoArdenofFeversham(London,1633) 15
2.TitlePageIllustrationofThomasKyd'stheSpanishTragedy(London,1615)
19
3.CressetsfromVariousEarlyEnglishPrintsandDrawingsPublishedbyFrancisDoucein1807
21
4.FrontispiecetoLeTérencedesDucs,FifteenthCentury 32
5.PlanAccompanyingtheManuscriptofTheCastleofPerseverance,FifteenthCentury
34
6.LeMartyredeSainteApollinefromLesHeuresd'EtienneChevalierbyJeanFouquet,c.1460
35
7.PrintoftheFrontispiecetoJohannesTrechsel'sEditionofTerence(Lyon,1493)
36
8.TheVaissellierwithPracticalHeavensinan"EnchantedHall"forafêteatBinche,1549
47
9.TheSwanPlayhouse,c.1596 48
10.DetailfromaPortraitofSirHenryUnton,c.1596 61
11.DetailofFolio8ofHenslowe'sDiary 74
12.ConjecturalDiagramsoftheSwan 87
13.TheRoseandtheFirstGlobe 89
14.TheSecondGlobe 91
15.ConjecturalRedrawingofNorden'sCivitasLondini 92
Globe
16.ConjecturalInsolationoftheRose 95
17.TheNewGlobe,2P.M.(GMT)inAugust 103
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18.TheNewGlobe,3:30P.M.inAugust 105
19.TheNewGlobe,4P.M.inAugust 106
20.OutdoorStagewithCressets,SixteenthCentury 114
21.GillisCoignet'sTheDrawingofLotsforBedlam,1592
114
22.ATableauVivantontheDaminAmsterdam 115
23.FrontispiecetoTheWits,orSportuponSport(London,1662)
131
24.TheHallatHamptonCourtPalace 133
25.TheHalloftheMiddleTemple 135
26.Cross-sectionalDiagramoftheHallatHamptonCourtwithConjecturalStage
136
27.Cross-sectionalDiagramoftheHalloftheMiddleTemplewithConjecturalStage
137
28.Cross-sectionalDiagramoftheSwan 138
29.Elevation,Plan,andCrossSectionsofaPlayhouseDesignedbyInigoJones
144
30.Cross-sectionalDiagramoftheMiddleTempleHallwithJonesPlayhouseGalleries
145
31.Cross-sectionaldiagramoftheSwan 146
32.ExterioroftheCockpit-in-CourtaftertheRestoration 148
33.ElevationandPlansforRenovationoftheCockpit-in-Court,Whitehall,c.1630
149
34.BranchedChandelierandaDeviceforDimmingCandles
198
35.ATrickAltar 215
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PrefaceOfferedhereisasurveyofEnglishtheatricallightingfromtheriseofprofessionalactingtroupesinLondontothecloseoftheplayhousesbyactofParliamentin1642.Thisperiodwhich,forconvenience,IrefertoasShakespeareansawplaysperformedinavarietyofvenues,eachwithitsownkindofillumination,anditisoneofmypurposestocompareandcontrasttheeffectofstagelightinginvariousplayhousesandondifferentplaysandaudiences.Indoingso,Ihavebeenundertheobligationofpresentingevidencefromanumberofprimarysources,secondaryworksintheatricalhistory,andstudiesinsuchfar-flungfieldsaspsychophysics,architecturallighting,andthehistoryofweather.Ihavetriedtoconsolidatethisevidenceasmuchaspossible,choosingthemostrepresentativeexamples,whilebearinginmindthatdescriptionsofoneplayhousedonotnecessarilyapplytoothersandthataneffectachievedinoneplaymaynothavebeenachievedinothers.
Whereverpossible,Iquoteintheoriginalspellingbecausetheetymologyofcertaintechnicaltermssuchas"lanthorne"isobscuredbymodernization.Similarly,pounds,shillings,andpencehavebeencitedintheiroldformswhereonepoundequalstwentyshillingsandoneshillingequalstwelvepence.Ontheotherhand,playtitles,whichwererecordedinvariousforms,havebeenregularizedinaccordancewithstandardreferenceworks,andold-styledateshavebeenadjustedtoconformwiththemodernpracticeofbeginningtheyearon1January.Occasionally,Ihavefounditusefultoincludediagramstoillustratethedirectionalityoflightinthehallsandamphitheaters,buttheseschematicdrawingsshouldinnosensebeconsideredcompetentreconstructionsoftheplayhousesorevenadequatedepictionsofotherimportantqualitiesoftheillumination.
Iamundermanyobligationsforhelpreceived.AlanDessenandthelateS.Schoenbaumgaveearlycounsel,whileMichaelShapiroofferedadviceatalaterstagewhenitwassorelyneeded.AndrewGurrgenerouslyfacilitatedmyresearchatthenewGlobeinSouthwark,asdidMichaelHolden,Tiffany
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Foster,andKristinDunstan.TheeditorsofRenaissanceDrama,ShakespeareQuarterly,andTheatreNotebookimprovedmaterialoriginallypublishedinthosejournalsindifferentform,whileBeverlyAdamczykcheckedmanydetails,supportedinpartbyagrantfromtheUniversityofIllinoisGraduateCollegeResearchBoard.DonLlewellynpreparedseveralofthedrawings,andtheofficersofthelibrariesandmuseumsincludedinthecaptionsgraciouslygavepermissiontoreproducephotographsofmaterialintheircollections.
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1LightonthePlayIhave...toldtwiceoverhowmanycandlestherearei'th'roomelighted,whichIwillsetyoudownetoasnuffeprecisely,becauseIlovetogivelighttoposteritieinthetruthofthings.NewsfromtheNewWorld(1620)
WhenthepedanticChroniclerofBenJonson'smasqueNewsfromtheNewWorldboaststhathewilltellhowmanycandleslititspresentationatWhitehall,JonsonridiculeshimjustasscornfullyasweshouldjudgeamoderncriticwhocouldthinkofnothingbetterthantocountthenumberofspotlightsatthelatestStratfordFestival.
1Wefeelthatfamiliaritywiththelightingpracticesofone'stimemakessuchextravaganceofdetailunnecessary.AndJonsonbelieved(orcametobelieveafteraquarrelwithhisscenedesigner,InigoJones)thatbydwellingonthephysicalaspectsofstageproduction,thecentraldramaticconcernsoflanguageandmeaningwereignored.Butafternearlyfourcenturies,ourperspectiveissomewhatdifferent,becausetheplaytextsthathavecomedowntousdonotcontainalltheinformationweneedtounderstandthem.Wearenotalwayssurewhatsuchsimpletermsas"top,""above,"andeven"enter"mean;stilllessdowefullygrasphowthephysicalenvironmentaffectedthemeaningoftheactors'lines.TheinterestthatattachestoearlymodernproductionarisesfromadesiretocomprehendthetheatricalenvironmentsthatJonsonandhisreadersknewbyheartbuttookforgrantedandfailedtodescribeforus.Jonsoncouldnothavepredictedthatourstageinvestigation,farfromdirectingattentionawayfromthewordshecherished,seekstounderstandthemintheirfullestcontext.
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ItisoverJonson'sobjections,then,thatIofferhereverynearlywhathisChroniclertellsushewillpassdowntousadetaileddescriptionofthekindsoflightandlightinginstrumentsusedinthetheatersofearlymodernLondon.Itracethecontrastingtraditionsofdaylit''public"playhousesandcandlelit"private"playhouses,describethedifferenttechniques,andestimatetheireffect.MypurposeistoprovideaclearerpicturethanhasheretoforebeenavailableofwhatplaysactedbyShakespeare,Jonson,andtheircontemporarieslookedlike.
Althoughthechaptersthatfollowcountunrepentantlytorchesandtapers,candlesandfootcandles,Jonsonneverthelesswarnsusofmethodologicalproblemsinrecreatingaplaybymeansofdescribingthephysicalcircumstancesofitsoriginalproduction.Asanarchaeologicalprinciple,wemustacknowledgethatallwecanknowofthepastisthedurable,butthereisnoassurancethatthedurableisthemostsignificantpartofabygonesocietyordrama.Theworthofphysicalartifactsisnotintrinsicbutrathercontingentuponthedegreetowhichartisansembodiedimportantfunctionsoftheircultureinthemandleftuscodesbywhichwecandecipherthosefunctions.
Withthediscoveryin1989ofthefoundationsoftheRoseplayhouseandthesubsequentuncoveringofaportionofthefoundationsofthesecondGlobe,wecannowbaseourstudyofperformeddramaonthedurableremainsoftwoimportantamphitheaters.Nevertheless,eventhebestreconstructionsoftheseremainsdonotnecessarilytellushowtheoriginalaudiencesinterpretedtheirsignificance.EvenifthesecondGlobestoodtodayforourinspection,wemustnotforgetthatearlymodernplaygoersmayhaveconstrueditsstructureverydifferentlyfromthewaywemighttoday.AsStephenGreenblattpointsoutinawidercontext,"Anthropologicalinterpretationmustaddressitselflesstothemechanicsofcustomandinstitutionthantotheinterpretiveconstructionsthemembersofasocietyapplytotheirexperiences."
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Viewedasevidence,lightinonesensemaybecharacterizedastheleastpermanentaspectoftheatricalproduction.ForthespectatorsatShakespeare'sGlobe,lightwasindeedanephemeralelementoftheplay.Thestagepicturestheyadmiredvanishedassoonastheywererealized,inexorablyminglingwiththenextpicture.Theseimagescanneverberecaptured.Yetinanothersense,lightremainsoneofthemostenduringelementsinourreconstructions,becausethedaylightthatilluminatedtheoriginalGlobestage
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isthesamedaylightthatweenjoyandhaveatourdisposaltoknowandstudy.Indaylight,wepossesstheactual"material"thatShakespeareandhiscontemporariesemployedintheirtheater.WheninhisgrowingdespairLearpleads,forexample,"Oletmenotbemad,notmadsweetHeauens"(F918),wemaymissoneiconographicmeaningofhisprayerbecausewearenotsurewhattheroofoverthestage,orheavens,lookedlike.
3ButweknowhowtheskyovertheGlobecouldlookandthusareabletointerpretatleastoneconnotationofLear'sentreatyintermsofitsoriginaltheatricalsetting.Wecanseehimcryingout,notinthegloomofmanymodernrevivals,butunderanopensky,askyneverthelessunpredictable,byturnsfriendlyorwarm,stormyormenacing.Similarly,evenasOthellovowsrevenge"byyondMarbleHeauen''(F2110)anotherallusiontotheheavensortotheceilingoftheWhitehallbanquetinghousepainted"overheadewthCloudesandotherdevices"4Iago'sprayerto"youeuer-burningLightsaboue,/YouElements,thatclipvsroundabout"(F211416)speakstoawidersphereofinfluence,onethatweknowaswellasJacobeanplaygoers,evenifourunderstandingofitmaystilldifferfromtheirs.
Noonetodayneedsproofthatstagelightinginfluencesanaudience'sresponsetoaplay.Yet,ourstagelightingdiffersfromShakespeare'swithrespecttothemeansbywhichtheinfluenceisexerted,namelyitssusceptibilitytoartisticcontrol.Foritwasonlywiththeintroductionofgasandelectricityinthenineteenthcenturythatstageilluminationbecameafull-fledgedtheatricalart.Onlywhentheintensity,color,extent,anddirectionoflightfelltothedirectandflexiblecontrolofdimmerboardsandadjustablespotlightsdidthefunctionofgeneralilluminationriseabovequestionsofsimplevisibilityandactivelybegintomanipulatetheaestheticexperienceof
theaudience.
Butwhatoftheolderdramawhoselightadmittedoflittleornoregulation?DidtheungovernabledaylightattheGlobeactivelyparticipateindefiningthemeaningofthedrama?CanwesaythatthecandlelightatBlackfriarssignificantlyinfluencedeithertheperformanceortheperceptionofplaysperformedthere?Wemustrecognizetheeffectofsuchchoicesasthebuildingofa"shadow"overtheoutdoorstage,theclosingofwindowshuttersforcertaintragediesindoors,andthebringingonofpropertylightsnotjustforthepurposeofvisibilityorscenicdecorationbuttoactassignsofwhattimeandlocationthescenewassupposedtotakeplace.Fewofus,however,
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wouldclaimthattheseeffortsareequivalenttotheflexibleandcontrollableilluminationofthemodernlightingdesigner.
Buttheassumptionthatanaudience'sresponsetotheatricalilluminationderivesprimarilyfromartists'intentionsisonlyacenturyold.StageilluminationdidnotemergefullyasanexpressiveelementinthetheateruntilAdolpheAppiatoutedlightinhisinfluentialDieMusikunddieInscenierung(Munich,1899)asthemeansbywhichactors,scenery,andtextcouldbeweldedtogetherinunionwiththeunderlying"music"ofaplayinperformance.Theaterhistoriansdidnotbeginreconstructingtheoriginalcircumstancesofperformanceuntillate-nineteenth-centuryscientificarchaeologyhadassertedthataculture'spastcouldbeunderstoodbypiecingtogetheritsman-madeartifacts.ThesearchfortheElizabethanstagebeganinearnestwiththediscoveryofthefamousSwansketchin1888byKarlGädertz,butitwasinspiredasmuch,Ithink,bythesuccessfulexcavationsofHeinrichSchliemannatTroyandMycenaeinthe1870sandofSirArthurEvansatCnossosafewyearslater.EarlyElizabethan-stagescholarsworkedinaclimateofscientificprogress,aconfidencethataculture'sinnerlifecouldbeexplainedbywhatithadmadeofitsphysicalsurroundings.
Butthisarchaeologicalperspectivemayignoresomeofthespecialproblemsinherentinreconstructingnotacityorculturebutaworkofart.Forinthehistoricalexaminationofthedrama,weareobligedtoconsidernotonlytheintentionoftheartisans(playwrightandactor)asevincedbytheirremainingwork(textandstaging)butalsothemannerinwhichtheworkwasviewedbytheircontemporaries(theaudience).Archaeologicalmodelsfortheaterresearchmaythusnottakeanaudience'sresponsesufficientlyintoaccount,becausethereisnorealanalogytoanaudienceinthestudyofancientsocieties.Howmostartistsmanipulatedtheirmaterialsisinherentinfinishedpaintings,poems,orplaysinmaterialevidence,thatis,thatwecan
stillexamine.Butanaudience'sresponseleaveslittlebehindforustostudy,especiallywhen,asAndrewGurr'scensusofplaygoersreveals,muchofwhatanaudienceexperiencesduringtheperformanceisroutinelyleftunsaid.
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Evenso,anaudience'sresponsetostagelighting,howeverdifficulttoassessdirectly,mayinturnaffecttheplaywright'scraft,becauseitisanarticleoffaithamongtheaterhistoriansthatdramatistsgenerallywritewithaneyetowardproductionandthatexpectedperformanceconditionswillaffectthecompositionoftheplay.In1948,forexample,G.E.Bentleypublishedhis
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pioneerarticle"ShakespeareandtheBlackfriarsTheatre,"inwhichhearguedthattheapparentchangeintoneofShakespeare'slateromancesmaybeaccountedforinpartbyconsciousartisticdecisionsthattheKing'smenmadeinanticipationoftheiracquisitionofthesmall,artificiallylitsecondBlackfriarsin1609inadditiontothelarge,open-airGlobe.
6Evidenceoffewerseats,asmallerstageclosertowealthierpatrons,andthesplendorofthelightingwasadducedtoexplainthepresenceofamoresophisticatedaudiencerequiringashiftinShakespeare'sthematicinterests.Afewyearslater,AlfredHarbagefollowedinBentley'sfootstepsandinShakespeareandtheRivalTraditions(NewYork,1952)paintedasimilarpictureoftwowidelydivergentkindsofdramaintendedforindoorandoutdoorproduction.Bothassumedthatthephysicalstructuresofthedifferenttheatersdeterminedinpartthestyleandmeaningofthedramasperformedthere.Theybelievedthat,despitetheKing'smen'splayingbothindoorsandoutdoors,adiscernibleshiftintheatricalstylehadbeenimposedonactorsandplaywrightsbytheconfigurationsoftheJacobeanhallplayhousesandtheirmoresophisticatedaudiences.
Fortyyearslater,however,thepictureislessclear.AlthoughAnnJennalieCookhasassertedthataudiencesatbothkindsofplayhousesweredrawnlargelyfromprivilegedmembersofsociety,AndrewGurrhasshownthat,whiletheremayhavebeenaslightincreaseinthesophisticationinthehallaudiences,Shakespeare'saudienceremaineddiverse,andtheKing'scompany"didnotradicallyalteritsrepertorywhenitmovedtoBlackfriars."7Equallyimportant,researcherslookingintostagingpracticesatthepublicandprivateplayhousesfoundlittletodifferentiatethem,andthecurrentassessmentofBentley'sandHarbage'sworkisthattheyoverstatedthecase.Indeed,
inaninvestigationofstagingpracticesforplayswrittenfrom1599to1642,T.J.Kingconcludedthatthephysicaldifferencesbetweenpublicandprivateplayhouseswerelesssignificantthanhadbeenthought."Althoughthesetwokindsofplayhousesdifferedinoutwardappearance,"heannounced,"analysisof276playsprobablyfirstactedbyprofessionalsinthisperiodshowsthattherewerenosignificantdifferencesinthestagingrequirementsofthevariouscompanies"8
ButaglanceatKing'sbookrevealsthathiscarefulanalysiscannotconclusivelycomparetheeffectofindoorandoutdoorproduction,becausehehasrestrictedthekindofevidencethatcaninfluencethemeaningofthe
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drama.Hedecidesthatthepublicandprivatetheatersmusthavebeensimilarininwardappearancebecauseheexaminesonlyfacilitiesoverwhichtheactorshadmoreorlessfullcontrol.Thus,Kingmaybecorrectinsayingtherewerenomajorchangesinstaging,becausetohimstagingmeansthetablesandchairs,doorsandpartitions,balconiesandtraps,onstage.Thetitlesofhischaptersmakethisnarrowconceptionofstagingplain:"EntrancesandLargeProperties,""AbovetheStage,""DoorsandHangings,"and"BelowtheStage."Butthesearetheveryfacilitiesthatonewouldnotexpecttochangeastheactorsmovedindoors.Thetroupeswouldbringthesametablesandchairstheyusedoutdoorswiththem.Theywouldsetupdoorsandtrapsintheirfamiliarplacesandattempttoduplicateasmuchaspossibletheenvironmenttowhichtheywerealreadyaccustomed.Oneimaginesthatthestages,stageproperties,andtiring-housewallsofthetwoplayhousesresembledeachotherasmuchaspossiblesothattheactorscouldavoidrestagingtheirplayseverytimetheymigratedfromthesummerGlobetothewinterBlackfriarsortocourt.
ContrastingwithattemptstoseeplaysaswrittenforspecifictheatersandlightingarrangementsaretheadmonitionsofCliffordLeech,J.A.Lavin,andothersthatplaywrightswrotelesstoturnagiventheatertogoodaccountthantopleasethemselvesor,attheleast,tofollowtheprevailingliteraryfashion.
9LavingoessofarastodenythattheKing'smencouldhaveseenanyaestheticdistinctionbetweentheGlobeandBlackfriarsandwillallowtheirplaywrightsnoaccommodationtoit.Lavin'sinsistenceontheinterchangeabilityofpublicandprivateplayhouserepertoryiswelltakeninregardtotheKing'smen,butLavinforgetsthatplaywrights,particularlyCarolineplaywrights,tellusthattheysometimeswrotewithspecifictheatersinmind,includingtheBlackfriars.Forexample,JohnWebsterparticipatedinadaptingaBlackfriarsplay,Marston's
TheMalcontent,totheresourcesavailableatapublictheaterin1604,whenhewascalledon"toabridgethenotreceivedcustomeofmusicke"attheGlobe.10Inspiteoftheirvariousconclusions,BentleyandHarbage,ontheonehand,andKingandLavin,ontheother,allassumethataestheticdifferencesbetweenthetheatersmaybemeasuredonlybytheintentionsoftheartistsinvolved.ToBentleyandHarbage,theremustbedifferences,becausetheyfindtheplayswrittenforeachkindoftheaterdifferent.ToKingandLavin,therecannotbeanymajordifferences,becausetheactorsapparentlytooknoaccountofthem.
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Buttherewereimportantelementsofproductionthattheplayerscouldnotbringwiththemorduplicateastheymovedbackandforthfromoneplayhousetoanother.Amongthese,theacoustics,thesizeoftheplayingspace,andthelightingremainedmoreorlessdependentontheactualproductionsiteandallowedlittleornomodificationtosuitthetastesofplaywrights,actors,orspectators.Regardingacoustics,Icanonlynoteinpassingitsimpactontheplaytextsandstaging.IncomparingtheverseofThomasKydandJamesShirley,say,wehavetotakeintoaccountnotonlytwodifferenttemperamentsattwodifferentpointsinthedevelopmentofEnglishpoetrybutalsotwodifferentkindsofacousticsthoseofthelarge,outdooramphitheatersandofthesmall,indoorhallplayhouses.Thus,whenShirleyin"APrologueattheGlobetohisComedycall'dThedoubtfullHeire,whichshouldhavebeenpresentedattheBlack-Friers"hasactorsattheopen-airGlobecomplainthattheyareforced"tobreakourlungs"incontrasttotheeasilyheardspeechatBlackfriars,wedonotneedtoexplainthedifferencebetweentherantingofKydandtheslickproficiencyofShirleysolelybyrecoursetoperceivedshiftsinsocialandliteraryfashionfromElizabethantoCarolinetimes.
11Theformoftheirrespectiveplayhousescontributedamoredirectinfluenceonthekindoflanguageappropriatetoeach.Whatismore,theacousticsavailableindoorsaffectedatleastoneimportantelementofstaging.RichardHosleyhasnotedthattheonlysignificantdifferencebetweenindoorandoutdoorstagingmethodsderivedfromtheearlyuseofapermanentmusicroomattheindoorplayhouses,inspiredbythelivelieracousticsthere.Thesemusicroomswerevisibletotheaudienceand,hence,becameavailablefordiscoveries"above"wellbeforethepracticetookholdattheamphitheaters.Indeed,HosleyfindsthattheoutdoorplayhousesdidnotadoptthepracticeuntiltheKing'smenbeganregularperformancesat
Blackfriars.12
Similarly,itissurprisingthatonlyrecentlyhavescholarsthoughttocomparethetwokindsoftheaterswithrespecttolighting,which,ofalltheelementsoftheatricalproduction,maywellbethecruciblewhereinsupposeddifferencesorsimilaritiescanbetested.ForwhileKingLearwasperformedby"hisMaiestiesseruantsplayingvsuallyattheGloabeontheBancke-side,"itwasalsoperformedindoors"beforetheKingsMaiestieatWhitehallvponS.StephansnightinChristmasHollidayes[26December1606],"asthetitlepageofthe1608quartotestifies.AtWhitehall,nonaturalsunlightcouldame-
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lioratetheplay'sgloomyviewofheaven;whenLearlookeduptotheskythere,bothheandtheaudiencesawsomethingverydifferentfromwhattheyhadseenattheGlobe.AtWhitehall,chandelierssupportingdozensofcandleshungoverhead,whichonecouldargueemphasizednotLear'shelplessnessinthefaceofunleashednaturalforcesbutrathertheartificialcontrolthatmancouldanddidoccasionallyexerciseoverthepowersofdarkness.AtBlackfriars,theKing'smen'sindoortheater,naturalwindowlightandartificialcandlelightmingledtogethertoilluminatethestage,acombinationfromwhichonemightdevelopstillanothericonographicinterpretationofthescene.
Ortochooseamorefamousexample,howdidthebarelightofOthello'scandleinDesdemona'sdeathscenebehaveinrelationtothegeneralilluminationattheGlobe,Blackfriars,andcourt?WhenOthelloentersherbedroom"withalight"andcomparesittoDesdemona'slife
Putoutthelight,andthenputoutthelight:IfIquenchthee,thouflamingminister,Icanagaine,thyformerlightrestore(Q1M)
arewetoseethislonelycandleburninginadarkenedhall,ironicallysignalinghertruechastityinanastyworld?Orrather,arewetoimagineitthrowingoutafeeblelightonabrightlysunlitstage?WasthescenepresentedillusionisticallyattheindoortheaterswithonlyOthello'sflickeringcandlelightingthestage?Inthatcase,theaudiencemighthavedifficultyseeingDesdemona'shorrifiedreactiontoOthello'saccusationswhetherornotheleavesthecandleburningfortheentirescene.BecauseShakespearespecificallyassociatesDesdemonawiththelight,wewanttograspitssignificanceandknowwhethertheemotionalconnotationsofthescenechangedastheKing'smenperformedoutdoorsorindoors,duringthedayornight,thatis,asthegeneralilluminationofthetheaterchanged.
Suchquestionsareworthaskingfortheirownsake,ofcourse.Alongwithsound,lightisthemeansbywhichallperformedplaysarecomprehended.Lightparticipatesinconcertwithlanguage,soundeffects,andmusictoproducemeaning;themoreweknowaboutwhatShakespeare'saudiencesaw,themoreweknowaboutwhatitunderstood.EvenJonson'srejectionofJones'selaboratelightingeffectspaysgenuine,thoughnegative,homageto
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thepoweroflighttoaffectthemeaningofthedrama,oratleasttheplay-wright'sperceptionofthatmeaning.
Butperhapsmoreimportantforus,suchquestionsshouldberaisedbecausetheanswerstothemcanbefoundandasthesemattersgo,canbefoundrathereasily.Foracentury,wehavebeenagonizingovertheinternalstructureofthefirstGlobeplayhouse,whenthetruthiswemayneverknowwhatitlookedlike.YetwiththediscoveriesoftheRosefoundationandpartofthefoundationforthesecondGlobe,thequalityandeventhequantityofilluminationonitsstagecanbeestimatedwithareasonabledegreeofaccuracy.Theelusiveshapesofthevarioustheaterbuildingsenterintosuchcalculations,tobesure,butestimatesbasedonthemostimportantvariablesregardinglightingthesizeoftheopeningabovetheyardandthepositionoftheheavensoverthestagecannowbemadewithsomeassurance.
13Indeed,withthecompletionoftheInternationalShakespeareGlobeCentrereconstructionofthefirstGlobe,wecannowexperimentwithstagingpracticesinsomethingveryliketheiroriginalphysicalsetting.Inlikemanner,thenumberofwindowsandcandlesemployedindoorscanbeinferredandthekindandamountoflightshedontheactorsestimated.Ifweshiftourhistoricalinquiriesawayfromthetheaterbuilding,itsstage,andphysicalproperties,itisnotbecauselightingismoreimportant.Rather,itisbecauselightpossessesuniquevalueforusasakindofevidencethatwilllastuntilthecrackofgloom.
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2TudorandEarlyStuartLightingEquipmentElizabethan,Jacobean,andCarolineplaysrefertolightsandlightinginstrumentsthatarefamiliar,ifnotcommonplace,today.Thelightsmostfrequentlymentionedindialogueandstagedirectionscandles,tapers,torches,andlanternsimposenolargeobstaclestoanunderstandingofearlyEnglishstaging,becauseourconceptionofwhattheselightswerelikeandhowtheywereusedislargelycorrectandproductive.Yet,inevitableshiftsinthemeaningofsometermshavetakenplace,andenoughsixteenth-andseventeenth-centurylightingnomenclaturehasbecomesufficientlyunclearthatabrieflookatthetechnicalprinciplesofearlylightsshouldprecedeanyexaminationoftheusestowhichtheywereputintheLondonplayhouses.
Thehistoryoflightingissopoorlyrecordedthatagooddealofconjecturemustenterintoeventhemostcursoryreview.Informationcanbegleanedhereandtherefromcasualreferences,pictures,andtheveryfewearlyinstrumentsthathavesurvived;butforthemostpart,socialandtechnologicalhistorianshavefailedtodescribethelightingpracticesofeachageandcountry.Whythisissohaslesstodowithafailuretounderstandtheimportanceoflightinsocietythanwiththeslow,nearlystagnant,developmentoflightingtechnologythatmakeswritinganysortofconnectedhistorydifficult.ForathousandyearsbeforethereignofElizabethIandfortwohundredyearsafter,lightingutensilsremainedrelativelyunchanged.LateRomansusedlamps,candles,andtorchessimilartothoseoftheTudorandStuartperiods.Infact,lampswerenotgreatlyalteredfromwhattheancient
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Greeksknewuntil1784whenamethodtocontrolauniformflowofairwasintroduced.Candleswerenotimproveduntilself-snuffingwicksreplacedtwistedcottonstrandsinthelateeighteenthcenturyandrefinedwaxesreplacedtallowandbeeswaxintheearlynineteenth.Modernexperienceteachesthattechnicalartsprogresssteadily.Butthehistoryoflightingshowsnotonlylittleornoprogressforhundredsofyearsbutalsooccasionalreverseswhenimprovementswerelostintheshuffleofchangingcultures,onlytoberediscoveredlaterorneveratall.
ThreemaintypesofdomesticlightswereemployedinearlymodernEngland:lamps,candles,andamiscellaneouscategorythatincludesrush-lights,torches,links,andtapers.Ofthem,lampsprovideanexampleofawell-developedmeansofillumination,popularinancientGreeceandRome,thatneverthelessfellintoneglectduringtheMiddleAgesandenjoyedonlylimiteduseinEnglandinthesixteenthandseventeenthcenturies.
Lamps
Lampscanbemadeandwereinancienttimesfromanysortofconcavestoneorshell.
1Thehollowisfilledwithvegetableoranimaloil,andawick,almostalwaysofvegetablematerial,isplacedintotheoilwithoneendprotrudingintotheair.Likecandles,whoseonlyessentialdifferenceisthatthefuelisalwayssolid,lampsburnonlywhenenoughfuelcanbedrawnthroughitswicktoreplacethefuelthathasbeenconsumed.Thewickitselfalsoburnsandmustbereplaced.Butforbothlampsandcandles,thelessthelightisproducedbytheburningwickandthemoreitisproducedbytheburningfuelabsorbedbythewick,thebrighterandmoreefficienttheinstrument.SurvivingGreekandRomanlampsresembleshallowclayteapotswithoneormorespouts
usedassupportingwickchannels.PotterylampsareidealforMediterraneanclimateswhereoilsandsomefatsarenaturallyliquidandcaneasilyflowtothebottomofthelampwheretheendofthewickisusuallypositioned.Theprincipaladvantageoflampsistheirconvenience:onlywhenthefuelisexhaustedorthewicktotallyconsumeddotheyrequireattention.Thedisadvantageisthatearlylampsproducemuchlesslightthancandles.Increasingthethicknessofthewickscreatesmorelightbutalsoproducessignificantlymoresmoke.TheItalianscenetechnicianNicolaSabbattiniusedlampsextensivelyattheTeatrodelSolinPesarointheseven-
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teenthcentury,forexample,butgenerallyonlyhighabovehisscenesandawayfromthenosesofhisaristocraticaudiences.Neartheactorsandabovethespectators,hepreferredcandles.Althoughhisdescriptionofstagelightingisthefirstrecordwehaveoflampfootlights,heneverthelesscomplainsthattheyactuallymakethestageappeardarker."Lampsmusthavestrongwicksiftheyaretogiveoffastronglight,"heexplains,"[b]utifthestrongwicksarechosen,smokewilldeveloptosuchadensitythatasortofhazewillinterferewiththeviewofthespectators,whowillhavedifficultyindistinguishingthesmallerdetailsonthestage."
2
InEngland,evensimplehouseholdlampswithappropriatelysizedwickswerelessthansatisfactory,becausefineliquidoilhadtobeimportedandwasprohibitivelyexpensive.Collegeandhouseholdaccountbooksrarelylistpurchasesofoil,andwhentheydo,saladoilisusuallyspecified.3Solidandsemisolidfuelslikekitchengreaseandsuetwereplentiful,though,andseveralattemptsweremadetomodifylampstosuchfuels.Thus,lampscametobemadeofmetal(usuallyiron)sothataportionoftheflame'sheatcouldbeconducteddowntomeltthefatandcauseittoflowtothebottomofthelamp.IntheMiddleAges,whatmetaltheEnglishhadwenttowardmoreimportantutensils;thecandleandtorchsufficed.Butbythesixteenthcentury,metalbecamemoreabundantandmetallampsmorecommon.Extantinventoriesofgreathousesalmostneverincludelamps,butpoorhouseholdsinthenorthandinScotlandregularlyownediron"crusie"lampsfilledwithinferiortripe-oil.Asearlyasthe1640s,settlerstoAmericabroughttheseopensaucermetallampswiththem,wheretheybecameknownasBettylamps.4
Lampswereassociatedwithkitchensandthehearthwherespattering
greaseandsmokewaslesstroublesomethaninotherrooms.Theprocessofmeltingthesolidfatinthelampwas,afterall,theslowfryingofsuet.ThedescriptioninTheComedyofErrors(3.2)ofDromioofSyracuse'slovermaybeanot-undulyexaggeratedpictureofatypicalsettingforElizabethanlamps:"Marrysir,she'stheKitchinwench,&algrease,andIknownotwhatvsetoputhertoo,buttomakeaLampeofher,andrunfromherbyherownelight.Iwarrent,herraggesandtheTallowinthem,willburneaPolandWinter"(F88590).Carefulrenderingandclarifyingofthesuetcouldalleviatesomeofthemostdisagreeablesideeffects;butoncehouseholdershadgonetothistrouble,theyapparentlypreferredtomakecandlesanyway.
Afewreferencestolampsseemtoindicateoutdooruse.JohnStow'sSur-
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veyofLondontellshowonthemidsummerevewatchofSaintsPeterandPaulinNewFishStreetbefore1538,''everymansdoore...hadalsoLampsofglasse,withOyleburninginthemallthenight."
5GlasslampswithfloatingwickshadrecentlybeenintroducedtoEnglandfromBarcelona,buttheinferioroilsthattheEnglishhadattheirdisposalmadethemunpopularforeverydayuse.InLondon,cheap,impureoilcostnearlyfourshillingsagallonandcleaner-burningoilashillingortwomore.6Itisdoubtful,therefore,whetherhabitualdomesticusewasmadeofsuchlamps,whichatanyrateappeartohavebeenspecialfloating-wicklamps,suitableonlyinwarmtemperaturesornearthekitchenhearth.ApartfromStow,infact,wehearofLondonerslightinglanternsandtorchesforsuchwatches,notlamps.Atcourt,wherethecostoffineroilswouldhavebeenlessofaburden,lampswereneverthelessalsousedinfrequently.
Insum,theTudorandStuarterassawthereintroductionofthelampaftercenturiesofneglect.Butbecausetheperiodwasoneofrelativelyrapidchangeinregardtolamps,theirplaceintypicallightingarrangementsisdifficulttoassess.Shakespearesometimesalludestolampsinhisdialogue,forinstance,butnotoncedohisstagedirectionscallforlampstobebroughton-stage.Evenwhenhissourcespecificallymentionsalamp(asNorthdoesinhisdescriptionofalamp'smysteriousdimmingontheappearanceofCaesar'sghosttoBrutus),Shakespearechangesthelamptoataper.Itmaybethatstraygustsofwindtendedtoblowoutlampsmorereadilythantapersandcandles;suchwasthecasewiththelampreproductionsIlitasanexperimentatthe"new"Globe.Infact,Shakespearemayhavesufferedfromanaversiontolamps:ofsixteenreferencestotheminhisplays,fourcenteroncomparisonswithalamp'sbeingstarvedofoil.Nodoubttheneedtoreplenishoilwassometimesabother,but
Shakespearewastheonlydramatisttousesuchimagery.7Atallevents,onlyahandfulofstagedirectionsinalltheplaysoftheperiodcallfortheuseoflampsasstageproperties,themostimportantonebeingthedifficult-to-interpretstagedirectionatthebeginningofscene11ofRobertGreene'sFriarBaconandFriarBungay:"EnterFrierBacondrawingthecourtaineswithawhitesticke,abookeinhishand,andalampelightedbyhim,andthebrasenhead."8PerhapsGreenecallsforalampheretoconveyanexotic,ritualflavor,orthelampmaybeconnectedwiththelightningthatlaterflashesforthfromthebrazenhead.
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Candles
Ontheotherhand,candleswerethemostpopularlightsofthedaybothinprivatehomesandatthetheaters.Theatricalandhouseholdaccountbooksoftenrecordlargepurchasesofcandles,andseveralsixteenth-andseventeenth-centurypicturesshowuswhatcandlesandcandlestickslookedlikeandhowtheywereused.
Candlesweremuchasweknowthemtodaybutmuchmoreawkwardanddangeroustokeepburningforanyconvenientlengthoftime.Moderncandlesaremadeofplaitedcottonwickssurroundedbymoldedcylindersofparaffinandotherrefinedwaxes.TudorandStuartcandlesweremadeofconsiderablyinferiormaterials.Wickswerethepithofcommonsoftrushesorwerecottonorflaxstrandstwistedtogether.Suchwicksburnedunevenlyanddidnotbendoverintotheflameandconsumethemselveslikemodernplaitedwicks,inventedbyJean-JacquesCambacérèsin1820.Earlywickshadtobesnuffed(thatis,charredpiecesofwickhadtobecutoffandremoved)toreducesmokingandtoprevent"guttering,"theunfortunateresultofawick'sfallingdownintothemoltenfuel,meltingthetoprimofthecandle,andallowingliquefiedfueltorundownthesideofthecandle.Topreventthiswasteoffuel,snuffingwasregularlyrequired,andaconsiderationoftheartificialilluminationofindoortheatricalvenuesmusttakeintoaccounttheattendantswhoperformedtheseimportantduties.Forexample,aneighteenth-centuryFrenchadvertisementfortallowcandlesboastedthattheyneededtobesnuffedonlyeighttotentimesanhour.
9Moreover,dexteritywasrequiredtoaccomplishefficientsnuffing,asitwasalltooeasytoextinguishtheflameintheprocess(hence,theusualmodernconnotationof"snuff").Atwo-orthree-hourperformanceinahalltheaterlitbyseveraldozenoftheseinferiortallowcandlescouldthereforerequirehundredsofindividualsnuffing
operations,butonlyrarelydoplaywrightsmakeprovisionforthisnecessityintheirtexts.
Thefuelusedinmostcandleswasastroublesomeasthewicks.Duetoitshighmeltingpoint,beeswaxwasarelativelyodorless,carefreeilluminant,butbecauseitwasimportedfromtheContinent,beeswaxwasexpensiveandreservedmainlyforthechurch.Onspecialoccasions,theStuartcourtusedwaxinthecandlesclosesttothesovereignorintheelaboratetorchescarriedbyorfornoblemaskers;buttypically,kingandcommoneralikesufferedthe
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Fig.1.FrontispiecetoArdenofFeversham(London,1633)showingthemurderofArden
atthe"gameoftables"litbycandlelight.BypermissionoftheBritishLibrary(643c2).
disagreeableeffectsoftallow.OnlyinthereignofCharlesIwerewaxcandleswidelydeployedfortheilluminationofplays.
Themorecommonfuelincandleswastallow,whichismerelypurifiedorrenderedmeatfat,usuallyfromsheeporoxen(HalcallsFalstaff"tallow"severaltimesin1HenryIV).OneofthescavengingpromotersinMiddleton'sAChasteMaidinCheapsideexplainstheoriginoftallow:"[W]ehaueneedtogetLoynesofMuttonstill,/TosaueSuettochangeforCandles."
10Butrenderingwasdifficulttoperformcompletelyandcouldneverdisguisethefactthattheburningtallowwasessentiallybroiledsuet.InCymbeline(1.6),forinstance,IachimogivesusanideaofitssmellwhenhelikensLeonatus'sconductto"thesmoakielight/That'sfedwithstinkingTallow"(F72122).Evenaslateas1675,thefastidiousSirFoplingFlutterpinchesatallowcandleinGeorgeEtherege'sTheManofMode(London,1676)becausehecannot"breath[e]inaRoomwherethere'sGreasefrying"(63).AlthoughfewearlyEnglishcandlestickssurvive,seventeenth-centuryexamplesintheVictoriaandAlbertMuseumfeaturewide"greasepans''or"drippans"circlingthestemstocatchdrippingandsplatteringtallow.11
NotuntilwellaftertheRestorationwasthefuelrefinedsufficientlytoallowthegradualeliminationofthesedrippansfromEnglishcandlesticks(seefig.1).
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Besidesproducinganobtrusivesmell,candlessmokedprofusely.Alwaysdwellingonthedarkersideoflife,MalevoleinTheMalcontentadvises,"Stickecandlesgainstavirginewalleswhitebacke,/Iftheynotburne,yetattheleastthei'leblacke"
12WilliamO'Dea,akeeperattheSouthKensingtonScienceMuseum,hadsometallowdipcandlesmadeupbythebestmeansavailableandstillfoundthem"wretchedandinfuriating"devices:
Snuffingwassupposedtobenecessaryeveryhalf-hourwithcandlesofthebestLondontallow.WiththoseItestedtheoperationhadtobedoneeverytwentyminutesandinsomecaseswasnecessaryafterfive.Anunsnuffedcandlegavenotonlyafractionoftheoriginallight,butgreatgulliesmightappearinthepoolofmoltentallowbeneaththeflame.Themoltentallowwouldpourdownsuchagullyandinonecandleleftuntendedonly5percentofthetallowwasactuallyburntandtherestrantowaste.Acandleof8tothepoundwascompletelyconsumedinthiswayinlessthanhalfanhour;butevenwithconstantsnuffingitprovednotunusualtolosemorethanhalfthetallowby"guttering."13
Theregularsnuffingofcandlesnotonlysavesfuel,then,butalsoallowstheflametoburnbrighter.Inthelateeighteenthcentury,theFrenchchemistAntoine-LaurentLavoisierestimatedthatanunsnuffedcandlelostfour-fifthsofitsluminousstrength,andaccordingtoearlyphotometrictestsconductedbyBenjaminThompsonin179293,anunsnuffedtallowcandlecouldlosenearlytwo-thirdsofitsbrillianceinelevenminutes.14InHamlet(4.7),ClaudiusalludestothisdecreasedefficiencywhenhequestionsLaertes'loveforhisdeadfather:"Thereliueswithintheveryflameofloue/Akindofweekeorsnufethatwillabateit"(Q2L4v).
Thesmokeandodoroftallowcouldpresumablybeignoredattheoutdooramphitheaters,butthelowmeltingpointoftallowcandlesmayhavecausedotherproblemsfortheactorstherebecausetallow
couldmeltinthehotsun.InthemanuscriptplayTheLaunchingoftheMary(c.1632),forexample,asailorcomplainsthatheissohot"thatallmyfattfadesawayelike[stinkinge]TallowagaynsttheSunne."15Eventallowchandlerswhotookthetroubletobleachtheircandlesinthesunwereobligedtoundertakethisprocessonlyintheearlymorning,lesttheirwaresberuinedbythemiddayheatofthesun.16Droopingpropertycandlesmaythushaveoccasionallyin-
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conveniencedplayersintheheightofsummer,although,asweshallseeinchapter5,directsunshinerarelyshoneonthestagesoftheamphitheaters.
Ordinarily,suchcandlescouldnotconvenientlybemountedhighinchandeliersorwallbrackets,wheretheywouldbeinaccessibletotheattentiontheyrequired.Instead,shortandtallcandlesticksweretherule,exceptinthehallsofgreathouseswhereservantscouldattendtocandlesmountedinwallsconcesandwoodenorironhoopssuspendedfromtheceilingthatcouldbeloweredforsnuffing.Inthebanquetinghousesandhallsthatservedastheatricalvenuesatcourt,largebranchedchandeliers,orbranches,astheywerecalled,providedthelion'sshareoftheillumination.Thesebranches,manyofwhichweresumptuouslygarnished,couldholdfromfourtofifteenindividualcandleseach.
17IntheMiddleAges,candleshadbeenheldinplacebyimpalingthemonpricksormetalspikes,butwiththeriseoftheguildsofwaxchandlersandtallowchandlersinLondoninthefourteenthcentury,standardizationinthesizeofcandlesgraduallypermittedtheuseofsockets.18Duringthesixteenthandseventeenthcenturies,bothmethodsofsecuringcandleswereused,largercandlesgenerallybypricks,smallercandlesinsockets.CarolineRevelsOfficeaccountsfrequentlymention"wallers"andanequalnumberof"prickers";thesewerebracketssupportingpricksonwhichlargecandlescouldbeimpaled,whichwerethenhungonwallsorpillars(theCarolineRevelsOfficeonceacquired"PilleredwallersandHookes").19Evenso,theselightingfixturescouldstilldrip,smoke,andscorch;theRevelsOfficefrequentlyprovidedplatesorpanstocatchdrippings,pasteboardstoprotectlowceilingsandnearbycolumnsfromburning,andpipestoshieldtheropesfromwhichthebrancheshung.20
Candlesweresometimesmadebyhouseholdersthemselves(byrepeateddippinginmoltentallow)orwerepurchasedfromthechandlerbythepound.Afewchandlers'billsfortheatricalproductionssurvive,andonewaytoestimatethenumberofcandlesthatlitaperformanceistodividethetotalcostofthecandlesbythepriceperpoundandthenmultiplybythesizeofthecandlesasexpressedbythenumberofcandlesineachpound.Thepriceofcandlesincreasedseveralfoldduringtheera,however.Intheearlysixteenthcentury,apoundoftallowcandlescostonlyapenny,butgraduallyrosetothreepenceatmidcentury,fourpenceby1600,andsixpencebythecivilwars.21Waxcandlesweremoredear:white(thatis,bleached)waxcan-
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dleswereregularlyfourorfivetimesasexpensive,whileyellow(unbleached)waxcandlesweretwoorthreetimesasexpensiveastallowcandles,althoughforsomereasonyellowcandleswerenotparticularlycommon.
Tallowandwaxcandleswereaboutthesamesizeoralittlelargerthanweusetoday.Inhomes,theaveragesizewasaroundsixoreightinthepound.Atcourt,candleswereoftenlarger,sometimesweighingapoundapieceormore.Thelegal"standardcandle"inboththeUnitedStatesandGreatBritainnowweighsone-sixthofapoundbutburnsmuchmoreslowlyandevenlythanearlytallowcandles,owingtotheuseofrefinedwaxesandplaitedwicks.Itisthiscandlethatyieldsthenowold-fashionedbutforourpurposes,practicalunitofilluminatingpower,thefootcandle,ortheamountoflightmeasuredonefootawayfromsuchacandle.
Torches,Lanterns,andOtherUtensils
Inathirdcategory,Igrouptogetherlightsessentiallysimilartothecandleexceptthattheirwicksweremuchlarger.Utensilssuchasrushlights,torches,links,flambeaux,andmanytapersdifferedfromcandlesinthattheywerenotprimarilymadeoffuelbutwereessentiallyallwick.Thepurposeofthelittlefuelinthemwastohelpburnthewick,whereasincandlesandlampsthewickservedtoburnthefuel.Themostinexpensivelightinginstrumentsinthiscategorywererushlights.Thesewerethethinpithsofsoftrushes,dippedbrieflyinkitchengrease.Whensupportedbywirerush-holders,theyservedasutilitylightsandnight-lightsinhumblebedrooms.
Torchesandlinksworkedsimilarlyexceptthattheirwickswereusuallyseverallengthsofhemprope,boundtogetheraroundawoodenstaff.Thetechnicaldistinctionbetweentorchesandlinksisnotalwaysclear,though.Torcheswerealwaysthreeorfourtimes
moreexpensivethanlinks,andtheirfuelprobablyincludedatleastsomewaxinadditiontothetallowandpitchcommontolinks.ToAmericans,theword"torch"connotesaroughhewnclubdippedinpitchappropriateforKuKluxKlanparades.Buttorcheswerenearlyobligatorylightsinilluminatingsumptuousmasques,andapassagefromWestwardHo!(1607)givesatruerpictureoftheirstatusinearlymodernEngland.Theauthorstellhow"theCobler,inthenighttimewalkswithhisLanthorne,theMerchant,andtheLawyerwithhisLink,andtheCourtierwithhisTorch."
22Becauseacourtierusesatorchhere,wemustpre-
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Fig.2.TitlepageillustrationofThomasKyd'sTheSpanishTragedy
(London,1615)showingthediscoveryofHoratio'smurderbysmokytorchlight.BypermissionoftheBritishLibrary(C117b36).
sumethatitwasnocrudedevice,especiallybecausethequotationimplieshabitualuse.Inconsequence,ourassociationswithsomeoftheselightsmaystandinneedofrevision.InthestormscenesofKingLear,forexample,therawpowerofnatureisaccompaniednotbyknurledclubsburningprimevallybutbygenteeltorcheswhosestaveswereprobablyrichlydecorated.Thus,lightswereassociatedwithvariousoccupationsandlevelsofsociety,andtheactorscouldusethemassignalsofcharacter.Hymen'storchandtheblacktorchesoftheFuriesareobviousidentifiersthatevenamodernaudiencemayknow,butwemaynotcatchthepretensionofVittoriaCorombonainTheWhiteDevilwhohasadornedherrooms"withseuerallkindoflights,/WhensheedidcounterfetaPrincesCourt."
23
Becauseofthesmoketheygenerated,linksandtorchesweretypically
employedoutofdoors(seefig.2).Bardolphissucha"ballofwildfire"in1Henry
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IV(3.3),forexample,thathehassavedFalstaff"athousandMarksinLinks,andTorches,walkingwiththeeinthenightbetwixttauerneandtauerne"(Q1G2v).Butevenasoutdoorlights,theypresentedadangerwhensmolderingchunksofwickfelloffthecentralstaves.DuringmidsummerwatcheswhentorchbearersfestivelymarchedthroughthestreetsofLondon,forexample,householdersregularlyplacedpotsofwaterbeforetheirdoorsasasafetyprecaution.
Asbefitstheirsophisticatedowners,torcheswereoccasionallybroughtindoorsintothegreathallsofthewealthy,wherethesmokecouldriseandsufficientnumbersofservantscouldattendtothem.Perhapsavestigeoftraditionalmummingwheretorchbearingmummersvisitedthehousesofhonoredworthiesatnight,torchesregularlyaccompaniedindoormasquesandotherentertainmentsinthespacioushallsofgreathousesanduniversities.Problemsarose,however,whentorchescameneartheatricalcostumesincrampedquarters.In1579,forexample,whentheElizabethanRevelsOfficerentedplumesforelaborateheadpiecesinamasqueofknights,itwaschargedextrabecausefourplumes"weredroptewithtorches"whilethreeexpensiveheronfeathers"wereburntewithTorches."
24Nowonderthatintheact5masquesceneofTheMalcontent,Biliosoberatesapageforlettinghistorchdripwheretheladiessit.SuchdrippingalsoobligedtheRevelsOfficetospendlargesumsonglovesforthetorchbearers.ButinlaterStuartmasques,thetorchesthataccompaniedthemasquersmaynotalwayshavebeenlit;atleastJonson,Davenant,andotherssometimestakepainsspecificallytocallforlightedtorches,implyingthatothersmaysimplyhavebeencarriedbutnotlighted.Bythe1630s,masquersweresometimesaccompaniedbyaspeciesofthetorchcalledtheflambeaux,whichwasdearereventhanthetorchbecause,toreducesmokeanddripping,itsthickwickwasimpregnatedonlybyfinewax.
Astrictlyoutdoorutensilthatislessfamiliartousnowwasthecresset(seefig.3).Thesewereironfire-basketsusuallycarriedormountedonlongpolesinwhichwovenfralesorwreathesofrushes,pitch,rope,andtallowwereburned.TheyhadalsobeencarriedbythewatchesofLondonuntilthemiddleofthesixteenthcentury,butbythecivilwarstheywerealreadyforgotten.TheirElizabethanusewaslimitedandapparentlysometimesnostalgic.Weknow,forinstance,thatbytheturnoftheseventeenthcentury,theyoccasionallyservedasentrancelightsmountedbeforethedoorsofinns,taverns,
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Fig.3.CressetsfromvariousearlyEnglishprintsanddrawingspublishedbyFrancis
Doucein1807.UniversityofIllinoisatUrbana-ChampaignLibrary.
andstableswheretheyilluminatedthewayoftravelersandlentsuchestablishmentsatraditional,evenold-fashioned,ambience.
25Fromearlyon,theyweremostoftenassociatedwithoutdoorwintertimeactivitieswheretheirheatwouldbeaswelcomeastheirlight.Wehaveonlyafewreferencestotheiruseinprofessionaltheatercontexts,buttheyareoccasionallymentionedinconnectionwithlateamateurreligiousplays.IntheN-TownBetrayal(c.1500),Jesusisarrestedbysoldierscarrying"cressettys,withfeyr,andlanternysandtorchislyth"(seeJohn18:1),andaccountbooksoftheCapper'sCompany,Coventry,indicatethatitownedsixcressetsforthepageantsofTheResurrection,TheHarrowingofHell,andTheMeetingwiththeMariesaslateasthe1590s.26Butsomeofthesecressetsmayhavehadparatheatricaluses.Theaccountsof"thewacheandplay"ofWymondham,Norfolk,1538,forexample,containpaymentsforpitch,resin,andsixteenpoundsoftallowforacressetlight,butabonfireofthissizemaywellhavebelongedtothewatch,nottheplay.27Later,theterm"cresset"seemstohavebeenappliednotonlytotheutensilsthemselvesbutalsotothewovenfralesthat,
alongwithothercombustiblematerials,wereplacedintheironbaskets.Suchutensilsrequiredsteadyreplenishmentoffuel,astheirlargeflamestendedtoconsumethemselvesrapidly.
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Lanternswerealsoforoutdooruse.Theyweremerelycandlesplacedinwoodormetalboxeswithwindowsofoiledpaperandparchmentor,morefrequently,horn;hencetheusualspelling,"lanthorne."Butagain,wemaymissthedistinctionbetweenanormallanternanda"darklantern,"suchasBosolacarriesinact2,scene3,ofTheDuchessofMalfi.Darklanternsgaveoffnolightatalluntilasmalldoorwasopenedintheotherwiseopaqueshield.Theywereafavoriteofthievesandhighwaymenengagedinsurreptitiousnighttimeadventures.Bosola'sdarklanternthusfitshissinisteractionswell(hecallsithis"falce-friend")andcolorsourresponsetoAntonioattheendoftheplaywhenhe,too,resortstousinga"darkeLanthorne"inhisattempttomeetwiththeCardinal.
28Similarly,inTheBloodyBanquet,TymethescreepsintoRoxano'sbedroom''hudwinckt"andsurprisesherwhenhe"[o]pensadarkeLanthorne."29
Taperswereemployedindoors,despitetheiralsobeingmadeofrope.Taperswereusuallysingle,thinropesdippedinwaxortallow.Theysmokedandstankbuthadtheadvantageofrequiringlittlesnuffing.Hence,theywereusedasnight-lightsinbedrooms,wheretheycouldburnsafelywithlittleattention.ImogenhasataperinherbedroominCymbeline,andLadyMacbethcarriesonefromherbedroomwhilesleepwalking.Earlyemblembooksoftenusedlightsofallkindsasimagesoflifeanddeath,butbecauseofthetaper'srelativeweaknessasalightanditsassociationwiththebedroom,playwrightsoftenuseittosignalthefrailtyofhumanloveandpassion.NowhereisthiskindofsymbolmademoreimportanttothemeaningofaplaythanattheveryendofBussyD'Ambois,whenMontsurrygraphicallyshowshisfaithlesswifetheextinctionoftheirlovebyputtingoutataper:
AndasthisTaper,thoughitvpwardslooke,
Downwardsmustneedsconsume,soletourloue...AswhentheflameissufferedtolookevpItkeepeshisluster:but,beingthusturnddowne(Hisnaturallcourseofvsefulllightinuerted)Hisownestuffeputsitout:soletourloue.30
Thissenseoffrailtyissometimessharedbycandles(Macbeth's"Out,out,breefeCandle,"forinstance[F2344]);butonthewhole,candlesweremoreneutralintermsoftheirsocialconnotations.Unfortunately,taperswerealso
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placedincandlesticksandareeasilyconfusedwithtruecandles:inTheWhiteDevil,forexample,a"hallowedcandle"isbroughttoBrachianoashelieswoundedinbed,butinthenextstagedirection,thecandleisreferredtoas"theHo[ll]owedtaper."
31
Infact,themajorobstacleinattemptingtoreconstructtheartificialilluminationoftheearlydramaisthatnearlyeverylightcouldbeandwasconfusedwithothers.Torchesandtapersweresometimescalledcandles,largecandleswerecalledtorches,eventaperswerecalledlanterns.Moreover,alloftheseinstrumentswerefrequentlyidentifiedsimplybythegeneralterm"light."Occasionally,acarefulobserverlikeGeorgeCavendishdistinguishes"lightesofwaxeasbyggeastorches,"32butmorecasualwritersmerelysay"torches"andhavedonewithit.Inplays,forexample,therequirementsoftheverseoftentakeprecedenceoveraccuratedescription.OnhiswaytoCapulet'sball,Romeodemands,''Atorchforme,"buttwolineslaterannounces,"Ilebeacandle-holderandlookeon"(RomeoandJuliet,Q2B4v).Theeverydaytermwas"torchbearer,"not"candle-holder";butasistypicalofShakespeare'searlyverse,acommonwordlike"torchbearer"bowstoelegantvariationandtheexigenciesoftherhythm.
ThismuddleinterminologyalsoappliestorecordswritteninLatin.Whilelucernaisnormallytranslatedas"lamp,"onecannotalwaysbesurethatitdoesnotrefertoanotherkindoflight.Tochoosebutoneexample,"lucernae"werecitedasemployedforperformancesatQueensCollege,Cambridge,in154546,butAlanNelsonhaspointedoutthattheyprobablyrefertocandles,becausetheyarealsodescribedascostingtwopenceperpound.33Whetherfrompoeticlicenseorindifference,earlymodernwritersnamedlightinginstruments
imprecisely;orrather,thereisenoughsloppinessintheapplicationofnomenclaturethatagivendescriptionmustalwaysbeviewedskeptically.
Thereisnoreasontobelievethattheprofessionalactorsusedanyotherlightsthantheeveryday,domesticutensilsusedinhomesandbusinesses.Henslowe's"EnventarytackenofallthepropertiesformyLordAdmerallesmen,the10ofMarche1598"mentionsonlyonelightofanykind,a"beacon."34Thismayhavebeenacressetorsomeotherlargelight,butHenslowe'sgroupingitwith"ijstepells,&jchymeofbelles"indicateshemeantlessakindoflightthana"signalstation,watchtower,"or"lighthouse,"
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astheOEDdefines"beacon"inthesixteenthcentury.Perhapsthisbeaconwassomekindofarchitecturalset-pieceratherthanaspecialtheatricallight,orahistoricallyaccuratereplicaofone.
Atcourt,mostofthelightsthatilluminatedplaysandmasqueswerealsoversionsofstandardlightingutensils.TheRevelsOfficespentlargesumsonchandeliers,candlesticks,andtallowandonoccasionorderedelaboratelygildedbranches,perfumedwaxcandles,andspeciallyfashionedtorches(atorchbearerinJonson'sMasqueofQueenscarriesalightedtorch"madeofadead-Mansarme,"forexample),butthesewerelargelyforthegreatergrandeurofthedecorationandnotforspecificallytheatricallightingeffects.
TheonlykindsoflightsthatserveddistinctlytheatricalfunctionsofilluminationwereapparatusesemployedinearlyStuartmasquesasawayofcoloringandconcentratinglightontheItalianatescenes.Theseinstrumentsconsistedoflightsshiningthroughcoloredpaperorthroughglassvialsfilledwithplainorcoloredfluid.TheItaliandesignerSebastianoSerliorecountedtheuseofpaperandliquid-filledvialsascoloringmediaforlampsin1545,andhisdescriptionofthesetechniques,inthesecondbookofhisRegolegeneralidiarchitettura,waspublishedinEnglishasearlyas1611.Ifaparticularlybrightlightiscalledfor,Serlioadds,"thensetatorchbehind[avial],andbehindthetorchabrightBason."
35
Serliodoesnotspecificallymentionit,buthisvialsfilledwithliquidwillalsofocuslight.InTheMysteryesofNatureandArt(London,1634),JohnBatedescribes"HowwithoneCandletomakeasgreatalight,asotherwiseoftwoorthreeofthesamebignesse,"andthisfeatofconcentratinglightinaparticulardirectionisaccomplished,hesays,bytwoglassglobesonetoholdacandle,theotherfilledwith
distilledwatertorefractandfocusthecandle'slight(157).Asimilar,butclearer,descriptionisgiveninJohnWhite'sARichCabinetwithVarietyofInvention(London,1651).Neitherpointstoatheatricaluseofthisinvention,whichlaterbecameknownas"lacemakers'condensers"becauseofthedetailedworkitpermittedatnight,36butInigoJonesmaywellhaveemployedsimilarinstrumentstorepresentshiningjewelsandotherobjectsforhisStuartmasques.
Thereisnoevidencethatprofessionalactorsemployedcoloredorconcentratedlightattheirplayhouses,andcertainlyattheoutdooramphitheatersoneimaginesthatattemptstodosomightbeunimpressiveindaylight.
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Allthesame,wemaynotethatthecontemporaneouscorralesofSpainoccasionallyaccommodatedwhatappeartobelightssimilartomodern-daycolored-paperlanternsontheirdaylit,butwell-shaded,stages.InLopedeVega'sLaimperialdeOtón(1597),forinstance,manylights"incoloredpapers"arerevealedastherear"tiring-house"curtainisdrawnaside.
37
Impulsestowardtheatricalspectacleontheonehandandconcernforhistoricalaccuracyontheotherwillproducemoreelaboratelightsandlightingtechniquesthanwererequiredinthehome.Weknowthattheactorspaidattentiontoboththeseconsiderationsonoccasion.Spectacularlightingeffectsarenotuncommon,andtheirusemusthavecreatedsensationswiththeopening-upofhellinTheTragicalHistoryofDoctorFaustusortheburningofthetownduringZenocrate'sfuneralin2Tamburlaine.Moreover,ifHenryPeachum's1595sketchofascenefromTitusAndronicusisanyguide,Elizabethanactorspaidatleastcursoryattentiontohistoricalaccuracyintheircostumesandhandproperties.
Yet,howevermuchthedesireforspectacleorauthenticityexerteditselfinsomeareasofstaging,theevidenceforitsimplementationinlightingpracticeisthin.Spectacularlightingconsistedlargelyoffirecrackerssetoff.ThescenesinDoctorFaustusand2Tamburlaineareindeedmemorable,buttheybelongtoonlyahandfulofscenesintheplaysoftheperiod,almostallofwhichcanbestagedwithsmoke,fireworks,andtherarerosin-flash.OfShakespeare'sthirty-sevenplays,forexample,notonecallsforanylightingeffectmorecomplicatedthanastrokeoflightningeasilyproducedbysettingoffasquib.Nineteenofhisplaysrequirenolightsatall;andonlyoneortwoplays,whiletheydonotrequiremoreelaborateeffects,might
benefitfromthem.Asforhistoricallyaccurateorespeciallydecoratedpropertylights,wehaveonlynegativeevidence.Norecordsurvivesthatevenhintsatanyforeign,historical,orspeciallymadelightinginstrumentfortheprofessionalplayhouses.Andasdistinctivelynon-ElizabethanclothingandhandpropertiesarespecificallyincludedinHenslowe'slists,wecanonlyassumethattheactingcompaniesmadedowithreadilyavailable,contemporarylights.
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3EarlyLightingSystemsWhenJohnBraynebuilttheRedLionplayhouseinWhitechapelin1567andheandhisbrother-in-lawJamesBurbagebuilttheTheaterinShoreditchin1576,theypresumablybasedtheirdesignsonsomeideaorclusterofideasabouttheaterplanningthattheyhadlearnedbypracticalexperienceorthroughwrittensources.ButwhatthoseideaswereandhowmuchtheyaffectedstageproductionatthefirstLondonplayhousesarequestionsthatmayneverbesettled.AmongthestagesthatmighthavecontributedtoElizabethanamphitheatricaldesign,themostfrequentlymentionedaretheRomantheaterasdescribedbyVitruviusandhiscommentators;themedievalchurchyard,tiltyard,pageant-wagon,andplateasurroundedbyscaffoldsforseating;andthecourtyard,inn-yard,animal-baitinghouse,boothstage,civicpageant,banquetingtheater,andTudorhall.Allofthesevenueshavesimilaritiestotheamphitheaters,andsomewereusedbytheactingcompaniesasperformancespacesbeforepermanenthouseswerebuilt.ButwhethertheyservedasmodelsforBrayne,Burbage,andothermanagersorbuildersisdifficulttosay.Itisapparentthatmanyofthesepossibleinfluenceswereoutdoorplacesofentertainmentandthatsomesurroundedthecenterofinterestwithspectatorsonmorethanoneside.Forafew,thisisallthesimilaritythatcanbefound.Forothers,morestrikingparallelsareevident.Evenso,similaritiesarenotinthemselvesproofofdirectorindirectinfluence.Thedaylitringarrangementofthepublicplayhousesandthenear-circularshapeofopen-airtheatersasoldasthoseoftheancientGreeksmayhaveincommononlytheobviousefficiencyofseatingamaximumnumberofpeopleneartheactorswithouttheexpenseofbuildingaroof.
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Theprominencegivenbyanearliergenerationoftheaterhistorianstochurchsteps,pageant-wagons,inn-yards,andShakespeare'sGlobeledmanytobelievethatoutdoorstageproductionwasthecharacteristicmodeofdramainEnglanduntilthelateseventeenthcentury.Accordingtothisscheme,theoriginoftheamphitheaterlightingsystemwassimpletodiscover:fromtheoutdoorCorpusChristiplaystothestreettheatersofitinerantplayersderivedasunlitdramatictraditionnurturedwhollyonEnglishsoil.ReadersofintroductionstotheEnglishtheaterweresometimesgiventheimpressionthatoncetheplayersleftthemedievalchurchesandbegantoperforminthestreets,theycontinuedtoperformoutdoorsandneverreturnedinsideuntilShakespeare'scompanymovedintotheJacobean"private"playhouseinBlackfriars.Butresearchoverthepasttwenty-fiveyearshasshownthatthisneataccountofthederivationofpublic-theaterlightingismisleading.GlynneWickhamandothershavearguedthatthroughoutthelatemedievalandTudorperiods,thetypicalhomeofprofessionalEnglishactorswasaslikelytobeindoorsasoutdoors;thattheactors'constructionofoutdoorplayhouseswasalate-sixteenth-centuryinnovation;andthatfarfrompromptinganewstagecraftreflectedlaterintheprivatetheaters,theentertainmentsatcourtderivedfromalong-standingtraditionofindoorfestivals,influencedonlyperipherallybyContinentaltheatricalpractice.
1Wickhamconcludesthataprofessionalactor'spreferredenvironmentwasindoorsandthatonlyafinancialdesireforlargeraudiencesandanimpulsetoescaperestrictiveCitycontrolsforcedhimoutdoors.
Iftheuseofpermanentopen-airarenaswasaninnovation,wemaywellwonderwheretheactorsfoundthespecificlightingarrangementstheydidifnotinthefamiliarinn-yardsandbear-baitinghousesof
London.Historianshavelongpointedtothesevenuesastheimmediateprecursorsoftheamphitheaters,eventhoughweknowoffewearlyplaysthatweredefinitelyperformedineither.InapreliminarysummaryofthefindingsoftheRecordsofEarlyEnglishDramaproject,forinstance,AlexandraJohnstonpointsouthowlittleevidencesupportingperformancesatinnseitherinroomsorininn-yardshasbeendiscovered.2AndOscarBrownsteinandJohnOrrellhaveshownthatearlyanimal-baitingcirclesprobablyhadfewoftheplayhouseattributesthatlateranimalarenasliketheHopedisplayed,althoughanItalianvisitortotheParisGardenin1562didnotethatthescaffoldssurroundingthatarenahad"theirawningsagainsttherainandthesun."3Seatingarrange-
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mentsforspectatorsattheinn-yardsandbear-baitingarenasmaywellhaveadumbratedthoseattheamphitheaters,andbuildersmayhaveborrowedideasonconstructionfromthem.Butneitherinn-yardsnoranimal-baitinghousestellusmuchaboutthemodificationoflightinthepublicplayhouses.Completelyunexplainedisthederivationoftheheavensor"shadowe"overthestage,astheFortunecontractputsit.NoTudoranimal-baitinghouseisknowntohavehadaroofoverthepit,andthefirstwehearofaroofinaninn-yardiswhentheBoar'sHeadtavernunderwentitssecondconversionintoapermanentplayhousein1599.
4Justaslikelyaninspirationforamphitheatricallightingarrangementscanbefoundinchurchyards,whichAlexandraJohnstonshowsservedasfrequenttheatricalvenuesintheprovinces,notonlyforparishamateursbutalsoforprofessionalactors.5Inatleastoneinstance,suchchurchyardswereevenequippedwithcanopiesunderwhichprofessionalactorsplayed:in1339thebishopofExeterobjectedto"abalconyorcanopyerectedandconstructeduponpostsfixedintheground...withintheboundaryofthechurchyardofouraforementionedchurchofExeter"underwhich"rogues,actors,whores,andothervilepersons''performed"stage-plays."6
SinceRichardHosley,RichardSouthern,andothershavedrawnattentiontotheprominentuseofindoorhallsbyearlyactingtroupes,analternatemodelfortheoutdoorheavensistheceilingoftheTudorhall.7Thisceilingprovidedconveniencesthattheactorsmightnotwanttoforegoastheymovedoutdoors.Theyenjoyeditsprotectionfromtheelementsandhungfromitsraftersthehoistingapparatusneededforascentsanddescentsofactors.ButwhentheprofessionaltroupeswereforcedoutsidetheCitywallsbyplaguerestrictionsandPuritanintransigence,theycouldfindfewindoorhallsavailableto
them.Instead,shrewdspeculatorsbuiltlarge,multipurposearenasthattheactorssharedwithbear-baiters,fencers,ropedancers,andthelike.Underthesecircumstances,earlyactingcompaniesapparentlymadeshiftwithwhatwasavailabletothem,becausetheycouldnotatfirstinsistthatthespeculatorsconstructlargeroofsoverthearenassolelyforthebenefitofoccasionaltheatricalspectacleandalittleprotectionfromtheweather.
Althoughnopre-Elizabethanoutdoorstageleavesclearevidenceofsuchastructureastheamphitheaterheavens,severalpreviouskindsofdramahadfacilitiesthatanticipatedthefunctions,ifnottheform,oftheroof-canopy.Thefollowingreviewofearlylightingsystems,whilenotignoringquestions
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ofderivation,seeksprincipallytodescribeantecedentlightingpracticewithwhichElizabethanactorsmighthavebeenfamiliar.
ClassicalandEarlyNeoclassicalPrecedents
IncreasingattentionhasrecentlybeenpaidtoclassicalandneoclassicalsourcesofinspirationtoElizabethantheaterbuilders:JohnOrrell'sTheHumanStage(1988)addsanimpressivearrayofevidencetosupportthisthesisthatwasinitiallyputforwardbyFrancisA.YatesandRichardC.Kohler.
8AnditistruethattheoverallarticulationoflightattheEnglishpublicplayhousesapproximatedthatattheamphitheatersofclassicalantiquity.LikeElizabethanplays,earlyGreekandRomanperformancesweregivenbydaylight.AttheTheaterofDionysosinAthens,performancesfromthefifthcenturyB.C.onwereapparentlyheldfrommorningtoafternoonunderthesun.EarlyRomanplaysalsobeganinthemorningbutdidnotlastquitesolong.9Sotoo,theruinsofHellenistic,Graeco-Roman,Republican,andImperialRomantheatersarealmostallsituated,likemanyEnglishamphitheaters,sothattheskene*orscaenafronsistothesouth,southeast,orsouthwest.10Thisorientationmeantthatthesunshonefromhighbehindthescenebuildingduringmorningormiddayperformances.Andfinally,weknowthatasearlyasthefourth-century-B.C.phlyakesstagesofsouthernItaly,roofsweresometimeserectedoverthestage.11ThefirstwoodenstagesinRomewereprobablywithoutroofs,butoncepermanentstonetheaterswerebuiltinthefirstcenturyB.C.,anarrowroofjuttingforwardfromthescaenafronswasacommonfacilityintheatersthroughoutMagnaGraeca.12TheRomanswerealsointhehabitofstretchinglargeclothawnings(velaorvelaria)overtheirtheaterstoprotectspectatorsfromthesun.InthefirstcenturyB.C.,Lucretiusdescribedhowlightshiningthroughtheseawningscouldeventingetheatersincoloredlight:
red,yellow,andbrownawningswhen,stretchedacrossgreattheatres,flungwideoverpolesandbeams,theyrippleandflap.Fortheydyethewholethingunderthem:people,pit,stage,andscenery...andmakeitflowwithbandsoftheirowncolors.Andthemorethewallsofthetheatreareenclosed
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around,themoreallthat'sinsideisgayandfloodedwithbeautywhenithascaughtthelight.
13
PlinyandMartialtellusapurpleawningwasstretchedabovePompey'stheaterinRomeinA.D.66,andCassiusDiodescribesavelumonwhichNerowasdepictedasasungodridingachariotamongthestars.14
TheseRomanmodificationsofgenerallightingcouldnothavedirectlyinfluencedEnglishactors.Althoughsomeearly-sixteenth-centuryItalianartists,amongthemRaphael,hadmeasuredandstudiedclassicalruins,thiskindoffirsthandknowledgewasunavailabletoearlyEnglishbuilders.ThesimilaritiesbetweenRomanandEnglishoutdoortheatersregardingtimeofperformance,theaterorientation,andshelterforthestagemayaseasilybeascribedtopracticalstagewisdomastodirectimitation.Still,T.F.OrdishandGlynneWickhamhavebroughtattentiontothelong-standingtraditionofopen-aircirculargame-placesinEnglandgoingbacktotheruinsoftheRomanoccupationandcontinuingthroughtheMiddleAgeswiththeCornishplen-an-gwaryrounds,whichtheRomangame-placesmayhaveinfluenced.Bothscholarsarguethatthesebroad,shallowbowlsdugintothegroundareprecursorsoftheTudoranimal-baitingandtheatricalarenasofLondonandthattheseroundsmayevenbeconsideredlinksbetweenRomantheaterconfigurationsandtheElizabethanplayhouse'spracticeofsurroundingthestagewithspectators.15
Yet,evenifthesegame-placesdidaffecttheshapeofLondonamphitheaters,evidenceoffacilitiesforthemodificationoflightineithertheRomanorCornisharenasismeager.TheEnglishsunisseldomashotastheItaliansun,nordoesitshinedownsosteeply;itis
doubtful,therefore,thatRomansoldiersbotheredwithlargecanvasvelasimplytowatchanimalfights.Ontheotherhand,anironcounterweightfoundonthesiteoftheRomantheateratVerulamium(nearSt.Albans,Hertfordshire)maysuggestthatitsstage(enlargedaroundA.D.200)featuredasuperstructureofsomekindtoaccommodatedescentsoranauleum.16AndstagedirectionsintheCornishOrdinalia(c.1450)mentionthatstages,houses,andtentsforthevariouscharacterswereplacedaroundthecircumferenceoftheround,againpossiblyimplyingoverheadcoveringsforsomeofthescaffolds.17ButneitherthetheateratSt.AlbansnortheCornishroundsseemstohavebeenaccessibletoTudortheater-planners.EventhoughitisrelativelyclosetoLondon,theVerulamiumtheaterwasnotexcavateduntil1847.TheCornishrounds
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atSt.Just-in-PenwithandPerranzabuloewerenotstudieduntiltheeighteenthcentury,althoughin1602RichardCarewwroteofan"earthenAmphitheater,insomeopenfield"inCornwallwhere"miracles"wereperformed,whichhemayhaveseenwhenhewashighsheriffofCornwallin1586.
18Thetoneofhisdescriptionmakesclear,however,thatheassumedtheaverageLondonerhadneverseensuchathing.
AlthoughwemustrejectadirectRomaninfluenceinthederivationoftheLondonarenaplayhouses,itistruethattheElizabethansselectivelyfollowedwhattheybelievedtobeclassicalprecedent,especiallywrittenprecedent.Asaresult,theElizabethanheavensmaybeadumbratedlessbywhattheRomansactuallydidthanbywhatRenaissanceinterpreters,rightorwrong,thoughttheyhaddone.
ThegreatconduitofancienttheatricalknowledgetotheRenaissancewasthefirst-centuryRomanengineerVitruvius.Inhisfamousbook,DeArchitectura,Vitruviusdoesnotmentionthevela,buthedescribestheRomantheaterasa"curvedenclosure,"opentotheweather,witharoofaboveacolonnade"builtatthetopoftherowsofseats...levelwiththetopofthe'scaena.'"Headvisesthattheatersshouldbelaidoutsoastoavoida"southernexposure,"which,hesays,createsanunhealthyclimatebyallowingthesuntoshinefrombehindthescaenafronsontothecurvedrowsofseats(5.3.2).19Fromwhatweknownow,hisaccountroughlycoincideswithactualpracticeduringtheEmpire,exceptthattheorientationofalmostallknownRomantheatersisexactlyoppositetowhathesuggested.Unhappily,thedrawingsthatformedanessentialpartofhisexplanationsdidnotsurvive,andhisdescriptionsaresometimesvaguewithoutthem.Whatthescaenaanditsrooflookedlike,forexample,heleavescompletelytotheimagination.Itisnotsurprising,then,thatwheninterestinhim
revived,adistortednotionofRomanlightingresulted.
BytheMiddleAges,theRomantheaterhadalreadybecomeconfusedwiththepopularmimictheaters.TracingthewordscaenabacktotheGreekskene*("hut"or"tent,"akintotheGreekskia,"shadow"),earlydefinitionsofthescaenaanditsroofdescribedaboothorhousearoundwhichspectatorsassembled.AsearlyasA.D.620,theSpanishlexicographerIsidoreofSevilledefinedscaenaasaplacewithinatheater''inmodumdomus"intheformofahouse.InPapiastheLombard'sVocabulista(1053),scaenaiscalledanumbraculum,"shadedplace,"inwhichpoetsrecitedtheirplays.Thein-
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Fig.4.FrontispiecetoLeTérencedesDucs,fifteenthcentury.Terence
isseenbelowwhilehisplayisrecitedandperformedaboveinacirculartheaterwithcoveredscena.ClichéBibliothèquenationaledeFrance.
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fluentiallate-twelfth-centurydictionaryofHugutiusofPisadefinedscaenaagainasanumbraculumor"shadedplaceinthetheatrecoveredwithcurtains"andlikenedittotheboothsofmerchants.
20
IllustrationsfromearlyeditionsofTerencedemonstratethisconfusion.ThefrontispiecetotheFrenchTerencecodex,LeTérencedesDucs(c.1400),showsaround,open-airtheatrumwithacoveredscaffoldinthecenter,labeledscena(seefig.4).Infrontofthescenaaremusiciansandmaskedjoculatores.Oneactorismakinganentrancefromasidecurtainofthescena.Insidethescaffold,coveredbyanawning,theRomangrammarianandrecitatorCalliopiusisseendeclaimingfromabookofTerence.Whatissignificantabouttheminiatureisnotonlythatitportraysanearlycombinationofacoveredscaffoldwithanarena-styletheateradevelopmentthatsomeassumeoccurredinEnglandonlywiththeintroductionofboothstagesintobear-baitinghousesnearlytwohundredyearslaterbutalsothatthiscombinationisrepresentednotasaninnovationbutasareconstructionoftheRomantheater.TheartistbelievedthattheRomansplacedacovered"tiring-house"withinaringofspectatorsthatwasinturnsurroundedbyawallwithexitsandentrances.Theactorsarenotprotectedfromthesun,butthemanrecitingthetextis,andthedrawingrepresentsoneoftheearliestmodernusesofsuchprotectioninconjunctionwithacirculararena.
InhisstudyofmedievalEnglishstaging,RichardSouthernhaspointedoutthestrongresemblancebetweenthisquasi-RomantheaterandseveralearlycirculartheatersinEngland,includingthetentioftheCornishrounds.21Forexample,thediagramthataccompaniesthemanuscriptoftheEnglishmoralityplayTheCastleofPerseverance(c.1425)resemblestheFrenchTerencetheater,exceptthatbesidesthe
centralscaffold,fiveadditionalscaffoldsaredistributedaroundtheperimeteroftheplatea(seefig.5).Workingfromhintsinthedialogue,Southernconcludesthatthesescaffoldswerecoveredwithclothawnings,presumablylikethosestretchedoversimilarscaffoldsinthewell-knownFouquetminiatureTheMartyrdomofSaintApollonia(c.1460).22IntheFouquetminiature(seefig.6),theelaborateimmolationscenetakesplaceintheopen-airplatea,buttheactorsandpropertiesinsomeofthesurroundingscaffoldsmakeitclearthatactionalsooccursundertheirprotectiveawnings.InTheCastleofPerseverance,mostofthedialogueisspokenfromthevariousscaffoldswithonlytheclimacticassaultonthecastleoccupyingthecentralarea.AswiththeTérencedesDucs
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Fig.5.PlanaccompanyingthemanuscriptofTheCastleofPerseverance,fifteenthcentury.Ateachcompasspointisa"scaffold"foroneofthemajorcharacters.BypermissionoftheFolgerShakespeareLibrary.
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Fig.6.LeMartyredeSainteApollinefromLesHeuresd'EtienneChevalierbyJean
Fouquet,c.1460.MuséeCondé,Chantilly.Photo:Lauros-Giraudon.
theater,thesetworeligiousplaysdocumenttheearlyuseofroof-canopiesinconnectionwithcurvedtheatricalspaceslongbeforetheprofessionalLondonactingcompaniessetuptheirboothstagesatoneendofaTudorinn-yardorbear-baitingarena.
AlaterTerenceillustrationexemplifiesthegrowingsophisticationoftheRenaissanceconceptionoftheRomanstagecover.JohannesTrechsel'sexteriorviewofanacademictheaterontopofabrothelintheLyonTerence(1493)showsapolygonaltheatrum,opentotheweather,surmountedbyacolonnadewithalargecanopy(seefig.7).ThebuildingfollowsVitruviusin
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Fig.7.PrintofthefrontispiecetoJohannesTrechsel'seditionofTerence(Lyon,1493).UniversityofIllinoisTheatricalPrintCollection.
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outline,saveforthevelumthatTrechselcouldhavelearnedaboutfromOvid,Propertius,Pliny,Lucretius,orMartialorfromthemostinfluentialfifteenth-centurydiscipleofVitruvius,LeonBattistaAlberti.InthefirstprintedcommentaryonVitruvius,DeReAedificatoria(Florence,1485),Albertidescribedsuchasuperstructure:"Andoverallthis,asaCielingtotheTheatre,bothtokeepofftheWeather,andtoretaintheVoice,theyspreadaSailallstrewedoverwithStars,whichtheycouldremoveatPleasure,andwhichshadedthemiddleArea[thestage],theSeats,andalltheSpectators."
23
WhatisofinterestisthedegreetowhichthelightingarrangementsofTrechsel'sneoclassicaltheatrumparallelthoseinthelaterLondonamphitheaters.Trechselshowsanopen-air,polygonaltheaterwithsunlightemanatingfrombehindthestage(fromrighttoleftinthepicture).Pillarssupportarectangularcanopywhoseundersidedisplaysagadrooncloudmotifthat,ifTrechselfollowedCassiusDioorAlberti,wasdecoratedwithcelestialobjects.AlthoughthestyleofthetheaterdoesnotrecallthatofJohannesdeWitt'sversionoftheSwan,thedispositionofitspartscontrolslightinasimilarmanner.
ItisimpossibletotellwhetherTudorplayhouse-buildershadaccesstothesourcematerialsTrechselhad.Directconnectioncannotbeverified,butasOrrelldemonstrates,thereiscircumstantialevidencetosupportareal,ifunsystematic,adherencetoVitruviantheatricalprinciplesinTudorEngland.By1577,WilliamHarrison'sDescriptionofEnglandcouldentertainafavorablecomparisonofEnglishbuilderswith"OldVitruvius(LeoBaptista)andSerlo,"24showingthatVitruviuswasknowninEnglandprimarilythroughtheeditionofAlberti,whogivessuchadetailedaccountofthestagecover.The
passagemayevenimplythatanintelligentbuilderwouldhavebeenawareofVitruvianbuildingmethods.FrancisYatesfoundevidencethatseveralEnglishlibrariescontainedLatinandmodern-languageeditionsofVitruvius,Alberti,andotherlatercommentatorsbythe1570s.25BenJonson,forexample,paraphrasedAlberti'sworkextensivelyandownedseveraleditionsofVitruvius.26Moreover,forthetitlepageofhis1616folio,JonsonhadtheEnglishengraverdrawareconstructionofaRomantheatrum,basedonwhathehadlearned.Theengravingissmallanddifficulttomakeout,butthetheatrumhasasurprisinglylargehutabovethestage,muchmoreelaboratethananyclassicalauthorcouldhaveledJonsontobelieve.Although
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nonewasmoreplangentonthesubjectofclassicismthanJonson,hemayalsohavetendedtoidentifytheRomanscaenawiththeEnglishtiring-houseandheavens.Andalthoughthepointoftheremarkhassometimesbeenignored,somecredencemustbegiventodeWitt'sconclusionaround1596thattheSwan's"formresemblesthatofaRomanwork."
27Tobesure,theSwandrawingdoesnotdepictwhatwethinkofasaRomantheater,butthereseemsnoreasontodoubtdeWittthatearlytheatergoerswouldhavethoughtso.Certainly,thepaintingofitswoodencolumnsinan"excellentimitationofmarble"impliesanattemptattheclassicalstyle.
ApassagefromThomasHeywood'sAnApologyforActors,writtenaround1608,mayservetosummarizewhatanactivemanoftheEnglishtheaterknewaboutancienttheatricallightingandtheRomanstageroof.Heexplainsthatthe"firstpublickeTheaterwasbyDionysiusbuiltinAthens...inthemannerofasemi-circle."Fromit,hesays,"theRomaneshadtheirfirstpatterne,whichatthefirstnotbeingroof't,butlyingopentoallweathers,QuintisCatuluswasthefirstthatcausedtheout-sidetobeecoueredwithlinnencloth."Later,afterPompeyhadbuiltthefirststonetheaterinRome,JuliusCaesarraisedanother,equallysumptuoustheaterthat,accordingtoHeywood,hadamagnificentheavens,fullofmachinesandspectaculardevices:
[T]hecoueringsofthestage,whichweecalltheheauens(wherevponanyoccasiontheirGodsdescended)wereGeometricallysupportedbyaGiant-likeAtlas,whomethePoëtsforhisAstrology,feignetobeareheauenonhisshoulders,inwhichanartificiallSunneandMooneofextraordinaryaspectandbrightnessehadtheirdiurnall,andnocturnallmotions;sohadthestarrestheirtrueandcoelestiall*course.28
HeywoodnotonlyknewthattheRomansbuiltroofsovertheirstages
butalsosuggests,byhisreferencetotheRoman"coueringsofthestage,whichweecalltheheauens,"thathethoughttheRomanandEnglishroofswereidentical,oratleastfulfilledidenticalfunctionssuchasastronomicaldisplays.LiketheRomanheavens,severalElizabethanandJacobeanamphitheatershadpaintedzodiacsoverthestage,andthereisevidencethatcelestialdisplaysinvolvingrocketsmountedonpinwheelsabovethestagewerepopular,particularlyatHeywood'sfavoritetheater,theRedBull.Henslowe'slistofpropertiesincludesa"clotheoftheSone&Mone"thatmayhavebeenhungfromtheheavensattheRose.29And,ofcourse,boththeRomanand
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Englishstageswereequippedwithfacilitiesforthedescentofgods.OnetheaterhistorianclaimsthatthebuildersoftheEnglishamphitheatersconscientiouslyfollowedVitruviantheatergeometry,especiallyinplanningtheFortune,whoseproportionsexhibitan"exactmathematicalcorrespondence"withtheVitruvianscheme.
30Thisispossible,althoughwhytheFortunewasrectangularwhenVitruviusandhiscommentatorscalledforasemi-roundtheaterisnotconvincinglyexplained.
AnargumentagainstaVitruviancontributiontothepublicplayhouseroof-canopyisthatVitruvianinfluenceismuchmoreevidentinindoorratherthanoutdoorplayhouses.Bytheseventeenthcentury,nearlyeverymajorcourtinEuropelavishlymountedindoorentertainmentsreflectingRomanpictorialandmechanicalideas.L.B.CampbellandAllardyceNicollrecognizedthecontradictionthatwhileVitruviusdescribedanoutdoortheater,hisideaswerelargelyadaptedtoindoorvenues.TheybelievedthatearlyhumanistshadmisinterpretedVitruviusandthoughthewastalkingaboutanenclosedrectangulartheater.Asproof,CampbellandNicollpointedtothetheaterplansinthefirstillustratedversionofVitruvius,theJocundusedition(Venice,1511),whichareframedbyheavyrectangles,implying,theybelieved,indoorrectangulartheaters.31
ButT.E.LawrensonhasshownthatearlyeditorsofVitruviuswereawarethatthetheaterhedescribedwasnotonlyroundbutalsoopentotheweatherandthattherectanglesintheJocunduseditionweremerelythebordersofthewoodcuts.DescribingtheFrenchRenaissancetheater,Lawrensonconcludedthat
themovementindoorsis,aselsewhere,nottheoutcomeofatransmittedmistake,butthebreakingupofacollectivepopularartform,andaseekingnotmerelyaftershow,forthepageantsalreadyhadthat,butaftertrompe-
l'oeil*,inanenclosedspace,andeveninadarkenedroom,beforeanéliteaudiencethat,beingélite,occupiedlessspaceandcouldbesoaccommodated.32
InEngland,InigoJonesgavefinalshapetotheStuartmasquefromhispersonalknowledgeofindoorItalianscenicconventions,forwhichhewascalledVitruviusBritannicus.Buttheimpetusforthemasquewas,atleastinpart,themucholderEnglishtraditionofindoordisguisingsandmummingsthathadcomprisedcourtentertainmentssincetheMiddleAges.Thus,professionaltheater,bothpopularandelite,hadfoundahomeindoors
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longbeforetherenewalofinterestinancientlearning.Ofthis,IshallhavemoretosayinconnectionwiththelightingoftheJacobeanhallplayhouse.Forthepresent,wemayconcludethatEnglishprofessionalplayers,accustomedtoactingindoors,soughtprotectionoverthestagewheninthe1560sand1570stheywereforcedoutdoors.Tothisend,theymayhavepersuadedtheownersoftheseopen-airvenuestoimitatewhattheythoughttheRomanroofoverthestagelookedlike.Theroof-canopiesbuiltinthe1580sand1590sundoubtedlyreflectedtheowners'acceptanceoftheincreasedpopularityofdramaoverotherformsofentertainment,aswellasaconcessiontotheactors'desiretoduplicatefacilitiestheyhadenjoyedindoorsandtocultivateanauraofantiquelegitimacybybuildinganddecoratingheavensthattheybelievedfollowedclassicalprecedent.
MedievalTheaters
Inextricablymingledwithadulteratedclassicallightingtechniques,indeedprobablyalsoinfluencedbythemandcertainlyconfusedwiththem,werethecontributionsofnativecivicandreligioustheaterstofacilitiesoverthestage.BeginningintheMiddleAgesandcontinuingintotheElizabethanreign,festivalssuchastournamentsandstreetpageantsandreligiousshowssuchasthemysteries,miracles,andmoralitiesprovidedanaccessiblesourceofoutdoortheatricalcustomonwhichtodraw.
GeorgeKernodlehasbroughtattentiontothesimilaritybetweenthepre-Restorationstageandthetableauxvivants,orstreetpageantsastheywerecalledinEngland.
33InLondon,thesepageantswereperformedontwo-andthree-storyplatformsscatteredalongtheroutesthatnoblesrodeontheirwaytospecialceremonialoccasions.Thestageswerenotnormallybuiltinthestreetsbutonpreexistingstructurescitygates,waterconduits,and
marketcrossesthatlayadjacenttothemajorthoroughfaresofLondon.Favoritescenicmotifswerecaves,gardens,ships,andthelike,allegoricallyrepresentingapoliticaltheme.Butregardlessofthemotif,theupperlevelofthestagewasfrequentlydepictedasa"heaven."Fromit,gods,saints,andangelsgaveadviceonthepreservationofthecommonwealblendedwithappropriateflatterytothehonoredworthy.
Apartfromperformanceintheopenair,thesepageantsresemblethelateramphitheatersinthattheyoftenplacedaheavendirectlyabovethemainact-
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ingarea.Nodoubtbecauseofspacelimitationsinnarrowstreets,suchpageantsextendedtheirplayingareasvertically.InthereligiousstagingexemplifiedbyTheCastleofPerseveranceandTheMartyrdomofSaintApollonia,multiplestageshadbeenarrangedhorizontally.Ononesideofaroworcircleofscaffolds,aheaven(sometimesslightlyraised)hadbalancedahellorhell-mouthontheother.Butinthestreetpageants,heavenfoundaplacedirectlyoverthestage,whichinturnrepresentedtheworld.Thesepageantheavensgiveprecedent,then,forthepositionthattheheavenswerelatertotakeintheamphitheaters.Unfortunately,theydonotleavebehindgooddescriptionsofwhattheylookedlikeorclearproofthattheywereusedforprotectionfromthesunorweather.FortheLondonreceptionofRichardIIin1392,severalperformersdescendedbymeansofcloudmachinestopageantstages,butwedonothearwhethertheroofstheydescendedfromshadedthestageornot.
34Similarly,theYorkhousebookfor1486orderedthatatthefirstcitygate''aplaceinmanerofaheven"beconstructedandthat"underthehevenshalbeaworlddesolaite."35ButadescriptionofapageantfortheEmperorCharlesVinJune1522suggeststhatacelestialroofprotectedatleastoneactingarea.Thisopen-airpageantattheLittleConduitinCheapsidewassurmountedbyaheavenlyscene"inatypeinthetop."36Atypeisasmalldomeorcupola;itpresumablycoveredtheheavenlyscene,butitmayormaynothaveshadedtheactorsbelow.
Asimilareffectiscalledforina1533pageantperformedintheLeadenhallmarketplacefortheLondonreceptionofAnneBoleyn.RaphaelHolinsheddescribedapageant"withatypeandaheauenlieroofe,andunderthetypewasarooteofgoldsetonalittlemounteine."Later,"outofthetypecamedowneafalconallwhite&
satupontherooteandincontinentcamedowneanangellwithgreatmelodie."37Althoughsomeoftheseearlyheavensmayhaveamountedtolittlemorethanangelicperches,theincreasingpopularityofdescentsandascentsfromandtoheavenimpliesatypeorsomeotherstructureabovethestagetohouseorhidetherequiredapparatus.Apparently,thisisthesignificanceofadevicebuiltforthecoronationofEdwardVIin1547.Forit,therewasa"doubleScaffoldoneabovetheother,"andunderneaththeupperscaffoldwas"anElementorHeaven,withtheSunn,Starrs,andClowdesverynaturally...outofwhichtheredescendedaPhenixdownetotheneitherScaffold."38Asthisheavenwasunderanupperscaffold,wemaypresumethatthehigherscaffoldprovidedfacilitiesforthe
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hoistingequipmentand,perhaps,somesortofcoveringfortheperformers.Whethertheseroofsandtypesaffectedthelightonthemainstageisopentoquestion.
AlthoughtheEnglishCorpusChristipageant-wagonswerenotverticallyarrangedlikethestreetpageants,survivingrecordsforthemalsohintatroofsandcovers.Ourconceptionsofmedievalstaginghavechangedsorapidlyinrecentyears,however,thatonehesitateseventosummarizetheevidence.ThenotionthatallthegreatCorpusChristicycleplayswereperformedonpageant-wagons,oneplaytoeachwagon,atvarious"stations"throughoutacityhasbeencalledintoquestion.AlanNelsonhasarguedthatcycleplaysatYork,Lincoln,andChestermayhavebeenperformedindoorsintownhallsandguildhallsandthatseveralrelatedreligiousplays,especiallythoseatNorwichandCoventry,wereindoorsaswell.
39OnlyatBeverleyandatCoventry(wheretherewerelikelyonlytwoorthreeoutdoorstations)arewepositivethatthecycleswereperformedinprocessionalfashionoutofdoors.Nelsongoessofarastosuggestthatsomepageant-wagonswerepartofaseparateCorpusChristitradition,aparadeofpageantsheldinthemorningbeforethecycleplayswereperformed.Onthesepageant-wagons,heconcludes,nottrueplaysbuttableauxandshortdeclamationsweregiven.Nelson'sargumentfornonprocessionalstagingoftheYorkplayhasmetwithskepticism,40butheneverthelessremindsusthatwemayunderestimatethevarietyofenvironmentsincludingluminaryinwhichthemysterydramaswereacted.
Howeverthepageant-wagonsweredeployed,theyneverthelessprovideevidenceofroofsandraisedheavens.DespiteArchdeaconRogers'sclaim,recordedin1609,thatpageant-wagonsatChesterwere"allopenonthetopethatallbehouldersmighteheare&see,"
thereareassortedreferencestoroofscoveringwagonsinothercathedraltowns.41A1565inventoryofequipmentownedbytheNorwichCompanyoftheGrocersincludesa"Pageant,thatistosaye,ahowseofwaynskottpayntedandbuyldedonacartewithfowrewhelys,"abovewhichwas"Asquaretopptosettoverthesaydehowse.''42Whetherornotsuchatopextendedovertheactingarea,thispageant-wagonplainlywasnotcompletelyopentotheweather.GuildaccountbooksatCoventryrecordthatin1480,sixpencewas"paidtoacarpenterforthepagentrowf,"andthereareseveralpaymentsregardinga"wynd,"orwindlass.43Aroofsupportingawindlasssuggeststhatthewholestructurewasabovethestage.WickhamandF.M.Salterbelievethatsubstantialroofsweremanda-
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torytohidemachineryforascents,althoughmedievalstagetechniciansdidnotalwaysdisguisehowsucheffectswereproduced.
44Whattheascentscertainlyimplyisthatsomestructurewasabovethestagetosupportthenecessaryequipment.
SomeoftheextantaccountsofCorpusChristifestivitiesmentiontorchesandtapers,leadingseveralscholarstoconcludethatdramaticperformancescontinuedintothenightunderartificialillumination.Buttheselightingutensilsappeartorefertoliturgicalandpageantprocessionsandwatchesandnottothecycleplaysthemselves.Theprocessionsbegansoearlyinthemorning(shortlyafter4:30A.M.atYorkand5A.M.atWakefield)45thattorchesmayhavebeennecessarytoorganizethem.Severaloftheprocessionswerecalled"lights,"implyingveryearlyorverylatestartingtimes.Thereareafewrecordsofartificiallightsforindoorreligiousplaysbutnoneforthemysteryplaysthemselves.Infact,anoticeoftheoutdoorcycleatCoventryhavingtostopprematurelyonedayin1457onaccountofdarknesssuggeststhatnonighttimeperformancesbytorchlightweregiventhere.46Someartificiallightswereusedforstageproperties,ofcourse,butinconsideringtheiruseforgeneralillumination,itshouldberememberedthatthecycleswereperformedinaseasonwhenthedayswerethelongestoftheyear.Cressetsandtorchesarealsooccasionallyassociatedwithcivicpageants,buttheirfunctionwasprimarilyornamentalor,again,connectedwithnondramaticfestivities.
NeoclassicalCeilingsandMachines
IfearlyoutdoorstagesestablishedatraditionofasuperstructureabovethestageandagarbledknowledgeofRomanprecedentreinforcedthepractice,thenwehavestilltoaccountforthesizeofthe
amphitheaterroof-canopiesthat,bythemid-1590s,oftencoveredhalformoreofthestage.Becausesuchsubstantialcoversarerareinpreviousoutdoortheatricalvenues,wearelefttoassumethattheactorswereattemptingtoapproximatetheaccommodationsaffordedbytheceilingsofindoorvenuessuchastemporarybanquetinghousesandTudorhalls.
Theseceilingsofferedprotectionfromtheelements,ofcourse,buttheyalsoprovidedfacilitiesforsuchimportanttheatricalfunctionsasascentsanddescents.Farfromrepresentinganinnovation,theinstallationoftheheavensattheoutdoortheatersmeantthattechniquespreviouslyemployedin-
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doorscouldcontinue.Forexample,itissignificantthatamongtheTudordramasinourpossession,theearliesthintsofsuspension-gearareassociatednotwithoutdoorbutwithindoorstages.QueenElizabethsawaplay,probablyatGreenwich,writtenandperformedbygentlemenoftheInnerTempleasearlyasthewinterof1566or1568inwhicha"Cupidecomethdownefromheauen."
47Althoughtheplaywaslaterprinted,themanuscriptfromwhichthisstagedirectionisdrawnundoubtedlyreferstotheinitialperformanceindoors.Acupidcoulddescendbywalkingdownstairsorclimbingdownaladder,tobesure,buttenyearslatertheElizabethanRevelsOfficefurnishedaperformanceofTheThreeSistersofMantuawith"AropeApulleyAbaskettoserveintheEarleofwarwickesmenplaie."48
Incontrast,theearliestuseofsuspension-gearattheoutdoortheatersseemstohavebeennoearlierthan1588orso,morethantwentyyearsaftertheRedLionhadbeenbuilt.ThisfirstdocumenteduseofflyingapparatusataprofessionalplayhouseisinRobertGreene'sAlphonsus,KingofAragon,whichopenswiththestagedirection,"Afteryouhavesoundedthrise,letVenusbeletdownefromthetopoftheStage."Andattheendoftheplaywegetthecomplementary,"ExitVenus.Orifyoucanconueniently,letachairecomedownefromthetopofthestage,anddrawhervp."49Weareuncertainoftheauspicesoftheoriginalproduction;theplaymayevenhavebeenfirstperformedindoors.TheplayisassociatedwiththerepertoryoftheQueen'smen,however,whoaround1588wereperformingattheTheater,Curtain,andBelSavage.Evenso,theuncertaintyexpressedin"ifyoucanconueniently"indicatesthatGreenewasunsurewhetherthenecessaryapparatuswouldbeavailable.
Andthisuncertaintymayreflecttheevidencewehaveaboutwhenthe
heavensbecameapermanentpartoftheamphitheaters.Foritwasjustinthelate1580sandearly1590sthattheactorsregularlybegantofurnishtheoutdoortheaterswithsuperstructuresabovethestage.Henslowe,forinstance,installedaheavensattheRoseonlyin1592andprovideda"throneIntheheuenes"inJune1595.50PerhapsthiswastheflyingchairGreenewashopingfor,becausehisplaywasdefinitelyofferedattheRosesometimearound1594.Evidently,therevivalmissedbyafewmonthstheconvenienceofthisequipment.Atanyrate,iftheuseofascentsanddescentstellsusanythingaboutwhatwasabovethestage,thenwemustconjecturethattheintegrationoftheindoorceilingintothemiseenscènewastheanteriordevelopment
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andthattheheavensandroofsoftheamphitheatersfollowedonlyseveraldecadeslaterandowedtheirexistence,inpart,totheinspirationoftheearlierformindoors."BoyswereflowninTheWidow'sTears[c.1605]andCupid'sRevenge[1608]atBlackfriars,butattheGlobeHymeninAsYouLikeItandDianainPericlesbothenteredonfoot,"AndrewGurrpointsout,concludingthat"theplayswrittenafter1608usedflights."
51Infact,ascentsanddescentswereneversofrequentlypracticedattheamphitheatersastheywereindoors,ademonstrationthatthroughouttheperiod,suspension-gearwasmorecharacteristicoftheTudorhallandprivateplayhousewhereitwasmoreeasilyaccommodatedundertheirsturdyroofsandceilings.
Notonlydoestheactiveuseoftheindoorceilingintheproductionofdramapredatetheinstallationoftheheavens,but,asJohnOrrellhascarefullydocumented,theceilingsofseveralearlyindoortheatersbearastrongresemblancetowhatwaslaterbuiltoutdoors.52Forinstance,thehabitofpaintingastronomicalmotifsontheundersideoftheheavens,probablyonsomekindofclothstretchedacrossthecornersoftheroof-canopy,isantedatedbymanyyears.OneoftheveryearliestmoderntheatersinRome,forexample,commissionedin1513,wasatemporarystructureofwoodpaintedlikemarble.Builtintheclassicalstylewithnoroof,itneverthelessfeatureda"ceiling"ofblueandwhitecloth.53Henslowe's"clotheoftheSone&Mone"wasnotinventorieduntil1598,butby1520,whenHenryVIIIbuiltatheateratCalaisfortheentertainmentofCharlesV,anelaboratelypaintedandstuddedblueclothwith"starres,sonne,andmone"wasstretchedoveracirculartheaterunderneathamoresubstantial,waterproofroof.54Theclothwassupportedbyagiantwoodencolumnproviding"fortheformationofahandsomeandwell-
proportionedcovering,likeapavilion.''Althoughcompletelyenclosed,thiswoodentheaterwasremarkablysimilartotheElizabethanpublictheaters:acircularshapewasapproximatedbyasixteen-sidedpolygon,andspectatorswerearrangedinthreetiersofgalleriessurroundingthestageonthreesides.ThedimensionsofthegalleriesareevenwithinafewfeetofthoseintheFortunecontract.Unluckily,agreatwindblewthestar-studdedroofoff,andtherevelshadtobemovedtoanotherbuilding.Perhapsfrustratedbythisstrokeoffate,HenryorderedthegreatHansHolbeintodesignanothertemporarydisguisingtheaterandbanquethouseinthetiltyardatGreenwichin1527.Forthedisguisingtheater,anotherdoubleroofwasconstructed,theouterlayerofthickcanvasandtheinnerof
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buckramextravagantlygildedwithcelestialrepresentations.Afascinatedobserver,EdwardHall,describedhow"therofeofthischambrewasconningliemadebythekyngesAstronimer,...andinthezodiakwerethetweluesignes,curiouslymade,andabouethisweremadetheseuenplanettes."
55Englisharistocratswerefamiliarwithaheavensabovethestagelongbeforethefirstpermanentamphitheaterswerebuilt.
CharlesVemergesassomethingofanauthorityontheheavensashewitnessedanotherindoorentertainmentwithaheavensnearlyidenticaltolateronesatthepublictheaters.InAugust1549,CharlesandhissonPrincePhilip(shortlytobecomePhilipIIofSpainandPrinceConsorttoMaryIofEngland)werefetedatBincheinpresent-dayBelgium.Atmidnighttheyenteredahallinwhichan"enchantedchamber"hadbeenprepared.Thischamberfeaturedavaissellier,abaldachin-likecanopysupportedbylargecolumnsmuchthesameasintheSwandrawing(seefigs.8and9).Thecanopywas,infact,arevolvingastronomicaldisplayofgreatingenuitythatproducedartificialthunderandlightning,perfumedrain,andsugarsleet.56Buttheevening'sclimaxcamewhenthreetablessumptuouslydeckedwithfeastsmagicallydescendedfromtheheavens.Thedrawingoftheeventisacomposite,showingallthreebanquetsindifferentpositions,butaSpanishobserverwhoaccompaniedPhilipmakesclearthatthetablesdescendedoneatatime,stoppedatthepedestals(antipecho)supportingthecolumns,andthen"instantly"disappearedbackintotheheavens.Thetrickwasaccomplished,hesays,byropepulleysnearthetopofthecolumns,hidsosubtlythatnoonecouldseethem.Asthetableswerehoistedupanddown,thethunderandlightningfromabovedistractedtheaudience'sattention,andthetablesweremademysteriouslytoappearanddisappear.Theuseofsmokeandflashing
lighttodistractanaudience'sattentionisanoldmagician'strick,buttheuseofthunderandlightningfromaboveinunisonwithdescentsisespeciallycharacteristicoftheEnglishtheater.Indeed,sofrequentlydothunderandlightningaccompanydescentsthattheyarealmostobligatory.FamiliarexamplesareinCymbeline("IupiterdescendsinThunderandLightning,sittingvpponanEagle"[F312627])andinHeywood'sTheSilverAge("Thunder,lightnings,Iupiterdescendsinhismaiesty,hisThunderboltburning").57
Thus,theindoorbanquetingtheatersprovideamodelforextendingtheheavensbeyondthefloorofthehutintoalargecanopycoveringagoodpart
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Fig.8.Thevaissellierwithpracticalheavensinan"enchantedhall"forafêteatBinche,1549.BibliothèqueRoyaleAlbertIer,Brussels.
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Fig.9.TheSwanplayhouse,c.1596.SketchofJohannesdeWittascopiedbyAernoutvanBuchel.BibliotheekderRijksuniversiteitteUtrecht.
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ofthestageandsuitablefordepictionsofthefirmament.Inthe[U]nfortunateTraveller(London,1594),ThomasNashemploysthen-currentplayhousenomenclaturetodescribeabanquetinghouse"builtlikeaTheaterwith-out,withintherewasaheauencomprehendedbothunderoneroofe."Thisheaven,writesNash,"wasacleereouerhangingvaultofchristall,whereintheSunneandMooneandeachvisibleStarrehadhistruesimilitude,shine,scituation,andmotion"(14v).
JacobeanandCarolinehallplayhousescontinuedtheuseofsuchfalseceilings.AtthesecondBlackfriarsandtheCockpit-in-Court,wincheshungfromthemainroof,whileaceiling,analogoustotheundersideoftheheavens,apparentlyhidtheapparatus.AttheCockpit-in-Court,partofthefalseceilingcouldbedrawnasideforascentsanddescents;andlateramphitheatersprobablyalsohadfacilitiestodrawaclothasideortoopenahatchintheheavenstopermittheaudiencetoseeblazingstars,lightningflashes,andotherspecialeffects.AtheatersetupbyJohnSpencerandhisEnglishactorsinGermanyin1613hadafour-corneredopeningintheroofabovethestagethroughwhichbeautiful"Actiones"couldbeseen.
58InCymbeline,afterdescendingtothunderandlightningandpredictingahappyoutcome,Jupiter"[a]scends,"andLeonatusdescribesasimilaropeningintheheavens:"TheMarblePauementclozes,heisenter'd/HisradiantRoofe"(F315758).ThedescentandascentinCymbelinemayhavebeenaddedforlaterperformancesatSt.JamesandmaynothavebeenpartoftheoriginalproductionattheGlobein1611.Basedonthepaucityofreferencestodescentsinplaytextsassociatedwithit,BernardBeckermandoubtstheexistenceofanyhoistingapparatusatthefirstGlobe,althoughJohnAstingtonpointsoutthedifficultyinbasingsuchassessmentsexclusivelyontextualevidence.59Yet,evenifthesuspensioneffectwasan
interpolation,itremainsanindicationofthepopularityofsucheffectsindoorsandoftheinspirationtheindoorceilingcouldprovidetotheoutdoorheavens.ThefirstGlobemayhavebeenremedialinitsuseofspecialeffectsfromtheheavens:Shakespeare'splaysrevealapovertyofsuchspectacle,andwemustrememberthatthefirstGlobewas,essentially,theTheaterrebuilt.OtherplayhousesspecificallytheRose,RedBull,andthesecondGlobecouldcertainlyaccommodatehoistingapparatus,andnearlyalltheamphitheatersreveledinfireworksandlightdisplaysfromabove.
Incontrast,theindoorplayhousesreliedmuchlessonfireworks(forsafetyreasons)butusedtheirceilingstosupportsuspension-gearandcelestialpic-
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turesearlierandapparentlymoreactivelythantheoutdoortheaters.Perhapssomeamphitheaterheavensweretooflimsytosupportsuchparaphernalia.TheRedLion'sthirty-footturretseemstohavebeenafairlysubstantialedificeallbyitselfandmaywellhaveservedsuchapurpose,buttherecentlydiscoveredlegaldocumentspertainingtoitfailtomentionanysortofcoveroverthestage.Withoutassumingasteadyevolutionarydevelopmentoftheheavens,wemaynonethelessnotethatwiththebuildingofthesecondGlobeanditsmassivesuperstructure,anamphitheaterheavensappropriatedseveralfunctionsidentifiedwithindoorproduction.NorshouldweforgetthatthefirstprivatetheatertheplayhouseatSt.Paul'swasundoubtedlyinactiveuseseveralyearsbeforetheTheaterwasbuilt.Lackinganyinformationtothecontrary,wemayconsidertheindoortheatertheanteriorformandtheindoorceilingtheseminalmodelfortheamphitheaterheavens,evenifneo-Vitruvianandearlynativetraditionscontributedaparallelimpetusorsanctionedadevelopmentalreadyinitiatedbytheactors'desiretoduplicatecircumstancesindoors.Performingintownhallsandinnsintheafternoonoratnight,earlyactorsmusthaveoftenplayedinlowlight.Whentheyplannednewoutdoorvenues,theysoughtnottomakethestagesasbrightaspossiblebutratherinstalledcoversandpositionedthestageswheretheywouldbeshieldedfromdirectsunlight.
EarlyArtificialLighting
Thatthelightindoorswasnotalwaysbrilliantisevidencedinthemoreeasilytracedhistoryofindoortheatricallighting.Infact,evidencethatearlyactorswereathomeindoorsandthattheirmoveoutdoorsinthe1560sand1570swasanoveltyisprovidedbytheunbrokenstringofindoorentertainmentsunderartificiallightandwindowlightfromtheMiddleAgestotheInterregnum.Thebetterdocumentedoftheseindoorperformancesaremedievalmummings
anddisguisings,earlyTudormasques,anduniversityplays.Suchentertainmentsleaverecordsofampleilluminationinthehallsofwealthynobles,atcourt,andatthegreatuniversities.ButthemoredirectprecursorsofprofessionalElizabethanlightingpracticeforadultplayersarethehumblerinterludesperformedbyitinerantactingtroupesthatestablishedthemoremodestgeneralilluminationusedlaterintheprofessionalprivateplayhouses.
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Thelavishspectaclesandrevelsperformedfor,andsometimesby,thenobilityarebetterdocumented,ofcourse,becausetheyinvolvedthedoingsofimportantpersons.Courtinstructionsregarding"disguyssing"showthatasearlyas1494,HenryVIIorderedhislordchamberlaintoprovide"lightsinthehallafturethequantitieofthehallandyourediscrecionrowmeenoughforthem."
60Byallaccounts,suchdiscretionaffordedmorethanadequatelight.HenryVIII's1520circulartheater,whosedoubleceilingIhavedescribed,wasbrilliantlyilluminated,forexample.AVenetianwitnesswrotethattheinsidewastobelit"bycornucopias,servingascandlesticks,fixedaroundtheoutsideofthebanquetingarea,andbygreatchandeliers,'triomphansamerveille,'hangingfromtheceiling,alternatingwithsilk-cladwickerworkfiguresbearingtorchesintheirhands."61The1527banquetinghouseandtheaterwereperhapsevenbrighter.Inthebanquetinghouse(approximatelyonehundredbythirtyfeet),thewallssupportedatleastforty-fourcandlesticksinadditiontomanywindows.62Fortymorepricketcandlestickslitagreatarch,andfourteencandlesticksofsilverplatedecoratedatableorsurroundedtheking.Fromeighteenwainscotbeamshunganunspecifiednumberofchandelierswithatotalof230woodencandlesockets,allexpensivelygarnished.Inaddition,therewasaspecialpageantoflightswithtwentyfiguresholdingcandlesticks.
Afterdinnerinthisglory,theguestsretiredtoadisguisingtheater,alsoknownasthelonghouse.Thenameimpliesalargerspacethanforthebanquetinghall,butslightlyfewerlightswereemployed,indicatingeitherasmallerareatobelitorthatthetheaterwasnotmeanttobeasbrightasthedininghall.TheRevelsOfficeacquiredeightysilveredbasinsforthetheatertobefixedonsixteenpillarsinordertosupportandcatchthedrippingsof"greatebraunchesofwhite
wax."Twelveornatelyturnedcandlestickssupplementedthesebasins.Apaymentfor106poundsofcottoncandlesisalsorecorded,butsincetheaccountswehaveareworksaccounts,thesecandleswereapparentlyonesbywhichtheartisanspreparedthehallandwerenotusedforperformances.Assumingthatthecandlesforthechandeliersweighedsomethingontheorderoffivetoteninthepoundandthatthelargercandlesonthesidesweigheduptoapoundapiece,onenight'slightinginthebanquetinghallmusthavecostmorethantenshillingsandlightingforthedisguisingtheateronlyslightlyless.
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EarlyUniversityTheaters
RecordsofcourtentertainmentsyieldsomeofthefewearlyaccountsofindoortheatricalilluminationinEnglandthatarespecificenoughtoallowustocountthenumberoflights.ButthecourthadresourcesofwhichmostearlyTudoractingcompaniesneverdreamed,andweshouldpreferaccuratedescriptionsoftheirlesssumptuousarrangements.DocumentscollectedintheRecordsofEarlyEnglishDramaprojectfillinsomegaps,butfewrecordsofprovincialperformancesgivedetailsabouttheprovisionoftheatricallighting.ThebestevidencecomesfromaccountbooksofvariouscollegesatCambridgeandOxford,andthefullestdescriptionsareofcollegeperformancesforQueenElizabeth,oneofwhosemanythriftyhabitswastheannualsummerprogress,duringwhichshewouldtourthekingdomandbeentertainedlargelyatherhosts'expense.Inthe1560s,forinstance,twosummerprogressestotheuniversitiesonetoCambridgein1564andonetoOxfordin1566leavedetailedaccountsoflighting.
AtCambridge,thequeensawaplayat9o'clockatnightinthechapelofKing'sCollegelitonlybytorchlight.TheUniversityRegistrarywrotethattheentranceofthecollege'sofficialswasaccompaniedby"amultitudeofyegardewiththemhavyngeveryemaninhishandatorchestaffeforyeLightesofyeplayefornootherLighteswasoccupied."
63Hisspecificationthatnootherkindsoflightswereusedmightindicatethatasubduedeffectwasdesired,butwecannotbesureofthisbecausewedonotknowhowmanytorcheswereinvolved.TheRegistrarymakesclearthattheguardsholdingtorchesstoodtoeithersideofthestage,soperhapsallhemeantwasthattherestofthechapelwasnotlitorthatnoordinarycandleswereused.
Nottobeoutdone,Oxfordinvitedthequeentwoyearslater.Herstaywascarefullychronicled,anditisapparentthatOxforddidnotwanttosufferbycomparisonwiththearrangementsatCambridge.AnenthusiasticJohnBereblocktoldofsplendidlightingintheCommonHallofChristChurchforaperformanceofthefirstpartofPalaemonandArcyteatnight:
Lucernae,lichni,candelaequeardentesclarissimamibilucemfecerunt.Totluminaribus,ramulisacorbibusdivisis,totquepassimfunalibusinaequalisplendore,incertampraebentibuslucem,splendebatlocus,utetinstardieimicare,etspectaculorumclaritatemadjuvarecandoresummovisasint.64
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AccuratetranslationisdifficultowingtothemuddleinlightingterminologynotonlyinEnglishbutalsoinLatin.Inanoften-citedrendition,W.Y.Durandtranslateditthisway:
Cressets,lamps,andburningcandlesmadeabrilliantlightthere.Withsomanylightsarrangedinbranchesandcircles,andwithsomanytorches,hereandthere,givingforthaflickeringgleamofvaryingpower,theplacewasresplendent;sothatthelightsseemedtoshinelikethedayandtoaidthesplendoroftheplaysbytheirverygreatbrightness.
65
Althoughmuchofthenomenclaturewasinterchangeable,Durand'stranslationoflucernaeas"cressets"isunfortunate;noearlyLatin-Englishdictionarygivessuchadefinition.Typicaltranslationsoflucernaare"lanterne"inThomasElyot'sDictionary(London,1538)and"[a]candle,alamp,alight"inThomasThomas'sDictionarium(London,1588).Durand's"lamps"forlichniisalsomisleading.ThomasCooper'sThesavrvsLingvaeRomanae&Britannicae(London,1565)identifieslichniwiththewicksofanylightinginstrument,andtheOEDhintsthattheEnglishword''link"ismetatheticfortheLatinlichinus,"wick"or"match,"outofwhichlinksweremade.
IraisethesepointsbecauseseveralscholarshavecitedDurand'stranslationtoprovethatcressetsandlampswerecommonlightingutensilsforearlyindoorplays,eventhoughcorroborationdoesnotproceedfromcontemporarydictionaries.66InthefirstnewtranslationsinceDurand's,Wickhamcorrectedtheseinaccuraciesbutmadeothershimself.Hetranslatesluminaribusas"somanylamps,"67whereasearlydictionariesallgivemoregeneraldefinitions;Cooper'stranslationofluminareis"[t]hatwhichgeuethlight."Forfunalibus,Wickhamhas"somanycandles."Thisisnotwrong,butastheword's
etymologyderivesfromfunis,"rope,"Cooper'stranslationoffunaleas"[a]torch:acorde"isclearerandprobablymoreaccurate,especiallyforuswhoareunfamiliarwithhowtheselightsweremanufactured.Infact,Cooper'sfamousdictionaryboastsaspecialauthorityindecipheringBereblock'sLatin,becausethedictionarywaspublishedonlyoneyearbeforethequeen'sprogressandbecausebothBereblockandCooperwereOxfordfellowsatthetime,presumablysharingthesamelanguages.
Bereblockisgiventohyperbole,andweshouldhavepreferredfewersuperlativesinhisdescriptionandmorespecificnumbersandlocationsofthelights.Inthisregard,CambridgeservesusbetterthanOxford.Collegeac-
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countbooksatCambridgelistmanypaymentsforlightingequipment.Asmostofthisequipmentwasintendedfornonroyalentertainment,theaccountsgiveusalookatmoremodestproductionmethods.Basedonathoroughreviewoftheserecords,AlanNelsonshowsthatmostoftheplaysatCambridgewerepresentedatnightandthatanywherefromadozentothreeorfourdozencandlesticksweregenerallybought.
68Butlargepurchasesofcandlesarealsofrequent,lumpingtogetherexpendituresforunspecifiednumbersofplaysandperformancesinasingleentry.OneoftherareinstanceswhenparticularperformancesarelistedisfoundintheTrinityCollegesteward'sbookrecordingexpendituresforplaysperformedatChristmastide1550:69
forCandellatMrCocrofteplaie
xd
forCandellesforMrCocrofteplay
xiijd
forCandellesforstillesplay
xd
TheinclusionoftwoseparateentriesforMr.Cocrofte'splay,aswellastheuseinallthreeentriesofthesingular"play,"seemstoindicatethateachpaymentcoverslightingexpensesforonlyoneperformance.Becauseofinflation,thepoundofcandlesthathadcostonlyapennyin1527nowcostthreepence.TrinityCollegeprovidednotmuchmorethanthreepoundsofcandlesforeachperformance,therefore,andthetotalnumberofcandleswasonlytwodozenorso,dependingontheirsize.WedonotknowwhereplayswereperformedatTrinityCollegeuntilaftertheRestorationwhenaspecialComedyHousewasconstructed,buttheroominwhichplayswerepresentedcouldnothavebeenlarge,becauseneitherthechapelnorthegreathallwas
erectedby1550thecollegehavingbeenfoundedonlyin1546.Theaccountbooksofthefoundingyearmentionanexpensive"greatRowndCandelstickeforthestageInthehall,"whichItaketorefertothepreexistingMichaelHouseHall,nowsurvivingonlyinfragmentaryfoundations.70Thefoundationssuggestahallofnotmorethanfiftybythirtyfeet.71Wemayvisualize,then,asmallstageabovewhichalarge,circularchandelierwassuspendedwithperhapstwodozencandles.Ipresumethechandelierwassuspendedbecausefourteenyearslateranew"knotofCordetohangevpyegreatcandlesticke"waspurchased,althoughbythistimeIsuspectthelocationforplayinghadbeenmovedandthegreatchandelierwasbeingrehung.72
Thatthenumberofcandlesdidnotincreaseappreciablyovertheyears
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issuggestedbyapaymentoffourpenceatJesusCollege,Cambridge,"for2poundeofcandlesattRobinsonsshowe,"duringtheChristmasseasonof159596.
73ThelargestandmostlikelysiteatJesusCollegewasitshall,approximatelyfifty-sevenbytwenty-fivefeet,whichisstillstanding.74Consideringtheweightofthecandlespurchased,onlyadozenortwocandleswereused.Thus,earlyandlaterevidenceimpliesthattheatricallightingattheuniversitieswasnotalwaysparticularlybright,atleastbyourstandards.PerhapsthenocturnalsearchfortheneedleintheearlyCambridgeplayGammerGurton'sNeedle,firstperformedaround1550butrevivedseveraltimesbeforeitwaspublishedin1575,wasmadeplausiblebydimlight.Ontheotherhand,thereisnoevidencethatthecollegesstintedinallocatingwhatresourcestheyhad.Inatleastoneinstance,infact,acollegesawfittoprovidemoreresourcesthanitowned:in1561,King'sCollege,Cambridge,wasobligedtobegcandlesfromothercollegesforitsplay.AsournoteintheTrinityaccountscomplainsthatTrinitystudents"haddnocandlesbicauseoftheplaye[s]thatwa[re]sattheKyngesColledgasvponthisnight,"givingevidencethatKing's,atleast,providedmorelightfortheseplaysthanitwouldhaveforaregularnighttimesupperormeeting.75
Universityplaysweregenerallyperformedwithoutthebenefitofwindowlight.Mostplayswereactedinthewintertimeandatnight(9o'clockisthemostcommonstartingtimeatCambridge),butsomedaytimeperformancesarerecordedforwhichthewindowshutterswereoccasionallyclosed.AtQueen'sCollege,Cambridge,aperformanceofLaeliawasgivenin1595"afterdinner,theDaybeingturnedintoNyght."76On12March1623,KingJamesvisitedTrinityCollegewherehe"dinedbeforeeleven,thenwenttotheHall,which
beingdarkened,theplaybeganpresently."77KingCharleswenttoSt.John's,Oxford,inAugust1636andsawtwoplays,oneintheafternoonandoneatnight.ArchbishopLaudtellshowafterlunch,"IcausedthewindowsoftheHalltobeshut,thecandleslighted,andallthingsmadereadyforthePlay."78Perhapsthewindowswereclosedonlytopreventdraftsfromblowingthecandlesout;oritmaybethatofficialsdesiredtoemulatethenighttimeentertainmentsatcourtfortheirroyalguests.Iftheuniversitieshabituallyclosedthewindowstooutsidelight,itwouldhavebeencontrarytothecustomadoptedforallbutoccasional"nocturnals"attheprofessionalprivatetheatersinLondon.Ontheotherhand,itislikelythatmanyafternoonuniversityperformancesdidindeedfindthewindowsopen.
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ChurchPlays
Becausethepreponderanceofplaysactedatchurcheswereperformedindoorsratherthaninthechurchyard,itisnotsurprisingthatchurchesalsosponsoredartificiallylitplays.
79AtSuttertoninLincolnshire,churchwardens'accountsfortheannualplayontheFeastoftheAssumptionrefertolightsinthechurch.Theearliestrecorddatesfrom152021,whensixpencewas"paydformakyngesofyeplaaris[players]candelles."In152223,onlyfourpencewaspaidforlighting,butin1525,thirteenpencewas"paydforijliwaxtoowrladyslyght."80Twopoundsofwaxwillyieldonlyabouttwelveoreighteencandles.
InLondon,playswerealsooccasionallyperformedatnightinchurches.Forinstance,aplaywasperformedonthechurchholidayinSilverStreet,29July1557,"ateightoftheclockatnight"that"continueduntilxijatmydnyght,andthentheymadanendwithagoodsong."81In1564,theCityofNorwichsponsoredaplaybyschoolboysand"payedforTorchestoShowlighteintheChappellwhentheyplayed...iiis."82Threeshillingsisalargesum,butlightsthatwerecalled"torches"variedsowidelyinpricethatitisdifficulttoestimatetheirnumber.Becausethesetorcheswereusedtolightalargeroom(onehundredbythirty-threefeet)thatwasnolongerusedforecclesiasticalpurposes,perhapssometwodozeninexpensivetorcheswereused.83AftertheaccessionofElizabethandtheChurch'sattendantreversiontoProtestantism,churchesceasedtheatricalactivities.
EarlyProfessionalTroupes
Asfortheearlyprofessionalactorsthemselves,wehaveonlyscrapsofinformationregardingtheirlightingprocedures.Earlymoralswere
performedoutofdoors:TheCastleofPerseveranceandThePrideofLife(c.13501450)areexplicitinthisregard.ButstudiesbyT.W.CraikandRichardSouthernshowthatreferencestohalls,doors,andnighttimeperformancesbegintoappearininterludetextsinthelatefifteenthandearlysixteenthcenturies,indicatingindoorvenues,mostlikelyTudorhalls.84SeveralearlyTudorinterludesincludethefireplacescommontosuchhallsintheactionofthedrama,andinwinter,atleast,thesefiresmayhaveprovidedmuchoftheilluminationpresent.85Torchesandcandlescouldeasilyhavesupplementedthisfirelight,
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butitwouldhavebeenexpensivefortheplayersorsponsorstobuyenoughcandlestomaketheambientilluminationofhallsmuchbrighterthanthatproducedbyafire.Instead,thereisevidencethathand-heldlightingutensilswereusedto"highlight"particularactorsandactions.InJohnHeywood'sThePlayoftheWeather(c.1527),forinstance,theVicestepsoutfromtheaudienceinanswertoacallforvolunteersandasksatorchbearingbystandertogivehimmorelight:
BrotherholdevpyourtorchalytellhyerNowIbesecheyoumyLordelokeonmefursteItrusteyourlordshypshallnotfyndemethewurste.
86
Inasituationwherethecostofcandlescamedirectlyoutoftheactors'orinnkeepers'pockets,suchautilitariansystemoflightingiseasytoimagine.Whatismore,this"spotlighting,"asSoutherncallsit,demonstratesthattheplaywrightwasawareoftheabilityofconcentratedlighttodrawattentiontospecificactionsaswellastherealismpossiblewhenlightsintendedforgeneralilluminationarewovenintothetextureofthedrama.
Intheprovinces,earlytroupespreferredtoperformintownhalls;andunderElizabeth,cityofficialsgenerallyofferedthemthesefacilities,occasionallyevenconstructingstagesforthemanddefrayingthecostofartificialillumination.Inthechamberlain'saccountsofGloucesterfor156162,welearnthreepencewas"payedtoMrIngramforapoundeofcandellesatthe...playe."87Thepurchaseofonlyonepoundoftallowmeansthatonlyfourtoeightaverage-sizedcandleslittheroom.Perhapstheactorssuppliedadditionallights,althoughonedoubtstheactorsspentanymoremoneythanwasnecessary.AtBristol,the157778treasurer'saccountmentionsapaymenttoLeicester'smen"attheendoftheirplayintheYeldHallbeforeMr
MayorandtheAldermenandforlynkstogiuelightintheeuenyng."88Aslinksareassociatedwithoutdooruse,theseatBristolwereprobablyforfestivitiesfollowingtheplay.
Lateron,provincialofficialswerelesspleasedtosufferthevisitsoftouringactingcompanies.TypicaldisenchantmentisexpressedbytheYorkCityCorporation,whichin1592forbadeactorstheuseofthetownhallbecausethewindows,benches,anddoorsofitsCommonHallwerebrokenbyspectatorsattendingplays.89SybilRosenfeldconcludestheplayersresortedtoinnsandprivatehouses,butrecordsofsuchperformancesarefewandfarbe-
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tween.
90Someperformancesmusthavebeenoutdoorsinprivategardensandinn-yards,butsurvivingprovincialaccountstendtomentionsuchvenuesonlywhentherewastrouble;inJune1583,forexample,wehearofanafternoonperformanceintheyardattheRedLioninninNorwichonlybecauseofascufflethere.91
Fromthefrequentprovincialprohibitionsagainstnighttimeentertainments,however,itisclearthatactorscommonlyattemptedtoperformintheeveningwhenthelargestnumberofpeoplewerefreetoattendplays.TheBurgmotebooksfor15April1596complainofplaysstretchingintonightandorderedthatperformances"notexceedethehowerofnyneoftheclockinthenighte."92Similarly,Pembroke'smenwereallowedtoperformintheNorwichtownhallin1598onlyuntilnine.93ButatChesterin1615,wherethecityfathershadbeendisturbedbya"Scandall"occasionedbyplays,performanceswereforbiddentoextendbeyondsixo'clock.94Wecannotbesurethatnightperformancesweretherule,butthesefrequentrestrictionsprovetheywerenotoutoftheordinary,atleastbeforethecitiesundertooksternermeasurestodiscouragethem.
Wecaninferfromevidencelateintheperiodthatearlyprovinciallightingwasnotbrilliant.Oncetheurbanprivateplayhouseshadestablishedtheirregularafternoonperformances,onemightexpecttouringcompaniestoemulatethelightingproceduresoftheirLondoncounterparts.Butaslateas1636,methodsreminiscentofearlierlightingpracticepersistedintheprovinces.TheLondonprivateplayhousesregularlyperformedintheafternoon,forinstance,butin1636themayorofCanterburywascomplainingtoARchbishopLaudthat"nightplayscontinueduntilmidnight,tothegreatdisorderofthecity."95So,too,theYorkCorporationminutebooksrecordapparently
vainattemptstostopnighttimeperformancesinhalls,taverns,andprivatehomes.96Moretellingly,thecandlelightthatbythattimetypifiedtheLondonhalltheaterswassometimesconsideredanextravaganceintheprovinces.ThiscanbeadducedfromaletterwrittenonbehalfofPrinceCharles'smen,alsoin1636.Thecompanyhadrecentlygainedanunsavoryreputation,andinseekingpermissiontoperforminNorwich,theyattemptedtoimpressthecitywiththerefinementoftheirproductions.Theactorsrequestedthatonlythebestpeoplebeallowedtoattendandbywayoflobbyingfortheircausehadasympatheticcitizenwritetooneofthecityfathersregardingthelavishnessoftheirplays."IpraytellyoursonsthattheRedBull
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companyofplayersarenowintown,"thecitizenwrites,"andhaveactedoneplaywithgoodapplauseandarewellcladandactbycandlelight."
97Sinceactingbycandlelightisrepresentedasamarkofsophistication,wemayassumethatlessprosperouscompaniesoftenactedbyfewerutensilsornoneatall.Ifcandlesvouchedforrefinementaslateas1636,thenwemaysurmisethattheywereasrareorrarerwhenprofessionalactingtroupeswereininfancysomeeightyyearsearlier.
InLondon,interludeswereperformedinsideinnsandprivatehousesbeforeandafteranimal-baitingandpublicarenaswerebuilt.Asearlyas1569,theCityofLondonauthoritiesworriedthatplaysat"InnesandotherplacesofthisCitie"werespreadingtheplaguebycausingthespectatorstobe"closepesteredtogetherinsmallromes,speciallyinthistymeofsommer."98On11January1580,theLordMayorwasdispleasedtolearnthatnighttimeplayswerebeinggivenwithintheCitygates.Heattributedrecentcivildisordertoplaysacted"bynightindiu[er]sesuspectplaces"from7or8until11or12o'clock.99Playslastinguntiltwelvemidnightin"suspectplaces"implyindoor,artificiallylitvenuesandnottheopen-airinn-yards,marketplaces,andanimal-baitingarenassooftenmentionedastheforebearsofthefirstamphitheaters.
AfellowofTrinityCollege,Cambridge,ishelpfullymorespecificregardingthelocationsofsuchperformances.In1583,GervaseBabington(laterbishopofWorcester)bewailed"prophane&wantonstageplayesorinterludes"andreasonedthat"[i]ftheybedangerousonthedaytime,moredaungerousonthenightcertainely:ifonastage,&inopencourtes,muchmoreinchambersandpriuatehouses."Nighttimeinnperformanceswerethemoretobeavoided,hesaid,
because"therearemanieroumesbesidethat,wheretheplayis,&peradue[n]turethestrangenesoftheplace&lackeoflighttoguidethem,causetherrourintheirway,morethangoodChristiansshouldintheirhousessuffer."100AlthoughBabingtonattributeslackoflighttotheinns,weshouldnotconstruehisparallelismtomeanthatplaysinopen-airtheatersandinn-yardswerealwaysperformedbydaylightandthatplaysintavernandinnchambersandatprivatehouseswereonlyatnight.Butheleaveslittledoubtthatindoornightplayswerefrequentenoughtoarouseconcern.By1608,infact,asuburbaninnkeeperwastriedbytheMiddlesexjustices"forsufferingeplayestobeeplayedinhishouseinthenightseason."101Babington'snaiveclaimthatdarknessattheinnscaused
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thefaithfultolosetheirwayinvitesskepticism.ThomasNashprobablygivesatruerpictureofnighttimeinnlifewhenhetellsofayoungcountrygallantgoneto"reuellit"inLondonwhowill"hauetwoplayesinonenight"and"inuiteallthePoets[thatis,actors]andMusitionstohischamberthenextmorning."
102
Referencestonighttimeindoorentertainmentsgiveusanotionoftheprevalenceofartificialtheatricalillumination.Butartificiallightalsoaccompaniedindoorentertainmentsintheafternoon.Infact,wepossessapictureofanafternoonmasqueinaprivatehousethatmakesprominentuseoftorchlight.ThepictureisadetailfromaportraitofSirHenryUnton,diplomatistandsoldier,thatshowshisweddingfeastandanaccompanyingmasquearound1580orso(seefig.10).SirHenry,hisbride,andguestsareattable,whileexoticallycostumedmasquersclimbthestairsandenterthediningroom.Tennudechildrenbearinglong,slendertorchesaccompanythemasquers,buttheprincipalilluminationcomesfromtwolargewindowsinthebackgroundandperhapsothersinthefourthwallthathasbeencutaway.PaintedshortlyafterUnton'sdeathin1596,accordingtohiswidow'smemory,thedetailmakesnoattempttoindicatethatmuchlightderivesfromthetentorches.Theyaredrawnwithouthalosandcastnoshadows.Instead,theroomisbrightlyandevenlyilluminatedbynaturalwindowlightthetorchesmerelyaddinghighlightstotheotherwiseconventionallylitspace.Atcourt,masqueswereusuallyatnightwithartificiallightreplacingallnaturallight.Butplaysattheprofessionalhalltheaterswereintheafternoon,andtheymayhavelookedsomethinglikethismasque.
Whysomeindoorplayswereperformedintheeveningandothersintheafternoonisnotalwaysclear.Cityprohibitionsandregulations
wereimportant,butotherfactorscameintoplay.Thenobilityandgentrywerelargelyfreeduringthedaytopassthetimeastheysawfit.AfternoonentertainmentslikeSirHenry'smaythushavebeenmorerefined,asawhole,thanmanyeveningentertainmentscateringtotradesmeninneedofdiversionafterahardday'swork.Theeveningmayalsohavebeentheonlytimeavailabletomoonlightingactorsbusyduringthedayatthepublicplayhouses.Exceptforentertainmentsatcourt,then,whichinthisandseveralotherwayswereunique,professionalperformanceslittotallybyartificialmeansmustnotbethoughtofasnecessarilymorewellbredandexpensivethanperformances
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Fig.10.DetailfromaportraitofSirHenryUnton,c.1596.BycourtesyoftheNationalPortraitGallery,London.
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thatmixedbothnaturalandartificiallight.Nighttimeplaysrequiringartificiallightwerealwayssuspect,afterall,andrarelyofficiallysanctioned.SirHenrywasarich,importantperson,afriendtoEssexandevenHenryIVofFrance.Hisuseofnaturallightwashardlytoscrimponthechandler'sbillbutrathertheresultofnowunknowableschedulingconsiderations.Intheprovinceswheretroupeswerenotoccupiedduringthedayatpermanenttheaters,playsforthenobilitycouldbegivenindifferentlybydayornight.ThefourthearlofCumberland,forinstance,awealthyandpowerfulpeer,hostedadozenplaysathishomeinLondesboroughfrom1611to1612,ofwhichabouthalfwerebeforesupperandhalfaftersupper.
103
Around1604,wegetatheatricalportraitofwhatisconsideredextravagantlightingforaprofessionalplayinthehallofaprivatehome.ThomasMiddleton'sAMadWorld,MyMasters(London,1608)satirizesthewealthySirBounteousProgresswhoprideshimselfonthehospitalityofhishouse.Inthelastact,hisspendthriftnephewdisguiseshimselfasaplayerandabscondswithseveralcostlytrinkets,"borrowed"aspropertiesfortheplaythatheandhiscohortsperformforhisuncle'sguests.Asusual,Middletoninfusesthescenewithrealisticdetail,andwelearnagooddealaboutconditionsatwhatSirBounteousbelievesisanindoorprofessionalperformance.
Attheopeningofthescene,SirBounteousandhisservantsareseenpreparingforalargesupper:tablesaresetupandguestsareusheredintothe"Hall"where"theresagoodfire"(G4v).Asthebogusplayersarrive,SirBounteouswelcomesthemwith"[s]omeShirryformyLordsplayersthere.Sirra,whythiswillbeaTruefeast,arightMitersupper,aplayandall,morelightsIcaldforlight"(H1).Asagoodhost,SirBounteous'sfirstconcern,afterofferingdrink,isthe
provisionoflighting.Finalpreparationsaremade;theguestsassemblefortheplay.Buttruetohishumor,SirBounteouscontinuestofretoverthelightingarrangements.Heorders,"Morelights,morestools,sit,sit,theplaybegins"(H2).Inductionstolaterhalltheaterplayssometimesincludethelightingofcandlesjustbeforetheplaysproperbegin.Ifthisplay-within-a-playisanyguide,thepracticewasnotuniquetotheprivatetheaters.ButasthesatireisbasedonSirBounteous'sindiscriminatehospitality,Middleton'saudienceattheSt.Paul'schildren'stheatermayhavedetectedacertainexcesstotheprovisionsmade.ItwasalwaysasocialobligationtoprovideadequatelightingoldCapuletrequestsmoretorchesathisball,asdosuchworthiesasLassoandBiliosoforprivatemasquesinThe
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GentlemanUsherandTheMalcontent.ButSirBounteous'stwicecallingforlightsinadditiontothefireandlightsalreadypresentforthesuppermustaccordinglybeconsideredanindulgence.
SirBounteous'scomparisonofhisfeastwith''arightMitersupper,aplayandall"alsoconfirmsthatartificiallylitplaysaccompaniedeveningmealsattaverns.TheMiterwasanoldtaverninFleetStreet,laterfrequentedbyDr.Johnson,thatapparentlywasfamousforitseveningplays.NeitherChambersnorBentleydiscussestheMiter,butitseemstohavebeenanimportantindoortheatricalvenue.PunningallusiontoitsuseasatheaterisfoundinYourFiveGallantswhenthetitlecharactersconsiderwheretheyshouldsupwhileplanningtheirintrigue.OnegallantsuggeststheMermaid,buttheysettleontheMiter"ForthetruthisthisplotmusttakeeffectAtMiter."
104Thislogicisbasedonasyllepsis,"plot"meaningboth"intrigue"and"theactionofadrama,"withanassociatedsatiricalthrustatthetypeofdramaticfarepopularatsuchtaverns.Twentytearslater,theprodigiousgossipJohnChamberlainadmiredthedukeofBuckingham'sgenerositytofortyofhisgentlemenwhenhespentonehundredpounds"tomakethemasupperandaplaythenextnight[24April1618]attheMiterinFleet-street."105Atsomethingovertwopoundsspentoneachgentleman,theprovisionsforthisnighttimeplayweremunificentindeed.Forty-twoyearslaterstill,Mr.Pepysoverheardaperformancetakingplaceinwhatseemstohavebeenaspecialhallforentertainmentswhenhewent"totheMitreinFleet-street,whereweheard(inaroomoverthemusic-room)veryplainlythroughtheceiling."106
SirBounteous'swealthandBuckingham'spatronagegivepresumptiveevidencethatthelightingatSirBounteous'shouseandtheMitertendedtowardthesumptuous.ThelivelyBuckinghamtookanavid
interestincourttheatricalsandhadthemakingsofashowmaninhim.ThreemonthsbeforehisMiterplay,Buckinghamhadthepresenceofmindtofillina"lag"inJonson'sPleasureReconciledtoVirtuebyjumpingoutofhisseatnearthekingandcuttingascoreof"loftyandveryminutecapers"underthe"tworowsoflights"thatlitthefirstJacobeanbanquetinghouseinWhitehall.107Theeffortstopleasehisownmenratherthanthekingmaynothavebeenquitesotaxing,butIshouldnotwonderifamanthistakenwiththeatricalaffairswouldhaveprovidedbrilliantarrangementsattheMiteraswell.LikeSirHenryUnton'smasque,theseplayswerefortheenjoymentofthefortunategentryandnobility.Run-of-the-millcitizensprobablysawindoorplayslitsim-
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plybyavailablewindowlightorbythemorehomespunvarietiesofartificiallight.
Onhearingthataplayistoward,theingratiatingSirBounteousProgressthinksimmediatelyoflighting.Butfromthethousandsofnoticesofearlyindoorentertainmentsthatmakenomentionofit,Igatherlightingwascustomarilynotthemajorworryorexpenseofeithertheactorsortheirhosts.Ourignoranceofthehumblerformsofdramabothindoorsandoutdoorsmeansthattheevidencewedohaveregardingthequalityoflightingisnotstatisticallyrepresentativeofthewholebutweighteddisproportionatelyonthesideofsophisticationandsplendor.Theclearestpicturewehaveoftheatricallightingisfromcourt,butthereisnoreasontobelievethatprivatetheaterlightinghappenedtodevelopfromthepracticesweknowthemostabout.Inanycase,generalilluminationatcourt,asopposedtoitsspecialmasqueeffects,differedfrompopularlightinglessinkindthaninsheerquantity.ManyoftheactingcompanieswhomovedintotheJacobeanhallplayhouseshadalreadyperformedatcourt,butwhentheyreturnedtotheirtheaters,theyhadneitherthemoneynortheleisurethatthecourtlavishedonitsonce-a-yearentertainments.Rather,theyreliedonthewindowlightandminimalcandlelightoftheirTudorforebears.
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4AfternoonPerformancesattheOutdoorPlayhousesSunlightfloodingaplatformstageisafamiliarpicturetoanyonewhohasglancedatthemanyconjecturalreconstructionsofElizabethanandJacobeanpublicplayhouses.Weseeactorsstandingatthefrontofthestagebathedinbrightlight,evenifdarknessengulfsthetiring-housefacadeandgalleriesaroundthem.Thereisaroofofsortsabovethestage;butalltooconveniently,itcastsashadowonlyoverthosepartsofthetheaterforwhichwehavenogooddescription.Thecontroversialdiscoveryspace,musicroom,lords'rooms,and"above,"forexample,remainindarkness,whiletheforepartofthestageiscoveredwithdirectsunlight.Itlooksasthoughtheactorswerespotlightedbynaturalsunshine.
Althoughweknowthatthepublicplayhousesusuallymountedtheirplaysintheafternoon,itisbynomeanscertainthattheirstageslookedlikethispicture.Behindourimageofstarklylitactorsmovinginfrontofdimlyseenarchitecturaldetailslurks,infact,asuspiciouslymoderntheatricalconception,oneonlyalittledifferentfromthatofmanyproductionsinourmoderntheater,whereHamletatStratford,SiegfriedatBayreuth,andDidiandGogoinParisregularlystandinbrightlightbeforeapervasivegloom.
1ItispossiblethatwehavereturnedtoamodeofstagingoncepopularinearlymodernLondon.Butitisjustaslikelythatweareconfusingverydifferent,oldertechniqueswithourown.Inevitably,eachageinterpretsthesparseinformationaboutShakespeare'sstagebasedinpartonitsownaestheticsandtheaterpractice.Thegreateighteenth-centurytheaterhistorianEdmondMalonepossessedmuchoftheinformationconcerningearlyEnglishstag-
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ingthatwedo,forinstance,butcouldnotimaginetheGlobestagewithouttwohangingchandeliersforlights.
2HebelievedthisevenwhileknowingtheGlobewasanopen-airplayhouse,becausethetheaterwithwhichhewasfamiliarthetheaterofCibberandGarrickhadthem.Similarly,thenaturallyspotlightedactormaybethecreationofourownbias,andathoroughlookatthelightingofthepublicamphitheatersisinorderbeforeweproceedtothemorecomplicatedartificiallightingintheprivatehallplayhouses.
AlthoughtherearemanyrecordsofafternoonpublictheaterperformancesthroughouttheElizabethan,Jacobean,andCarolineperiods,onlyafewvaguecontemporaryreferencessurvivethatdescribetheactuallightinsidethetheaters.Thereisnoreasontodoubtthattheactorsperformedbydaylight,butwedowelltorecallthatthefirstclearassertionofthiscomesaslateas1699inapamphlet,HistoriaHistrionica."TheGlobe,FortuneandBull,werelargeHouses,"itstates,"andlaypartlyopentotheWeather,andtheretheyalwaiesActedbyDaylight."3TheHistoriapurportstorepresentthememoriesofan''HonestOldCavalier"lookingbackonthetheatershefrequentedasayouth.Assuchitisnotthekindofevidenceonwhichonelikestorely,becauseitwaspublishedoverfiftyyearsafterallthetheatersmentionedhadbeenclosedbyParliament.Still,itistheonlydescriptionoflightatthepublictheatersthatmayclaimevenaminimalweightoffirst-handauthoritybehindit.
PerformanceTimesbefore1594
InordertoevaluatetheHistoriaHistrionica'sinformationanddeterminetheavailabilityofdaylight,itisfirstnecessarytolearnatwhattimesofthedaytheoutdoorplayhousesinLondongave
performances.Wearefortunatetohaveseveralcontemporaryreferencesfromdiaries,letters,andsuch,tellingwhenpeoplewenttotheplayhouses,althoughtheevidenceisfragmentaryandoftenindisagreement.Andyeteventhisevidencemustbeusedwithcaution.Fromasyncreticdesiretodiscoverthestartingtimeofplaysata"typical"Londonpublicplayhouse,earlyinvestigatorsaveragedthemanydifferenttimeswefindrecordedintoameanstartingtimeoftwoo'clock.4TakingsuchanaverageignoresnotonlythediversityofthetenorsopublictheatersbuiltbeforetheRestorationbutalsothechangesintheatergoinghabitsthattookplacethroughouttheperiod,especiallyduringthereign
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ofElizabeth.Thetimesofperformancewerenotasstandardizedastheyareinourmoderntheater,andbecauseonesourcesaysthattheGlobebeganattwoo'clock,wemustnotconcludethatallpublicplayhousesbeganattwoo'clockorthattheGlobealwaysbeganattwoo'clockthroughoutitshistoryorduringdifferentseasonsoftheyear.
ThechangesthattookplaceinregardtoElizabethantheatergoingwerecausedprincipallybychangesinchurchgoing.ApartfromageneralantagonismbetweenProtestantsandtheactingcompanies,leadingfinallytothe1642closingofthetheaters,publicafternoonperformancesspecificallyconflictedwiththeobservanceofeveningprayer.Asvariousaccommodationsonbothsideswereoffered,thetimeofperformanceshiftedsoasnottointerferewiththisimportantreligiousservice.InitsoriginalCatholicform,vespershadformedpartoftherigidsetofsevencanonicalhoursofprayerforeachday.
5ThefirstEnglishprayerbookof1549eliminatedallthecanonicalhoursexceptmatinsandvespers,reorganizedthese,andrenamedthemmorningandeveningprayer.Thepiouswerestillcalledontoattendtheseservicesdailyjustaftersunriseandjustbeforesunset,butthesharpbreakwithtraditionhadalteredthepublic'sviewofitsreligiousduty.Churchgoing,especiallyweekdaychurchgoing,sufferedasaresult.Acenturybefore,foreignvisitorshadwonderedatthedevotionoftheEnglishparishionersattendingcommonprayertwiceaday.Buttowardtheendofthesixteenthcentury,theEnglishbegantoneglectdivineservicesexceptonSundaysandholydays,andmighthaveneglectedservicesonthesedaysaswellhaditnotbeenforstrongfinesimposedfornonattendance.In1592,forexample,thenameofShakespeare'sfatherappearedinalistofSundaychurchdelinquentsatStratford.Bythelatterhalfofthesixteenthcentury,largenumbersofLondonersneverwenttochurchonweekdaysatall.
Theproblemfortheactingcompanieswasthatforcenturies,Sundaysandholydayshadbeentheoccasionformerrymakingingeneralandtheatricalentertainmentinparticular.Plays,fairs,andsportingeventswerereservedforSundaysandthelargenumberofsaints'andfeastdaysintheoldCatholiccalendar.TheCorpusChristiplaysandSt.Bartholomewfairsarefamiliarevidence.ButundertheincreasinglypuritanruleoftheCityauthorities,theserevelrieswerefrownedonbecausetheyrecalledtheoldCatholicway.Oneoftheprimetenetsofanti-CatholicismwasthestrictobservanceoftheentireSabbathasadayofrestandprayer.NicholasBownde'sThedoctrineofthesabbathplainlylaydeforth(London,1595),tociteanextremeexample,
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promulgatedrulessostringentthatevenanimalswereenjoinednottoworkorfroliconSundays.ThispuritanemphasisondevoutSundayworshipthereforeproducedaschedulingconflictwiththeplayhouses,becauseboththechurchesandtheactingcompaniesbytraditionhadaskedthepeopleofLondontogatheronSundayandholy-dayafternoons.Ultimately,theconflictwasresolvedwhentheactors,anticipatinglargereconomicrewards,bowedtocivicpressureandrelinquishedonce-a-weekSundayperformancesforthegreaternumberofweekdayperformances.Butbeforethat,theactorswereobligedtojugglethetimesofperformanceatinnsandearlyamphitheaterssoasnottointerferewiththecelebrationofeveningprayer.
BeforetheReformation,vespersorevensongwassaidatsunsetshortlybeforegoingtobed.AccordingtotheRegularisConcordia,themedievalcollectionofrulesformonasticceremony,monksinEnglandsaidvespersatabout4:15P.M.inthewinterandat6P.M.inthesummer.
6Butamonk'sdaywaslong,andvespersforthelaitywassungearlierintheafternoon,wellbeforesupper.In1375,thebishopofLondonallowedtheparishofSt.MichaelCornhiltoholdvespersonweekdaysat2P.M.andonholydays"accordingtothelawdablecustomeoftheCitee."7UndertheTudors,customratherthanregulationalsoseemstohavedeterminedthetimeofeveningprayer;atleastfewspecifictimesareindicatedinchurchservicerecordsoftheperiod.In1553,theCityprohibitedplaysbefore3P.M.onSundaysandholydayssoasnottointerferewitheveningprayer,indicatingtheservicesbeganaround2P.M.orso.8Around1600,amemorandumbyWilliamPercyindicatesthateveningprayeratSt.Paul'swascompletedby4P.M.,suggestinga2or3P.M.startingtime.9Unfortunatelyforus,nospecifictimewasrequiredbythe
ecclesiasticalauthorities.ThebishopofLondon'svisitationarticlesof1571stipulatedonlythatservicesofcommonprayerbesaid"atconvenienthours."10Eventhoughthenamegiventotheservicewaseveningprayer,mostcontemporarydescriptionsplaceitintheafternoon.Twomodernscholarsstatethateveningprayerbeganat2P.M.,whichisreasonableenough,althoughthetimevariedfromparishtoparish.11Evenwithinaparish,thetimeofeveningprayercouldchangefromseasontoseason,hencethelackofparticularstartingtimesinchurchdocuments.Twoo'clockiscertainlytheearliesttheseservicesbegan.
ToavoidaSundayafternoonconflict,theCityorderedplayerstowaituntilaftereveningprayerwasdonetobeginperformances.InDecember1571,the
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LondonCourtofAldermengrantedalicensetoLeicester'smentoplay"atconvenienthowers&tymes,sothatitbenotintymeofdevyneservice."
12Thenextyear,thealdermenreiteratedtheprohibition,orderinghousekeepersofinns"nottosufferthesameplayestobeinthetymeofdevyneservice...intherehowses,yardes,orbacksydes."13Althoughonlyonemore-or-lesspermanentoutdoorplayhouse(theRedLion)hadbeeninoperationbeforetheseorders,theyshowthatprohibitionsagainstplayingduringeveningprayerappliedequallytooutdoorandindoorstages.
Iftheactorsperforminginsuchvenuesobeyedtheseorders,playscouldnothavebegunmuchearlierthan3:30or4P.M.Theprayerservicewastraditionallyonehourandperhapslastedevenlongerwiththeinclusionofthenewlypopularsermons,manyofwhichwerequitelong.Iftheservicesbeganat2P.M.andlasteduntil3or3:30,thentherewouldbeaconvenientthirtyminutesfortheplaygoerstowalktotheinn,payadmission,andtakeaseatbeforetheplaybegan.Thus,manyperformancesintheearly1570smusthavebegunmoretowards4P.M.than2P.M.Ontheotherhand,thenecessityofrepeatingtheprohibitionsuggeststhatitwasnotalwaysenforced.
Thedifficultywitha4P.M.startingtimeinregardtolightingistheearlysunsetinLondon,particularlyinthewinter.Inmid-December,London'ssunsetisabout3:45P.M.InNovemberandJanuary,itisjustafter4P.M.(seetablebelow).14PlayerswhobeganaftereveningprayerasLeicester'smenwereorderedtodoinDecember1571wouldfindthemselvesperformingindarknesssoonaftertheirplaybegan.
Ofcourse,someoftheselateperformancesmusthavebeengivenindoors.AndrewGurrhasshownthat,intheprovincesatleast,actors
generallyplayedindoorsinbothsummerandwinter,becauseElizabeth's1559edictgenerallyallowedplayerstoperforminacity'slargesthall.15ButinTudorLondon,largecivichallshadlongbeenunavailable,andactorsreliedoninnsfromveryearlyon.Basedontheirfamiliaritywithprovincialguildhalls,thecompaniesprobablypreferredindoorvenuesattheseLondoninns,althoughtheCity'sprohibitionsagainstbothindoorandoutdoorvenuesinallseasonsshowthatthecompaniesdidnotalwaysgettheirway.
AreasonwhycompaniesliketheAdmiral'smencouldperformoutdoorsthroughoutthewintersinthe1590swithoutconcernfordarknesswasaseriesofchangesinperformancetimes.Thesechangeswerethepracticalsolutionstocontroversiesthatoccurredregularlybetweentheactorsandthe
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SunsetTimesinLondon,1598(Old-StyleDates)
1st 7th 14th 22nd 28thJanuary 3:57 4:06 4:14 4:27 4:37February 4:46 4:51 5:10 5:26 5:38March 5:40 5:52 6:06 6:20 6:24April 6:24 6:54 7:06 7:21 7:31May 7:37 7:45 7:55 8:04 8:09June 8:11 8:14 8:15 8:13 8:09July 8:06 8:01 7:53 7:40 7:30August 7:13 7:13 7:00 6:44 6:33September 6:26 6:14 5:58 5:44 5:33October 5:26 5:14 5:00 4:45 4:34November 4:27 4:17 4:07 3:57 3:51December 3:48 3:46 3:45 3:48 3:52
City.ThepoliticalandreligiousbackgroundtoattemptsatgovernmentalinterventionhasbeendiscussedbyRichardDutton;herewecanonlytracespecificprohibitionsthataffectedthetimesofperformances.
16
InDecember1574,anActofCommonCouncilenforcedthepermanentprohibitionagainstplayingduringeveningprayerandendedthefirstofthesecontroversiesbyprecipitatingtheflightoftheactingtroupestosuburbsnotunderCitycontrol.17Iflackofsurvivingrecordsisanindication,troubledieddownwiththebuildingoftheTheaterandCurtainplayhousesinthemid-1570s,takingalargepartoftheaudienceawayfromtheLondoninnsandoutofimmediateofficialconcern.Butaflurryofcomplaintsaroseagaininthelate1570sandearly1580swhentheCity,spurredonbypuritanpreachers,soughttobanperformancesonSundaysandholydaysentirely.
Takingthesideoftheactors,theQueen'sPrivyCouncilsuggestedacompromiseandorderedthelordmayortopermitplaysintheCityonallweekdays,includingholydays,aftereveningprayerbutnottopermitperformancesonSundays.InApril1582,theyorderedthelordmayor"toreuokeyourlateinhibitionagainsttheirplayengonthesaidhollydaiesaftereueningprayeronelyforbearingtheSabothedaiewhollieaccordingtoour
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formerorder."
18Theordermakesclearthatbythistime,theactorswerewillingtogiveupSundaysforthemorenumerousandlucrativeweekdayperformances.
WhatthePrivyCouncildoesnotmakecleariswhethertherequirementtoplayaftereveningprayerappliedonlytoholydaysortoallweekdays,onmostofwhichpeopleneverwenttochurchanyway.Restorationtestimonysuggeststhattheactorsdiddelayperformancesevenonregularweekdays.InhisShortDiscourseoftheEnglishStage(London,1664),RichardFlecknoesaidElizabethanplayswereperformed"onWeekdayesafterVespers,"buthemayhavebeenreferringtoperformancesbyboyactorsconnectedwithreligiouschoirschools.19The1581minutesofthePrivyCouncilrecordonlytheirdesirethatactorsshouldplay"upontheweekedayesonly,beingholydayesorotherdayes,soastheydoeforbearewholyetoplayeontheSabotheDaye,eitherintheforenoneorafternone."20ThattheactingcompaniesdidwaituntilaftereveningprayerisadmittedtobythelordmayorinhisansweringlettertothePrivyCouncil.Buthefoundtheactors'complianceunsatisfactoryinotherways.Forwhiletheplayershadindeeddelayedtheiractualstartingtimes,theyhadenterprisinglyopenedtheirdoorsseveralhoursbefore,luringparishionersfromtheirreligiousduty.Indulgently,thelordmayorwroteofthePrivyCouncil'sinexperienceinsuchmattersandvowedthatallowingplaysonholydaysaftereveningprayer"canveryhardlybedone.''HeexplainedtothePrivyCouncil:
[F]forthoughetheybeginnenottheirplayestillaftereueningprayer,yetallthetimeoftheafternonebeforetheytakeinhearersandfilltheplacewithsuchasbetherbyabsentfromseruingGodatChirch,andattendingtoserueGodsenemieinanInne;IfforremedieherofIsholdalsorestrainethelettinginofthepeopletillafterseruiceinthechircheitwolddriuethe
actionoftheirplaiesintoveryinconuenienttimeofnight.21
Thus,ifthestartingtimesattheCityinnsweretobepostponedbyonlysomuchtimeaswasrequiredforspectatorstoassembleaftereveningprayer,thentheendoftheplaycouldfallintonight.Whatismore,thisdeferment"intoveryincouenienttimeofnight"wascontemplatedinAprilwhensunsetwasafter7:30P.M.
TheplayhousesoutsideCityjurisdictionwerenominallyfreetoignoretheseprohibitions,occasionallyofferingplaysearlyintheafternoon.Suchis
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thetenorofaletterthelordmayorwrotetoWalsingham,thequeen'ssecretary,inMay1583,complainingof"p[ro]phanespectaclesattheTheatreandCurtaineandotherlikeplaces...wchbeotherwisep[er]ilousforcontagionbisidethewithdrawingfromGodssrvice."
22Butthereisalsoevidencethattheseplayhousessometimesperformedlaterinthedayaftereveningprayer,asdidtheplayersattheinnswithinCitycontrol.InthecontinuationofHolinshed'sChronicles,forinstance,welearnthatactorsattheTheater,andprobablyattheCurtainaswell,wereperformingat"aboutsixoftheclocke"on6April1580whenanearthquakeshookLondon.23Tobeperformingat6P.M.,thesenortherntheatersprobablybegantheirplaysaftereveningprayer.Anevenworsedisasteroccurredon13January1583attheBearGardeninParisGardenswhenseveralscaffoldsfullofspectatorscollapsedat''aboutfoureoftheclockeintheafternoone,"justthetimeoftheearlywintersunset.24Andon9June1584,afightbrokeout"veryneretheTheatreorCurtenatthetymeofthePlayes,"andtheCityrecorderfoundthestreetfullofpolicewatchesat"night."25Thefightmighthavebegunbeforemidsummernightfall,buttherecorder'sletterlendssupporttoalaterstartingtimethanearlyafternoon.Atanyrate,theincidentbroughttensionbetweentheCityandtheactorstoaheadyetagain,andthePrivyCouncilsuppressedallplayinginLondon,forcingtheactingcompaniestofleetheCityandtravelorusethesuburbanplayhousesfortheremainderofsummer.26
Intheautumnorwinterofthe158485season,thenewlyformedQueen'smenpetitionedthePrivyCounciltoletthemreturntotheCity.27WedonotknowwhatactionthePrivyCounciltook,butananswertothepetitionfromtheCorporationofLondonhassurvived
thatspeakstolightingconditionsinthepublictheaters.Intheirpetition,theactorshadcomplainedthatbadwinterweathermadeperformancesoutsideLondondifficult.TheCityrepliedthatifwinterdarknesswasaproblemforthem,thesolutionwasnottobringtheplaysintotheCitybuttocontinuetoperforminthedistantlibertiesandshortentheplays:"Ifinwinterthedarkdocaryinco[n]uenience:andtheshorttimeofdayaftereueningprayerdoleauethemnoleysure:...thetrueremedieistoleaueofthatvnnecessarieexpenseoftimewhereuntoGodhimselfgeuethsomanyimpediments."28TheCity'sanswerindicatesnotonlythatwinterperformancesatthenorthernamphitheatersencounteredproblemswithdarknessbutalsothat,despitebeingtechnicallyfreeofCitycontrol,thesuburbanplayhousesafter1583orsononethelesssometimesbegan
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aftereveningprayer.TheCityappendedalistof"remedies"totheirreply:"Thatnoplayeingbeonholydaiesbutaftereueningprayer....Thatnoplayeingbeinthedark,norcontinueanysuchtimebutasanyoftheauditoriemayreturnetotheirdwellingsinLondon,beforesonneset,oratleastbeforeitbedark."
29TheCity'sphrase''playeing...inthedark"couldmeaneitherplayinginbadlightoutdoorsorunderartificiallightsindoorsatahallinaninn,forexample.ButtheCity'scarefulphrasinginthelastremedysuggeststhataneffortwasmadetoincludebothsuburbanpublicplayhousesandCityinnswithorwithoutopen-airinn-yards.Thedocumentissusceptibleoftheinterpretationthatnaturaldaylightmaynothaveservedquitetotheendofsomewinteropen-airplaypresentations,althoughtheCity'semphasisonspectatorswalkinghomeinthedarkalsosuggeststhattheQueen'smencontinuedtoplayrightuptotheonsetofdarkness,afterwhichtheyleftdepartingspectatorstofendforthemselvesinthedark.
Asithaddoneoncebefore,thecontroversybetweentheplayersandthecivicgovernmentdieddownforabouttenyears,onlytoflareupagainatthebeginningofthe1590swhenat8P.M.onSunday,11June1592,amoboffelt-makers'apprentices,whowereattemptingtofreeafellowapprenticefromtheMarshalsea,assembledthemselves"byoccasion,&pretenceoftheirmeetingataplay."30Withthesunsettingabout8:10P.M.inthemiddleofJune,8P.M.isratherlatetogivethepretenseofmeetingataplayhouse,presumablytheRose,approximatelyaquarterofamileawayfromtheMarshalsea.WeshouldbeabletoconfirmthattherewasaperformanceattheRoseonthatday,butunfortunatelythepertinententryinHenslowe'sdiaryisambiguous.Figure11showsitalongwiththeprecedingandsucceedingentries.
TheentryforAKnacktoKnowaKnaveisunusualbecauseinsteadofgivingadate,Henslowesuppliesonlyaninterlinednotereading"day."Precedingthewordisamarkthateditorstranscribeasa"1,"butwhichissimplythecharacteristicbackward-"C"bracket-markthatHensloweregularlymadeatthebeginningofeachruleseparatingtheyearandtheamountofmoneycollected.Inthiscase,Henslowewasabitsloppy:thebracketmarkisalittleabovetherule,andashefinishedthemark,hefailedtolifthispenquickly,resultinginaflourishmarkmorelikea"V"thananythingelse.Betweenthismarkandtheword"day"isafaintsmudge.Gregdescribesitas"afainttraceofafigurewhichhasapparentlybeenerased."31Intheireditionofthediary,FoakesandRickerttranscribethesmudgeasa"o"andthebracket
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Fig.11.Detailoffolio8ofHenslowe'sdiary(theentryforAKnacktoKnowaKnave
isthesixthlinedown).DulwichCollegeLibrary,London.
andsmudgetogetheras"10,"makingthenoterefertothetenthofthemonth,aSaturday.
32ButasImakeitout,thesmudgemightsignifyjustaboutanythingorforthatmatternothing;itisveryfaintindeed,andelsewhereinthediaryHenslowetendstostrikeoutmistakesratherthanerasethem.Becausetheplayismarkedasnew,perhapsHenslowemeant"1day,"meaningthefirstdayofperformance.Editorstranscribethenote"10"ratherthan''11"becauselateron,theAdmiral'smenregularlyskippedSundayperformancesinaccordancewithCitywishes,butthehabitofnotperformingonSundayswasonlysolidlyestablishedattheRosetwoyearslaterinthesummerof1594bytheAdmiral'smen.Inthesummerof1592,theRosewasoccupiedbyLordStrange'smenwhoseemtohaveperformedonseveralSundays,astheyapparentlydidaweeklater,offeringJeronimoonSunday,18June1592.33
Hence,theapprentices'riotmightwellhaveinvolvedtheRose.Andthereisfurtherevidencetosupportthissuggestion.Twoweekslater,allplayingwasforbiddeninandaboutLondonbythePrivyCouncil,
whichdreadedsuchcivildisorders.34Whenthenoblesponsorsoftheactingcompaniesaskedforrelieffromtheprohibitiononbehalfoftheirtroupes,LordStrange'srequestwasgrantedonlyifhiscompanynotperformattheRosebutatthemoredistanttheaterinNewington.35ThePrivyCouncilhadaspecificde-
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sirethattheRoseremainempty,whichtendstolinkittotheoriginaldisturbance.Thus,Strange'smenmayhaveperformedattheRoseat8P.M.,justthetimeofsummersunset.
ThislastcontroversybetweentheCityandtheplayersresolveditselfwhentheactingcompaniesrequestedandevidentlyreceivedpermissiontoperformearlierintheafternoonatthesametimeaseveningprayer.Aswehaveseen,priortothe1590sthegovernmenthadbeenmostconcernedwithkeepingthetimeofdivineservicefreeofmorealluringactivities.AlthoughtherehadlongbeennighttimecurfewlawsinLondon,officialsbelievedthatplayingaftereveningprayerposedlessharmtomoralhealththandidallowingLondonerstomisschurchaltogether.
36Thus,theCityhadmollifieditsobjectiontolateperformances;atleasttherearefewernightprohibitionsintheirregulatorydocumentsofthe1580sandearly1590sthaninthe1570s.ButaftertheSouthwarkriotandotherinstancesofunrest,bothCityandCrownbecamemoreconcernedaboutavoidingcivildisorderatnightthanprotectingtheChurchintheafternoon.AtbothGuildhallandWhitehall,concernforreligiousobservancesuccumbedtofearofsocialprotest.
ItwasinthisclimatethatHenryCarey,LordHunsdon,thequeen'slordchamberlain,wrotetothelordmayoron8October1594requestingearlywintertimeperformancesattheCrossKeysinn.LordHunsdonwrotenotinhisofficialcapacitybutasthepatronoftheLordChamberlain'smenwhomusthavemovedfromtheirsummerhomeattheTheatertotheCrossKeysearlierthatautumn.ThankingGodfortheabatementoftheplague,Hunsdonpromisedthat"wheremynowecompanieofPlayers...hauevnder-takentomethatwhereheretoforetheybegannottheirPlaiestilltowardsfoweraclock,they
willnowbeginattwo,&hauedonbetweenfowerandfiue."37Inalllikelihood,thelordmayorwouldpreviouslyhaverejectedanoffertobeginplaysat2insteadof4P.M.,becausetheearliertimeconflictedwitheveningprayer.Butby1594,socialconditionshadchanged,andHunsdoncouldrepresenttheearlystartingtimeasanadvantagetotheCityfathers.Still,headmitsthatbeforeOctober,hiscompanywasinthehabitofbeginningat4andfinishingat5or6P.M.attheCrossKeys.
Weshouldliketoknowwhethersuchperformanceswereindoorsorout.Earlyautumnperformancesatinnslastinguntil6P.M.tendtosuggestindoorvenues.GlynneWickhamhasarguedthatthehabitofassumingplaysatinnswerenormallyoutsideintheinn-yardsisunsupportedbytheevidence.38Still,DavidGallowaypointsoutaclearreferencetoaninn-yardscufflein
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Norwich"intheafternoone...ataplayintheyardattheredlyon"inJune1583.
39AndinLondonin1557,a"Lewdeplaye"wasabouttobe"plaiedthisdaye"attheBoar'sHeadinn,presumablyintheyardthatwaslaterconvertedintoafairlyelaborateplayhouse.40RegardingtheCrossKeysinn,moreover,wehaveRichardFlecknoe'sstatementinhisbriefhistoryofEnglishdramathattheCrossKeyswasaninn-yardtheater.Hedescribedhow"Companies...setupTheatres,firstintheCity,(asintheInn-yardsoftheCross-keyes,andBullinGraceandBishops-GateStreetatthisdayistobeseen...).''41Flecknoe'saccountwaspublishedin1664;itmayormaynotbereliable.WehavenorecordsoftheCrossKeysbeingusedasatheaterafterHunsdon'srequestin1594,anditisnotclearwhetherFlecknoemeantthatthetheatersintheinn-yardswerestilltobeseenormerelythattheinnsthemselveswerestillstandingintheearly1660s.Yet,Flecknoe'sreportisearlyintheRestoration,andweknowthathewasaliveandoldenoughtotravelalonetotheContinentbeforetheInterregnum.42Thus,whenhesaystheCrossKeysaccommodatedatheaterinitsyard,wecannotignorehisevidencemerelybecausewealsohaverecordsoflateafternoonwintertimeperformancesthere.
AlthoughWickhammaywellbecorrectthatactorstypicallyperformedonindoorstagesinwinterandonoutdoorstagesinsummer,wemustnotconsiderhisobservationahard-and-fastrule,becausethereiscontradictoryevidence,manyplaysbeinggivenindoorsinthesummerandoutdoorsinthewinter,although,inthelattercase,tosmalleraudiences.43JohnWebstercomplainedthatthepremiereofTheWhiteDevilattheRedBull"wasacted,insodullatimeofWinter,presentedinsoopenandblackeaTheater,thatitwanted...afullandunderstandingAuditory."Similarly,aplayerin
Jonson'sPoetaster(1602),whoisidentifiedwiththeGlobe,complainsoflowreceiptsinwinter.44Inshort,anactor'svirtuewasflexibilitytheabilitytoperformunderavarietyofconditionsinnearlyanysortofplayhouse.Inallthelettersthatpassedhandsamongthetroupes,theirpatrons,theCityCorporation,andthePrivyCouncil,theaestheticquestionoftheatricalilluminationneverarises.TheclosestwecometosuchaconcerniswhentheCitysympathizedwithplaygoerswalkinghomeinthedarkfromtheTheaterandCurtainin1584.ActorsmayhavepreferredindoorwinterquartersintheCity,butwehavenodocumentaryevidenceforbelievingthattheydidsobecauseofbadoutdoorlightingintheamphitheaters.Thewintermigrationofafewcompaniestotheprivatehallplayhousestookadvantageofartificiallight,no
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doubt,buttheirprimarymotivewasadesiretoperformasclosetothecenterofpopulationaspossible.
Welacksufficientinformationtotraceaccuratelythemovementsbackandforthoftheearlyactingcompanies,butasimilarformofentertainment,fencing,leavesrecordssuggestingthatweatherandlightingwerelessimportantmotivesformigrationthanplaguerestrictionsandprecautions.The"RegisteroftheMastersofDefense"showsthatthefencerspreferredtoholdtheirprizematchesinallseasonsattheCityinnsbutthattheregularresurgenceoftheplague,almostalwaysinsummer,obligedthemtofleetothesuburbanamphitheaterswheretheycouldignoretheCity'sprohibitionsagainstpublicassembly.
45Presumably,onecanfencelesssafelyinthebadlightofwinterthanonecanactinit,butlightdoesnotseemtohavebeenaworryforthefencersorfortheactors.Indeed,thevarietyofevidenceaboutwhetherperformancesatinnswereindoorsinahalloroutdoorsinayardsuggeststhattheactorswerenotveryparticularabouttheirlightingarrangements.WhenLordHunsdonrequestedearlierplayingtimesfortheCrossKeysinn,thechangeseemstohavebeenpromptedbypoliticalconcernsandnotbytechnicallightingrequirements.AndWebster'sandJonson'srealcomplaintisthatthewinterweatherinhibitedlargeaudiencesfromgatheringattheoutlyingplayhouses,especiallyan"understandingAuditory,"asthepatronswouldhavetostandintheyardunprotectedfromtheweather.Websterdoesnotlamentthatthe"openandblacke''RedBullmadeitdifficulttoseebutthatitpreventedordiscouragedpatronsfrommakinghimapopularplaywright.
PerformanceTimesafter1594
The2P.M.startingtimesuggestedbythepatronofthemostfamousactingcompanyofitstimehasbeensowidelyacceptedasanormthatitissurprisingtodiscoveronwhatlittleevidenceitisbased.NotonlyareweunsureifHunsdon'sstartingtimereferstoanoutdoorplayhouse,butalsowedonothavetheCity'sreplytotherequest.NordowehavesubsequentletterswithtimeindicationsfromtheCityandtheactors.Infact,oncetheirarguingfinallydieddowninthelate1590s,wehaveonlyahandfulofallusionstoperformancetimes.Andamongthishandful,thereislittleagreementastoastandardtimeforthepublicplayhouses.Indeed,onlyoneindicationofareg-
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ularstartingtimesurvives:inApril1614,anactorinLadyElizabeth'stroupeattheHopeagreedtoacontractrequiringhim"tobegyntheplayatthehowerofthreeoftheclockintheafternoone."
46Otherwise,wemustrelyontheusuallyvagueallusionsinextantletters,diaries,andthelikeastowhenspectatorsarrivedatthetheater.E.K.Chambersstatesflatlythat"beforetheendofthesixteenthcenturythetimeforbeginninghadbeenfixedat2o'clock,"butforproofhecitesonlyLordHunsdon'ssuggestionandastatementbytheSwissvisitorThomasPlatterthaton21September1599herodeovertheThames"ettwanumbzweyuhren''toseeaproductionofJuliusCaesar,presumablyatthenewlyopenedGlobe.47Evenso,thereferencemayimplyacommencementlaterthan2P.M.IfPlattercrossedtheriver"about"2P.M.,thenwemaysupposeittookhimatleastseveralminutestoreachtheplayhouseandfindaseat.48Andbecauseweknowthatspectatorsoftenexpectedtowaitintheirseatsbeforetheplaybegan,theperformancePlattersawmaynothavebegununtilcloseto3P.M.49
WellbeforeChambers,Malone'sstudyofShakespearehadannouncedjustasemphaticallythat"[p]laysinthetimeofourauthor,beganatoneo'clockintheafternoone."50Maloneofferedonlyonepieceofevidence,anepigrambySirJohnDaviespublishedaround1590,whichishardlyprecise.Theepigramdescribesatowngallantwho"goestoGilles,wherehedotheatetilone,/Thenseesaplaytillsixe,andsuppesatseauen."51Later,J.PayneCollierobjectedtoMalone'sestimateanddeclared,"Infacttheperformanceofplaysbeganatthreeo'clock."52Forhisargument,Colliercollectedthreecitationsfromtheeighty-yearperiodcoveredinhisstudy.Thefirstisfromachildren'stheatersatire,Histriomastix,orThePlayerWhipt,inwhicha"player"advertiseshiscompany'sperformancewillbegin"Atthreea
clocke."53Thesecondisthecontract,mentionedearlier,betweentheactorRobertDawesandHensloweandJacobMeaderequiringhimtobeginactingat3P.M.AndthethirdisapassagefromanentertainingbookcalledAmanda,orTheReformedWhore,thatsummarizesAmanda'safternoonscheduleinneatheroiccouplets:
Attwoaclocke,thougoesttodinnerthoWiththyLand-lady,andhermaydbelow.AtthreeuntothePlayhousebackeagen,Tobeacquaintedwithsomeothermen.54
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Apartfromthesmallnumberofsuchtimereferences,veryfewofeventheseprovidesatisfactoryevidenceregardingtheamphitheaters.Hunsdon'srequestrevealspertinentinformationaboutaninn,butwedonotknowiftherequestwasadoptedorifplaystherewereperformedinanopen-airyard.Davies'sepigramaboutthegallantwhoeatslunchuntilone,seesaplayuntilsix,andbeginssupperatsevenisofunsuredateandcouldrefertoanysortoftheater.Butithardlyreferstoa1P.M.startingtime,asMalonesuggests.Ifittookonehourforthegallanttogofromtheplayhousetosupper,thenwemaysupposeittookhimanhourtogettotheplayhousefromlunch.Thus,2P.M.istheearliestlikelystartingtime,andeventhatwouldmeanspendingfourhourswatchingtheplayandleavenotimebeforeittosecureagoodseat.Infact,theplay'snotfinishinguntil6P.M.impliesastilllatercommencement.Thethreeo'clockreferenceinHistriomastixisprecise,butCollierwaspushinghisevidenceratherhard.Theplayisasatireofaragtagprovincialactingcompanythathopestoperforminthelocaltownhall.ItrefersneithertoprofessionalLondonactorsnortoanoutdoortheater.ThedateofPlatter'stwoo'clockdescriptionisbetterfixed,butthetwoorthreedifferentplacesatwhichhesaysplayswereactedaredifficulttochoosefromthelistofpossiblesitestheCurtain,Rose,Swan,firstGlobe,NewingtonButts,andtheindoorsecondBlackfriarsandSt.Paul'stheaters,allstandingin1599,thedateofhisvisittoLondon.
The1614actor'scontractgivingathreeo'clockstartingtimeismoredefiniteasitclearlyreferstoaregularstartingtimeataspecificplayhouse,theHope.Unfortunately,thecontractisnowlostandcannotbeauthenticated.ButCollier'sotherbitofproofthecitationfromAmandaistoovaguetobeofuse,becauseitalsofailstoindicateatwhattheaterorevenatwhatkindoftheaterAmandaconductedbusinessbeforeherlong-delayedreformation.Atanyrate,Amanda'sarrivalattheplayhousetofindclientsatthreeo'clockdoesnot
necessarilyimplythatshewasparticularlyeagertoseethebeginningoftheplay.
Tothesereferencesshouldbeaddedahalf-dozenothersthatconfirmnoonestandardstartingtimebutdemonstrateinsteadconsiderableflexibilityinregardtowhenplayswereperformed.InThomasDekker'spamphletTheGulsHorne-booke(London,1609),amanwhowouldbeagallantisadvisedtogotolunchat11:30A.M.andseeaplayacrosstheriverdirectlyafterwards.
55
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Dependingonthelengthofdinner,Dekkersuggestsa1or2P.M.startingtime.ButaletterfromJohnChamberlaininAugust1624impliesalatertimefortheGlobe.Thatsummer,ThomasMiddleton'sAGameatChesswasdrawinglargecrowdsofLondoners,fightingtheirwayintoseeitbeforethePrivyCouncilsuppressedit.Chamberlainadmittedthathewouldhavelikedtoseetheplay,too,"butthatIcouldnotsitsolong,forwemusthavebentherebeforeoneo'clockeatfarthesttofindanyroome."
56HowlongChamberlainwouldhavehadtositisagainleftvague.Accountsofotherplaysdescribeaone-hourwaitasexpected,andthesecondBlackfriarstheaterpresentedaone-hourconcertbeforeeachplay.SinceChamberlainimpliesthataoneo'clockarrivalwouldmeananunusuallylongwaitingperiod,wemayestimatetheperformancebegansometimeafter2P.M.
Lookingatthewholeperiod,wecansaywithconfidenceonlythatthepublicplayhousesusuallybeganperformancesanywherefrom2P.M.to4P.M.Chronologicallyspeaking,thetimesrecordedbefore1594refermostoftentoaround4P.M.,attheturnofthecenturyperhapsmoretowards2P.M.,andcloserto3P.M.somefifteenyearslater.Gurrbelievesthereisenoughevidencetosaythatdifferentplayhousesmayhaveestablisheddifferentstartingtimes:theGlobeat2P.M.,theHopeanhourlater.57Thisisentirelypossible,butthereareseveralreferencestospectatorsdecidingtoleaveonetheaterinordertocatchaplayatarivaltheater,whichwouldbemadedifficult,butbynomeansimpossible,bydisparatestartingtimes.58Ontheotherhand,variationsinstartingtimesmayhavebeenafunctionoftheseason,withwintertimeperformancesbeginningearlierthansummertimeperformances.
ThereisoneentryinHenslowe'sdiarythatspecifiesanighttime
performancebytheAdmiral'smen:"lentvntothecompanywhentheyfyrstplayeddidoatnyghtthesomeofthirtishillyngeswchwassethe8ofJenewary159[8]."59Theearly-twentieth-centuryscholarT.S.Gravesusedthisentrytoprovethat"nightperformancesinthepublictheatreswereratherfrequentinthedaysofShakspere."60Tobesure,thereisevidenceforperformancesstretchingintotwilight,butGraveswentfurtherandinsistedthatfullnighttimeperformanceslightedbytorchesandcressetswerecommoninthepre-Restorationamphitheaters.Toreinforcehisargument,Gravesjumbledtogetherreferencestoprivate,court,andevenRestorationproductions.TheHensloweentryishisprimebitofevidence,becausetheonlyplayhouseHensloweownedorhadbusinessassociationswithatthetimewastheRose.
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Buttheformoftheentry(lendingmoneytothecompanysimplyforaperformanceratherthanfortheusualscripts,costumes,orproperties)isunusualandprobablysignifiesnothingmorethanextraexpensesincurredforaprivateperformanceindoors,suchasthetransportationcoststhatHenslowepaidayearlaterwhentheAdmiral'smen"playedinfleatstreatpryvat."
61Aprivatevenueisalsosupportedbytheentry'sreferencetoaSundayperformance,when,bythisdate,theRosenormallywentunused.Atanyrate,onenighttimeperformancedoesnotsuggestaregularpattern.
Recordsofnighttimeprofessionalperformancesintheprovincesaremorefrequent,buttheyusuallydonotspecifyperformancesites.InApril1615,forexample,thecityofHytheinKentallowedactorstoperform"inthedayetymeorEveninge(thesameplayesbeingefullyendedbeforeeightoftheClockatnyghtinyewinter&intheSumerbeforenyneoftheClockatnight)"butannouncedatwentyshillingfinetothe"ownorofanyhousewithinthisTowne[who]shallsufferanyplayerstoplayintheirhousesorbacksides"incontraventionoftheseandotherconditions.62Winterperformancesendingat8P.M.undoubtedlytookplace"intheirhouses,"butsummerperformancesendingby9P.M.couldreasonablytakeplaceinthe"backsides''ofinnsorinlargerooms.Inthearticle"PublicNightPerformancesinShakespeare'sTime,"MarvinRosenbergdrawsattentiontoapassageinThomasHeywood'sAnApologyforActors(London,1612,G2)tosupportGraves'stheoryofLondonnighttimepublictheaterplaying.63Indefendingtheactingprofession,Heywoodtakespainstoreciteeveryconceivablebenefitthatmightderivefromplays.Todemonstrateanunexpectedmilitaryadvantage,HeywoodtellsafantasticstoryofagroupofSpanishmarauderswholandedonenight
ontheshoresofCornwallandwereabouttopillageanEnglishtownwhentheywerescaredoffbythesoundofdrums,trumpets,andmilitaryalarmsarisingfromalocalplay.Rosenbergbelievesthattheeasewithwhichtheinvadersheardthestagebattlemeanttheperformancewasout-of-doors.Thismightbethecase,butjustsuchnoisedisturbedtheneighborsoftheindoorsecondBlackfriarsandtheindoorRosseter'sBlackfriarstheaters.64Moreover,ofthereferencestonightplaysinprovincialrecordsthatindicatespecificvenues,mostputtheperformancesintownhalls,guildhalls,or,increasinglyafter161418,inroomsininns.65Atanyrate,Heywood'sstoryisprobablyapocryphalanddoesnotconcerntheLondontheaters.
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AlthoughHenslowe'scontractandthestreetcryinHistriomastixbothgiveaspecific3P.M.timeforthebeginningofplays,itmaybetruethatpatronsdidnotexpectplaystobeginasregularlyoraspromptlyaswedo.Handbillsadvertisedcomingplays,butalthoughnoauthenticplaybillshavesurvived,itisdoubtfulthatparticulartimeswerespecified.AnadvertisementforbearbaitinginHenslowe'spapersgivesnoindicationofthetimespectatorsshouldassemble,nordoestheplaybillforabogusplay,England'sJoy.Indeed,Englishplaybillsdidnotindicateperformancetimesuntilthemiddleoftheeighteenthcentury,althoughaGermanbillforEnglishactorsin1628doesadvisetheaudiencetogatherat2P.M.
66Thislackofconcretenoticesuggeststhatsomeplaysbeganatonlyapproximatetimesorsimplywhentheactorswereready.Moderntheatersaredarkenedforthesakeofdramaticillusion,andlatecomersarenotpermittedtodestroyitbywanderingdowntheaisleslookingfortheirseats.Awell-advertisedstartingtimeismandatoryforatheaterlikeoursthathaslittlekinshipwiththekindoftheaterwherespectatorscouldcomeandgowithlittleregardforastrictscheduleorsocialpressure.Consequently,theremayhavebeenlessneedtodesignateacertainhourasanofficialstartingtime.
Yetevenifthemajorityofplaysbeganaroundtwoo'clock,itisdifficulttounderstandhowdaylightcouldhaveservedquitetotheendofmanyplaysperformedinthewinter.Althoughthe"twohours'traffic"ofthestagefromtheprologuetoRomeoandJulietisoftenquotednormatively,itislikelythatmostfullentertainmentsatthepublicplayhouseslastedclosertothreehours.Asinthecaseofstartingtimes,thereismuchconjecturebutlittlehardevidenceregardingthelengthofperformance.Inthemostinfluentialstudyofplayingtimes,AlfredHartarguedforastandardtwo-hour"allotment."
Hartsummarizedhisevidence:''Priorto1614[theterminusforhisarticle]atleastadozenallusionsweremadebytenveryimportantdramatistsandactorsconnectedwiththeprincipalcompaniesandtheatrestotheprevalentcustomofallottingtwohourstotherepresentationofaplay.Onlyonedramatistspeaksofathree-hourplayingtime."67ButDavidKleinarguesforlongerplayingtimes,listingahalf-dozenotherallusionstothree-hourperformancetimes.68Unfortunately,neitherHartnorKleindistinguishesbetweenpublicandprivateplayhouseauspices.Moreover,theybothacceptatwoo'clockstartingtimeasobligatory.Thus,Kleinbolstershisargumentforathree-hourallotmentbycitingallusionstofiveo'clockfinishingtimes.
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Still,Klein'spointthatseveral,perhapsmany,playscontinuedlongerthantheconventionaltwohoursiswelltaken.Whatismore,theactorsoftenpresentedajigafterthecompletionoftheirplays.Chambersmakestheintriguingsuggestionthatshorterplaysmayhavebeenreservedforthewinter.
69Butthiskindofschedulingmayhavebeendifficulttoarrange,consideringthenatureoftherepertorysystem.Atleast,acheckoftheperformanceschedulesinHenslowe'sdiaryrevealsnoseasonalemphasisonplaysknowntobeeithershortorlong.Presumablyjigscouldbeshortenedmoreeasilythanplays;perhapstheyprovidedtheactorssomeflexibilityinaccommodatinguncontrollablenaturallight.Afteracarefulreviewoftheevidence,AndrewGurrconcludesthatperformanceslasted"somewherebetweentwoandthreehoursinall."70
Theassumptionthatacompleteentertainmentatthetheaterlastedbetweentwoandthreehoursmeansthatsomerepresentationsfinishedintwilight.Evenifplaysbeganpromptlyat2P.M.,athree-hourdurationwouldpushtheendoftheplaypastsunsetforfourmonthsayear,fromthesecondweekinOctoberuntilthethirdweekinFebruary.Whenplaysbeganatthreeo'clock,theendofathree-hourplaywouldcontinuepastsunsetforhalftheyear,fromthemiddleofSeptemberuntilthemiddleofMarch.AttheHopeon31October1614,forexample,LadyElizabeth'smenperformedBartholomewFair,which,asJonsontellsusinhisinduction,lasted"twohouresandanhalfe,andsomewhatmore."71Astheactor'scontractsignedthepreviousspringgivesitasofficialcompanypolicytobeginat3P.M.,theplaywouldhavestretchedmorethanonehourpastsunset,unless,ofcourse,thecompanyrevertedtoanearlierstaringtimefortheautumnandwinter.SuchwastheprocedureatthecorralesinMadrid,
whereplaysstartedattwoo'clockinwinterandaslateasfourinsummer.72Itisimprobable,though,thatthisdelaywascausedbyanyartisticinclinationoftheSpaniardstoperformplaysthroughtheyearundersimilarlevelsofbrightness.MoreimportantwasthepracticaldesiretoavoidtheblazingmidafternoonsuninMadrid,whereeventodaythecityclosesdownfromonetofouro'clockinsummer.AcustomlikethisisunnecessaryinLondon.
Ifearlydarknesscauseddifficultiesandnoindoorvenuewasavailable,Englishactorsprobablysimplyshortenedtheplay,asweknowtheysometimesdidfromthecomplaintsofirateauthors.Forexample,thetitlepageofTheDuchessofMalfitellsusthatthetextwasprinted"withdiversethings
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...thatthelengthofthePlaywouldnotbeareinthePresentment."Becauseearlysunsetswouldbeoneoftheprincipalreasonsforcuttingaplay,wemayguessthattherewasalimittohowmuchpastsunsetaperformancecouldlast.
Weather
Nomatterwhattimeofdayplaysbeganorended,thequalityoflightwasalsoaffectedbyalargelyuncontrollablefactortheweather.Regardlessofthetimeortheseason,thepossibilitythatthesundirectlylitactorsonanopen-airstagecouldnothavebeengreat.Londonisnotfamousforitssunshine,andwhatevidencewehaveindicatesthattheweatherinShakespeare'stimewasratherworsethanitisnow.Intypicalsummerweathertoday,onlytwoofeveryfivedaytimehoursissunnyinLondon,accordingtomeasurementsrecordedatKewoverthepastfiftyyears.
73Inspringandautumn,thesunshinesonaverageonlyone-thirdtoone-fourthofthetimefromsunrisetosunset.
Butclimatologistsrefertotheperiodfrom1550to1680asthefirstphaseofthe"LittleIceAge,"aperiodofrelativelycooler,moreunstableweatherthanwehaveenjoyedsinceabout1850.74Itisdifficulttogeneralizefromthesparseanecdotalevidence,butapparentlyearly-seventeenth-centurywinterswerefrequentlymoreseverethanweareusedto(theThamesfreezingoveronanumberofoccasions),whilesummerstendedtouncomfortableextremeswetandcool,forthemostpart,butoccasionallyhotanddry.Allinall,London'smistsandrainsmusthavereducedtheamountoflightatleastasoftenasweshouldexpectthemtodotoday.AlthoughclimatologistsascribetheseverityofLondon'sfogstotheeffectsoftheindustrialrevolutioninthenineteenthcentury,diaristsasearlyas
theRestorationlodgefamiliarcomplaintsofsmokymistsandthickfogcoveringtheCity.Anditdoesnotseemtobetruethatperformanceswereregularlycanceledonrainydays,asC.WalterHodgeshasasserted.75A1623almanacpredictedrainshowersattheRedBullandCurtainamphitheaters,where"theyshallsitdryerintheGalleries,thenthosewhoarevnderstandingmenintheyard."76DekkeradvisesagallantattheBanksidetheatersthat"if...indispositionoftheweatherbindeyoutositit[theplay]out,"mewingattheactorsandcriticizingtheirmusicareinorder.77AttheRose,theAdmiral'smenmusthaveoftenplayed
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inbadweather;ticketreceiptsinHenslowe'sdiaryrecorduninterruptedstringsofperformancesbythecompanysixdaysaweekovermanyseasons.Andweknowthat,while"unseasonable"summerweatherreducedincomeattheGlobe,itdidnotcauseperformancestobecanceled.
78Inshort,thedismalpictureWebsterdrewofthepremiereofTheWhiteDevilattheRedBullmaynotbethemereexaggerationofadisgruntledplaywright.
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5IlluminationoftheOutdoorPlayhousesBesidesthenaturaleffectsofsunandclouds,theplayhousesthemselvesaffectedthequalityofthedaylightthatilluminatedthem.TheconfigurationsoftheamphitheatersbuiltinShakespeare'sLondonmayneverbedeterminedtoourcompletesatisfaction,ofcourse,butfromtheSwandrawing,extantplayhousecontracts,perspectivemapsoftheBankside,andthepartiallyexcavatedfoundationsoftheRoseandsecondGlobe,weknowenoughabouttheshape,size,andorientationofseveraloutdoortheaterstomakeintelligentsurmisesabouttheamountandkindoflightthatilluminatedtheirstages.Thevariablesarethepositionandsizeofthestageandthe"heavens"abovethestage,thealtitudeofthesunabovethehorizon,andtheproportionsoftheplayhouse.Diagramsathroughf(seefig.12),basedonRichardHosley'sreconstructionoftheSwan,demonstratetheprinciples.
1
Letusassumethatsunlightcomesfromthesouthwest,asitdoesonaverageinthemidafternoonfromspringtoautumn.Indiagramsaandb,thestageisplacedatthenortheastsideofthetheater,oppositethesun.DiagramashowsthearticulationoflightintheSwanat2P.M.onthesummersolstice.Itwillbeseenthatattheheightofsummer,thealtitudeofthesunat2P.M.(aboutfifty-fourdegrees)ishighenoughtolightnearlytheentirestage.Diagramb,however,presentsamoretypicalperformancesituation3P.M.ontheautumnorspringequinox.Herethealtitudeofthesunisabouttwenty-sevendegrees,andonlyasmallareahighonthetiring-housewallislitdirectlyby
thesun.Inwinter,thesunissolowintheskyevenat2P.M.(only
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Fig.12.ConjecturaldiagramsoftheSwan
elevendegreesabovethehorizononthewintersolstice,forinstance)thatthestagecanneverbelitbydirectsunshine.
DiagramscanddarecrosssectionsofHosley'sreconstructionwiththestageandheavensatthenorthwestsideofthearena(orthemirrorimageofitscomplement,thesoutheast).Inc,theearlyafternoonsummersuncanlightabouthalftheforepartofthestage,whilethewallsoftheplayhouseandtheheavensshademostoftherest.Onlyathinbandoflightisallowedto
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crossthestagefromfronttoback.Diagramddemonstratesthatonanautumnorspringdayat3P.M.,nodirectsunlightcouldstrikethestageatall.
Diagramseandfrepresentthecorrespondingsituationswhenthestageisatthesouthwest,thesamecompasspointfromwhichthesunisshining.Itwillbeseenthatevenattheheightofsummerat2P.M.,nofranksunshinecouldreachthestage.
Orientation
Toobtainthebestlight,amodernlightingdesignerwouldundoubtedlyputthestageatthenortheastsideoftheyard,asinaandb.Judgingbytheshadowsinpicturesoftheirreconstructions,severalearlytheaterhistoriansputthestagethere,too,asdidtheplannersofmanyAmericanoutdoorShakespeareanfestivals.ButthepracticeinShakespeare'stimewaslesspredictable;inmanyoftheamphitheaters,infact,theorientationappearstohavebeentheexactoppositetowhatwemightexpect.
Asummaryofthemostimportantevidencefortheorientationofamphitheaterstagesandthestructuresabovethemfollows.
RedLion.TherecentlydiscoveredlegaldescriptionoftheconstructionoftheRedLionindicatesthatitsstagewaserectedina"Courteoryardelyingonthesouthsyde"ofagardenbelongingtoafarmhouse.
2Aboutthecourtweregalleries,andwithinthecourtthecarpenterbuiltastagefortyfeetnorthandsouthandthirtyfeeteastandwest.Becauseotheramphitheaterstageswerewiderthantheyweredeep(RichardHosleyestimatesanaverageratioofeighttofive),wemayconjecturethatthestageoftheRedLionfacedeithereastorwest.3
Theater.AbramBooth'sViewoftheCityofLondonfromtheNorthtowardtheSouth(c.1599)showsalargegabledhutindefinitelycenteredabovetheyard.Thehutappearstobewideralongtheeast-westornortheast-southwestdimension,whilethewest(orsouthwest)sideisfairlyheavilycrosshatched.Thesedetailsmightindicateanorthwestlocationforthestage,butthepictureissocrudelydrawnthatconjecturebasedonitcanbegivenlittleweight.
Curtain.Booth'sViewoftheCityofLondonmayalsoshowthehutoftheCurtainplayhouse.Becausethegalleriesarehiddenbyanotherbuilding,noevidenceregardingtheorientationofthestageisdiscernible.
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Rose.Thefoundationsuncoveredin1989revealthestagewaspositionedjustafewdegreeswestofduenorthbothbeforeandaftertheremodelingof1592.
4ThispositionroughlyconfirmstheapparentorientationinJohnNorden'sCivitasLondinipanorama(1600),generallyregardedasoneofthemostaccuratemapsofElizabethanLondon(seefig.13).Nordenshowsasimplegableroofwithafenestratedgable-endonthenorthwestsideoftheyardfacingsoutheast.Becauseweknowthatthestagewasinfacttothenorth,Nordenimpliesthattheridgeoftheroofwasperpendiculartothefrontofthestagewiththegable-endfacingtheyard.
Swan.Norden'spanoramashowsnosuperstructureabovetheyardoftheSwan,whileJ.C.Visscher'snotionalengraving(c.1616)showsahutatthewestfacingeast.ThedeWittsketch(c.1596)seemstoshowlightcomingfrombehindthetiring-houseandhut.
Fig.13.TheRose(left)andthefirstGlobe(right).Detailofapanoramic
viewoftheBankside,London,fromJohnNorden'sCivitasLondini,1600.RoyalLibrary,Stockholm.
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Boar'sHead.AlthoughdocumentsconnectedwiththeBoar'sHeadplacethestageandtiring-houseonthe"[w]estsydeofthegreateyard,"HerbertBerryhasshownthat,becauseWhitechapelHighStreetactuallyrandiagonallyfromsouthwesttonortheast,thetrueorientationofthestagewastothesouthwest.
5
FirstGlobe.Norden's1600panoramaalsoincludesthefirstGlobe,buttheevidenceisdifficulttointerpret.AshedoesfortheRose,Nordenshowsasuperstructurewithagableroof,whosegable-endisclearlyfacingsoutheast.OrrellseesNorden'srepresentationofthesuperstructureatthefirstGlobeasessentiallysimilartohisdepictionoftheRosethatis,agableroofwithitsridgerunningradiallyandwiththegable-endparalleltothefrontofthestage.6
Ifthisisthecase,thestagesinNorden'sRoseandfirstGlobewouldsharethesameorientation,andtheGlobestageandroofwouldbeatthenorthornorthwestsideoftheyard.ButwewouldnotexpectthisorientationbasedontheevidencewehaveregardingthesecondGlobe.BecausethefirstandsecondGlobeswerebuiltonthesamefoundation,7andbecauseWenceslausHollar'ssketch(c.1643)putstheheavensofthesecondGlobeatthesouthwest(seefig.14),wewouldpredictasimilarplacementforthefirstGlobe.Toaccountforthisanomaly,OrrellsuggeststhatNorden'soriginalsketchofthefirstGlobe,drawnfromtheperspectiveofthetowerofSt.Saviour'sChurch(nowSouthwarkCathedral)totheeast,wascopiedunchangedintohispanoramathatostensiblyshowstheBanksidefromasouthernviewpoint;hence,Orrellargues,truewestinNorden'spreliminarysketchappearsasnorthintheengraving.Onecaneasilyimaginethishappening,butaswenowknowthattheRosestagewasinfacttothenorth,wemustthenwonderwhythisapparentrotationoccurredonly
fortheGlobeandnotfortheRose,whichwaspresumablyalsosketchedfromthesamevantagepointbutwhosesuperstructureisdrawnclosetoitstrueorientation.OnewayaroundthisproblemwouldbenottoassumethatthefirstandsecondGlobessharedthesameorientation.Ifthefoundationswerelaidoutsymmetrically,itispossible,butperhapsnotlikely,thatwhentheGlobewasrebuiltin1613,itsplannersshiftedtheareaallottedtothetiring-housefromthenorthwestquadranttothesouthwest.
AmoreplausiblesolutionmaybeinferredfromNorden'spanoramaifthegable-endhesawdidnotfacetheyard.Ifweimaginethattheridgeofthe
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Fig.14.ThesecondGlobe.DetailfromWenceslausHollar'sWestparto[f]SouthwarketowardWestminster,c.1643.YaleCenterforBritishArt,PaulMellonCollection.
hutinNorden'sdepictionofthefirstGlobelayparalleltothefrontofthestage,thenthestageanditssuperstructurewouldfindthemselvesatthesouthwest,confirmingHollar.Inthisorientation,thegable-endwouldnotlieparalleltothefrontofthestagebutwouldbeperpendiculartoit.ThehutwouldthenresemblethatshownbydeWittattheSwan,exceptthatinsteadoftheSwan'shiproof,thehutofthefirstGlobewouldbetoppedbyasimplegableroof.Norden'sviewoftheGlobeissometimesdifficulttomakeout,butIwonderifthecrosshatchingtotheleftofthehut'sroofmightbeanindication,notofthatchingonthegalleryroof,butofsomesortofsaddleconnectingthegalleryroofwiththeroofofthehut,assuggestedinmyveryconjecturalredrawingofNorden'sGlobe(seefig.15).Inthiscase,thesuperstructureabovethefirstGlobestagewouldnotbeintegratedintotheframeworkofthegalleries,asOrrellsuggests,butwouldbeafreestandingturret,asarguedbyHosley.
8Althoughcertaintyisunattainable,themostlikelyplacementofthe
stageatthefirstGlobeisatthesouthwest.
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Fig.15.ConjecturalredrawingofNorden's
CivitasLondiniGlobe
FirstandsecondFortunes.Nopictorialevidenceisavailableforeitherplayhouse.HosleyarguesthatthestageofthefirstFortunewastothenorth,basedoninferenceshedrawsfromAgnesHenslowe's1616assignmentofherspouse'sleasetoEdwardAlleyn'smoietyoftheFortuneproperty.
9Thisassignmentmentionsastreetonthe''southside...ofthehousefromonedooreofthesaidhousetoanother."10AlthoughC.WalterHodgesplacedthesetwodoorsonthestagesideoftheplayhousetoallowtheaudiencetoenteralonggangwaysintotheyard,Hosleyplacesthemoppositethestage,believingthatenteringspectatorswouldclogupthesesidealleysnearthestage.Onthebasisofsymmetry,heplacesbothdoorstothesouth,butbecauseThomasPlatterimpliesthatonlyonedoorwasneededbyspectators,oneofthedoorsalongthisstreetmayhavebeenpositionedoppositethestagewhileanothermightcommunicatewithotherpartsofthehousefromthesideoftheplayhouse.TheleaseimpliesthatAlleynhimselfusedthesedoors,andtheir"large&le"sizemayimplyusesotherthanaudienceadmission.11Hence,theorientationofthefirst(andsecond)Fortuneremainsunknown.
SecondGlobe.Hollar'ssketchshowsamammothhuttothesouthwestfacingnortheast.
RedBull.Noevidenceisavailable.
Hope.Hollarshowsthegallery-roofpeakatthesouthwestfacingnortheast.
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Regardingtheorientationoftheamphitheatersforwhichwecandrawconclusions,then,theevidenceindicatesonestagetothenorth,onetotheeastorwest,oneprobablyinthewest,oneprobablyinthesouthwest,andthreeinthesouthwest.Althoughvariationisapparent,wecannotfailtonoticethepreponderanceofstagessituatedinthewestorsouthwest.Thus,thelightingatmanypublicplayhousesseemstohavebeenasdepictedindiagramseandf.Inthesecases,wemustconcludethatdirectsunlightrarelyilluminatedtheactors.
Theimplicationsofsouthweststagesmaybedisturbingtomoderntheatergoers.Directsunlightwouldnotonlymissthestagebutalsosometimesshinefullyinthefacesofthosesittingorstandingoppositetoitinwhatweshouldconsiderthechoicestlocationsinthehouse.Thus,AlanYoungbelievesthat"practicalmenofthetheatre"wouldnotnormallyhaveplacedthestageonthesouthwestsidewheretheactorswouldbeshadedfromthesouthwestafternoonsun.
12Youngconcludesthatsomeextraordinaryexplanationmustaccountforthis"odd"orientationoftheElizabethanstage.ButthereisnoevidencethatElizabethansconsideredthisarrangementodd,nordotheexplanationsYoungoffersseemveryplausible.Hisfirstexplanationisthat,inorientingtheirtheaters,businessmenlikeBurbage,Henslowe,andLangleyfeltadesiretoemulatemedievalchurchiconographywherethechancel(God)wassituatedtotheeastandthenave(man)tothewest.ButithardlyseemsusefultoequatethegalleriesoppositethestagewiththepresenceofGod,nordoesitmakemuchsensetoequatethestage("thelittleworldofman")withthenave:ifanythingwereanalogoustothenave,itwouldhavebeenthegalleriesandyardwheretheaudiencegatheredtowatchtheplay.
Young'ssecondexplanationsuggeststhatElizabethansplacedtheirstagesatthesouthwestsideoftheplayhouseinaccordancewith
complexVitruviantriangulations.ButthisisonepointVitruviusisnotcomplexabout.Heclearlystatesthatasouthernexposureistobeavoidedbecausethesunshiningalldayfrombehindthestagehouseontotheauditoriumseatscreatesahot,unhealthyenvironmentinthecavea.13ButLondonissofartothenorththatdirectsunlightcouldrarelyhaveshoneinthetheaterswhere,inanycase,oneimaginesalittlewarmthmighthavebeenwelcomed.InRometheproblemwastheopposite.AndbecausetheprevailingwindinLondonisfromthesouthwest(RosalindcomparesstormySilviusinAsYouLikeIt
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to"foggySouth,puffingwithwindeandraine"[F1823]),itisnotsurprisingthatstageswereputinpositionswheretheactors,properties,andcostumeswouldbemostprotectedfromtheelements.
Althoughasouthwestorientationmightbeunacceptabletous,Shakespeare'saudienceapparentlythoughtotherwise.Foronething,thelackofperspectivescenerymeantthatthestagecouldbeproperlyseenfrommanyviewpoints,notjustoppositethestage.WeknowthatthekingfacednorthatmedievalEnglishtournamentssoastoavoidsquintingintothesun,andasimilarcustomprevailsatbullfightingarenaswhereseatsinthesombraareagooddealmoreexpensivethanthoseinthesun.
14Iftherewereanychoiceseatsattheamphitheaters,theywereconsequentlyprobablynearthestage,shadedfromthesun.ThomasDekker'sTheGulsHorne-bookeimpliesasmuchwhenitplacesthelords'roomsin"theStagesSuburbs."15AndDekkerconfirmsthattheseexclusiveroomswereinshadowswhenhecomplainsthattheywere"contemptiblythrustintothereare,andmuchnewSattenistheredambdbybeingsmotheredtodeathindarknesse."Duringrecentsummervisitstothefull-scalereconstructionofthefirstGlobeinSouthwark,whichhasitsstagepositionedtothesouthwest,Iwasinterestedtoseethatspectators,astheyenteredthetheater,initiallystoodorsatdirectlyoppositethestagewherehabithadlongtaughtthemtheycouldbestseetheperformance.Theygravitatedtotheseareasevenonhotsummerafternoonswithbrightsunlightshiningdownonthem.Butastheperformancebegan,andthespectatorsturnedtheirattentiontotheactors,theysometimesfoundthemselvesuncomfortableintheseareas.Thisdiscomfortwasmostnotablewhenfranksunshineenteredtheplayhousefrombehindthestage.Withdirectsunlightshiningdownonthem,manyspectatorsfoundthemselveseithertoohotorobligedtosquintdirectlyintothesun.But
evenoncool,overcastdays,manyspectatorsinthebackoftheyardgraduallymigratedtothesidesoftheauditoriumbecause,astheylookedupatthestage,theystillfoundthemselvessquintingintoaskyconsiderablybrighterthantheshadedstage.
ThemostimportantexceptiontotheprevailingsouthwesternorientationoftheamphitheaterstageswastheRose.Bywayofaccountingforthisdeviationfromtheapparentnorm,OrrellplausiblysuggeststhattheplacementoftheRosestagetothenorthmayhavebeendeterminedbyanecessitytohaveitsmainentrancefaceMaidLanetothesouth.16Whatevertheexplanation,daylightwouldgenerallyshinedownontheinterioroftheRosefrom
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thestage-rightside,occasionallylightingthestagewithdirectsunlightintheearlyafternooninmidsummer.ButbecausetheRoseinitsfirstphasewassosmallindiameter(approximatelyseventy-twofeet),lesslightcouldhaveentereditsinteriorthatatothertheaters,whoseapparentaveragediameterwasclosetoonehundredfeet.AssumingthegalleriesabouttheRose'scircumferencewerethesameheightasthosestipulatedintheFortunecontract,thissmallerdiameterwouldalsomeanthatthegallerieswouldblockoutahigherproportionoftheavailabledaylight.Figure16,basedonC.WalterHodges'sreconstructionoftheRoseinitsfirstconfiguration,showsthatat3P.M.onthesummersolstice,onlyaboutone-halfofthestagecouldbelitbydirectsunshine.
17Ontheequinoxes,whenthesunismuchlowerinthesky,onlyafewsectionsofthetwouppergalleriesontheactors'leftcouldbelitbydirectsunshine;nofranksunshinecouldhavelitthestageatall.
Fig.16.
ConjecturalinsolationoftheRose,firstphase,at3P.M.onthesummersolstice
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StageCovers
Hodges'sreconstructionoftheRoseinitsfirstphase(1587to1592)includesnosuperstructureoverthestage.Thearchaeologistsfoundnoevidenceforpillars,whichwouldberequiredtosupportanythingbutthesmallestofroofsjuttingoutfromthetiring-house.Henslowe'sdiarymakesclearthatextensiveremodelingtookplaceattheRosein1592,however,andthearchaeologistsdulyfoundthefoundationsofasecondstage(somesevenfeetnorthoftheoriginalstage),withintheperimeterofwhichtwosubstantialbaseswerediscovered,presumablytosupportthepillarsofastagecover,muchasdepictedinthedeWittrenditionoftheSwan.
Thus,theoriginalRoseseemstohavebeenbuiltwithoutastagecover,andevidencefromotherearlyamphitheatersmayindicatethatsomeofthefirstpurpose-builtoutdoorplayhousesdidwithoutthefamiliarheavensoverthestage.ThelegalproceedingsregardingtheRedLionsaynothingofaroofoveritsstage,althoughathirty-foot-highturretwaserected"uppon"thestage,whichmayhaveservedtoshadecertainareas,evenifitsprincipalpurposewastohousehoistingparaphernaliaorprovidean"above."AlthoughBoothshowsalargehutorturretabovetheTheater,hisViewoftheCityofLondoncomesnearlytwenty-fouryearsaftertheTheaterhadbeenbuiltandmaynotrepresentitsoriginalconfiguration.Basedontherelativeabsenceofstagedirectionscallingfordescentsinplayswrittenbeforethe1590s,Wickhamsuggeststhataheavensmayhavebeenaddedsometimeafterthebuildingoftheplayhousebutbefore1599.
18Onsimilargrounds,HerbertBerryconcludesthatearlyversionsoftheBoar'sHeadmayalsohavelackedstagecovers.Inthesummerof1598,thestagewaslocatedinthesouthwesternportionofthecentralyardbutnot,apparently,directlyagainstthetiring-house,makingalargeroofdifficulttosupport.Becausenoneofthesurvivingplays
associatedwiththeBoar'sHeadcallsfordescents,Berryinfersthatthestageconstructedinthisfirstmajorrenovationmaywellhavelackedaroof.19
Butotheramphitheatersbuiltorremodeledinthe1590sgiveclearevidenceofstagecovers.AlthoughtheRosewasonlyfiveyearsoldin1592,Hensloweundertooktoaddaverylargeroofindeed.Weknowthatthisroofextendedoverandbeyondthestagebecauseadepressionline,formedbyrainwaterdrippingofftheroof,isinevidenceintheyardsomefourfeetthreeinchesinfrontofthestage.20AlaterremodelingattheBoar'sHeadin1599
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alsoincludedtheadditionofastagecover,becauseweknowthat,whenthestagetherewasmovedsouthwesttoadjointhetiring-house,a"couerungeouerthestage,"apparentlyasubstantialroof,wasadded.
21
WhennewtheaterswerebuilttheSwan(c.1595),thefirstGlobe(1599),andthefirstFortune(1600)theyweredesignedwithsubstantialstagecoversfromthestart.DeWitt'ssketchoftheSwanshowsaheavensextendingwelloutfromthehutandcoveringhalfthestage.TheFortunecontractisvagueastosize,prescribingonlya"shadoweorcoveroverthesaideStadge,"tellingusinthename"shadowe"something,perhaps,ofitspurposeandeffect.22Atanyrate,thecontracttestifiesthattheFortunewasplannedwithacoverinmindandthatitwasnotanafterthoughtasattheRoseandBoar'sHead.WemayalsoassumethattheSwan'scoverwasplannedasanoriginalpartoftheplayhouse,becausedeWittdrewitonlyayearorsoaftertheplayhouseopened.
Wehavenodirectevidenceabouttheroof-canopyatthefirstGlobe.PerhapstheGlobehadalesssubstantialcoverthanotherplayhousesbuiltaboutthistime.ThefirstGlobewasconstructedhurriedly,anditmayhavelackedsomethinginthewayofopulence,atleastincomparisontothesecondGlobe.Shakespeare'splaysfrom1599to1608displayapovertyofhoistingeffects,andAloisNaglerhaspointedoutthatbecausetheFortunecontractinstructsthebuilder,PeterStreete,tocopytheGlobe(whichStreetehadbuilttheyearbefore)indetailsnotstipulatedinthecontract,theprovisionforalargestagecoverattheFortunecouldindicatethatthefirstGlobedidnotprovideasuitablemodel.23
Ontheotherhand,Hamletmayhavepointedtoabeautifully
decoratedfirst-GlobeheavenswhenhedirectsRosencrantzandGuildenstern'sattentionto"thismostexcellentCanopietheayre;lookeyou,thisbraueorehangingfirmament,thismaiesticallroofefrettedwithgoldenfire"(Q2F2).AlthoughwehavenoinformationregardingthesizeoftheheavensatthefirstGlobe,wedoknowthatthreeyearsbeforetheLordChamberlain'smenmovedthere,JamesBurbagehadattempted,unsuccessfully,tolodgethetroupeindoorsatBlackfriars.ItmaybethatsubsequentplansfortheheavensatthetwoGlobesreflectedhisinclinationtoperforminasshadedaspaceaspossible.
Weareignorantoftheformofthestagecoveratthenextamphitheatertobesetup,theRedBull(c.1606),althoughthemanyascentsonlarge,float-
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ingpropertiesinHeywood'sRedBullplayspointtowardasubstantialheavensthere.ButwearewellinformedaboutthenexttwopublicplayhousestobebuilttheHope(161314)andthesecondGlobe(1614).TheHopecontractcallsfora"[h]eavensalloverthesaidestage,"butonewhichwasnotsupportedbypostsarisingfromthestagebecausethestageitselfwasremovabletoaccommodateanimalbaiting.
24Confusingly,though,thecontractelsewherespeaksof"turnedcullumesvpponandoverthestage";these,perhaps,wereassociatedwiththetiring-house.Iftheheavensthereactuallydidextend"allover"thestage,itmusthavebeenquitelarge,becausethestageitselfappearstohavebeenatleastassubstantialasthatattheSwan,thebasicmodelfortheHope.Onewondershowsuchabroadstructure,togetherwithitsleadrain-gutters,wasadequatelysupportedwithoutstagepillars.
TheHopewashastilyplannedjustafterfiredestroyedthemostprestigiousamphitheaterinLondon,theGlobe.TheGlobewasrebuiltbythesummerof1614,andmanypatronsleavetestimonytoitsincreasedsplendor.AlthoughitsoveralldimensionsmusthavebeennearlythesameastheoriginalGlobeandTheaterbeforethat,Hollar'ssketchshowsalargeheavenscoveringnotonlythestagebutalsohalfoftheentiretheater.InadetailedstudyofthesecondGlobe,C.WalterHodgesreconstructsagreatdouble-gabledtimberroofspanningsixty-sevenfeetacrosstheyardandreachingoverthirtyfeetfromfronttoback.25Hodgesrealizedthatsuchanarrangementwouldmakethestagedimandsuggeststhattheonion-domedturretsituatedinavalleybetweenthetwoslantingroofsofthestagecoverwasaglazedcupolaorlantern,illuminatingthestagebelow.26Thisideaisattractivetouswhoareaccustomedtobrightlylightedactors,andweknowfrom
RestorationpaintingsandrecordsthatthetwoCockpittheaterswerealsoequippedwithoverheadlanterns.ButattheCockpit-in-Court,whichwasremodeledspecificallyfortheKing'smenintheearly1630s,abluebuckramceilingwasplacedabovetheactors,andthelanternwaspositionednotdirectlyabovethestagebutabovetheauditorium.27Inthisposition,itsGlobecounterpartwasnotHodges'slanternbuttheopeningabovetheyard.
AlthoughitmayseemreasonabletousthattheKing'smenwouldhavewantedmorelightonstage,thegrowthinthesizeofthecanopyovertheyearsdemonstratesthatbrightlightwasonlyasubsidiaryconcern.Hodges'sidentificationofthecupola'spurposemaybecorrect,butitmeansthattheflooroftheheavensmustberemoved,makingthesupportofsuspension-geardifficult.Hodgesputsthewinchandwindlassinsidethetiring-houseinorder
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topermitlighttoreachthestage.Inthatcase,onewonderswhatthepurposeofthesecondGlobe'sheavenswas,because,asHosleypointsout,suchaheavenscouldneitherobstructsunshinenorprovideameansofsupportinghoistingmachinery.
28
Ifextralighthadbeentheprimaryconcern,itwouldhavebeenmorepracticalfirsttoincreasethenumberandsizeofthewindowsinthewallsofthegalleriesandthetiring-house.ButasallthepanoramicmapsoftheBanksideagree,onlyafewsmallwindowswereputinthewallsofanyplayhouse.Hodgesbelievesthesewindowswerealsotohelplightthestage,butRichardSouthernhasshownthatmostofthemlightedthedarkpassagewaybehindthemiddlegallery.29Theirsmallsize,limitednumber,and(inHollar'sview)specialplacementhalfwayuptheexteriorwallscorroborateSouthern'sdescription.Iftheirpurposehadbeenprimarilytoincreasethebrightnessonstage,manymoreandmuchlargerwindowscouldmoreeasilyhavebeenconstructedthantheelaboratecupolatowerHollarshows.TheFortunecontractdoescallfor"convenientwindowesandlights[thatis,windowpanes]glazedtothesaideTyreingehowse,"whichmightmeanthatadditionallightwasdesiredthere.30Butthereferenceisprobablytoexteriorwindowsfortheilluminationofdressingroomsandpropertystorageareasinthetiring-housebehindthestage.ThissortofutilitarianratherthanaestheticpurposeisconfirmedbyHenslowe'sleavingittothebuildertodetermineconvenientpositionsandnumbers.
ThecupolainHollar'sviewofthesecondGlobeissmallandpushedbacktowardthegalleriesandtiring-house,notdirectlyoverthecenterofthestage.Whatappeartobeglazedwindowsarealsoquitesmall,andthewholetowerissetinadeepvalleybetweenthetwosteeply
gabledroofs,aninefficientplaceforlighttoenter.StuartBakerhaspointedoutthatonewouldnormallyexpectsuchalanternontheridgeofagableroof,notinavalley.31Heargues,moreover,thatsuchavalleywouldrequiresubstantialsupportandthataturretarisingfromthestage,muchliketheoneattheRedLion,musthavebeenplaceddirectlyunderneathsuchacupola.Inthisposition,aturretwouldhaveseverelyreducedtheamountofanylightdescendingfromsuchalantern.Bakerconcludesthat,ifthecupolawasalantern,itprobablylightedonlytheroomwheresuspension-gearwashoused.
Onemotiveforerectingbroadceilingsaboveotherwiseopenplayingspacesmayhavebeenthedesiretoexploittheemblematicpossibilitiesthatsuchceilingsafforded.Asnotedinchapter3,playinghadoccurredunder
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thepaintedcanvasceilingsofbanquetinghallsformorethanahundredyearsbeforetheCockpit-in-Courtwasremodeled.Butceilingsarerarelyconstructedsolelyforthepurposeofpaintingthem.SinceHosleyhascogentlyarguedthattheindoorTudor-hallscreenprovidedasourcefortheoutdoortiring-housefacade,aslikelyaninspirationfortheoutdoorheavenswastheceilingoftheTudorhall.SuchceilingsprovidedconveniencesthattheactorswouldnotwanttodowithoutastheywereforcedoutsideCitywallsintothepublicarenas.Theyenjoyeditsprotectionfromtheweather,andtheycouldhanghoistingmachineryonitsrafters.Theenlargementoftheheavensinemulationoftheindoorceilingwasprobablypromptedmorebyadesiretoavoidrainthantoavoidsunlight,butitisdifficulttodoonewithouttheother,especiallyinplayhouseswithstagestothesouthwest.Theinevitableresultwastoprotectthestagefromalltheelements.
ArticulationofLight
Althoughthegallerywallsandstagecoveroccludedmostofthedirectraysofthesun,muchindirectlightenteredthetheatersthroughtheopeningabovetheyard.Unfortunately,preciselevelsofbrightnesscannotbecalculatedowingtothelargenumberofunknownquantitiesthesizeandshapeoftheopeningandcover,thechangingdensitiesandreflectingcapacitiesofthecloudsoverhead,thetimeofday,theseasonoftheyear,andthereflectivecapacityoftheinteriorsoftheplayhouses.Thedecorationoftheauditoriumandstageissignificant,becausetheamountoflightreflectedbackbydifferentsurfacesvarieswidelylessthan10percentforblackvelourhangings,20percentforfinishedwalnut,40percentforunfinishedoak,and70percentforwhitepaint.
32WeknowthatHenslowespentagooddealofmoneytopainttheRose,butwearenottoldthecolor.33Thereisapossibilitythatmuch
oftheauditoriumofthefirstFortunewasunpainted.Thecontractdirectsthecontractortopaintonlythelords'rooms,two-pennyrooms,andthestage;otherwise,theFortune,whichwastoresemblethe"fashion"oftheGlobe,seemstohavebeenlargelyoakframingandlyme-and-hairwalls.34AssumingthattheinteriordecorationoftheSwanresembledthatoftheFortune,roughapproximationsoftheamountoflightonstagecanbemadebyconsultingtablesofseasonalvariationindaylightatLondon,estimatingthefractionofthislightthattheplayhousepermittedinside,andadjustingforthelightabsorbedorreflectedawaybytheinterior.35
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Thus,inspring,anaverageilluminationlevelat3P.M.nearthefrontofHosley'sSwanstageworksouttosomethingontheorderof150to200footcandles,thisincontrasttoabout8,000footcandlesproducedbystrong,directsunshine;about1,000footcandlesfromabright,overcastsky;andabout50to100footcandlesincommercialstoresandfactories.Insummer,theaveragebrightnessat3P.M.wouldrisetoaround250to350footcandles.Inautumn,thelevelrecedesto150to250,andinwinterdropstounder100.Asaverages,though,thesefiguresaremisleading,becauseonanygivenday,thelightcouldvarywidely.Onadull,graywinterday,forinstance,thelevelofilluminationcouldbewellunder50footcandles.Ontheotherhand,aclear,coldwinterafternoonmightilluminatethestageto300footcandlesormore,nearlyequaltothelevelsofthebrightestdaysofsummer.
Bywayofcomparison,brightbutnotbrilliantgeneralpurposelightingonthemodernstageiscommonlyrenderedby50to100footcandles,orsomewhatmoreinverylargetheaters.But100footcandlesonthemodernstagewillappearbrighterthan100footcandlesontheSwanstagebecauseofthegreatercontrastbetweenthebrightstageanddarkenedauditoriuminourtypicalprosceniumandarenatheaters.Themodernpracticeofshieldingtheaudiencefromtheglareofthesourcesoflightandofaccustomingtheireyestosemidarknesswhilewaitingfortheplaytobeginincreasesthedisparitybetweenhouseandstage.Inthepublicplayhouses,lightwasdispersedthroughoutthetheater,andtheemphasisthatpresent-daylightingdesignersbringtothestagebymeansoflightcontrastwasunavailabletoearlyEnglishactors.Modernlightingcanvarywidelyduringthecourseofaplay,butitdifferssolittlefromperformancetoperformancethatcomputersnowregularlycontrolthelevelsofbrightness.Earlymodernactorsperformedinverydifferentcircumstances.Englishweathercanalsochangequickly,butsuch
changeswillrarelycoincidewiththeatmosphereoftheplay.Exceptforchancevariations,then,thelightremainedmoreorlessconstantthroughoutmajorperiodsofaperformance,whileitcouldchangedrasticallyfromoneperformancetoanother.AudiencessawHamletbathedinwarmlightonedayandshroudedincold,dulllightthenext.
Thevariabilityoflightintensityfromdaytodayorevenhourbyhourandtherelativeuniformityoflightwithinthetheateratanygivenmomentraisequestionsregardingtheeffectofthemiseenscèneontheoriginalperformersandtheiraudience.Undersuchunpredictablecircumstances,actorstoday
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mightboastofadaptingthemselvestounplannedchangesinthelighting,modifyingthisorthataspectoftheirperformancetocompensateforortotakeadvantageofspecificweatherandlightingconditions.Butitismuchmorelikelythatthesameimpulsethatrejectedtheneedforelaboratescenicdecorationcausedbothactorsandaudiencetotreatprevailingweatherconditionsasnonartisticfactorsintheenjoymentofdramasimilar,perhaps,tothewayweviewtheateracousticstoday.Certainlythepervasiveverbaldescriptionsofscenesandmoodsrepresentamorecompellingcontributiontotheaudience'saestheticperceptionoftheperformancethandidtheweatheroverhead.Andyet,RenaissanceLondonerscouldhardlyhaveremainedcompletelyunaffectedbyAChasteMaidinCheapsideperformedinthegloomofwinteroraKingLearinthegloryofsummer.
Theatricalproprietyislargelyconventional,ofcourse,andwehavelearnedovermanyyearstoexpecttoseeourtragediansinthedarkandourcomediansinthelight.Buttheconvention,inotherforms,isatleastasoldastheTudorera.AtthebeginningofAWarningforFairWomen,forexample,HistorydebateswithComedyandTragedyovertheirrelativemeritsandunmistakablyidentifiesComedywiththelightandTragedywiththedark.Alludingtotheblackstagehangings,Historyremarks:
LookeComedie,Imarketitnottillnow,Thestageishungwithblacke:andIperceiueTheAuditorsprepardeforTragedie.
Acknowledgingtheconvention,Comedygrumbles:
Theseornamentsbeseemenottheeandme,ThenTragedie,kilthemtodaywithsorrow,Wee'lmakethemlaughwithmyrthfullieaststomorrow.
36
Inasmuchastheactorsandtheaudienceacceptedtheconvention,itisdifficulttounderstandhowthereceptionofaplaycouldnothavebeeninfluencedbylightingconditionsthatwereanticonventional.
TheNewGlobe
Withtheconstructionofthefull-scalereplicaoftheGlobeinLondonattheInternationalShakespeareGlobeCentre,ourestimatesoflightinglevelsinHosley'sSwancanbetestedandtheoveralleffectoftheilluminationas-
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sessed.Thus,onatypicalsunnydayinearlyAugust,theleveloflightatthefrontofthenewGlobestagemeasuresover400footcandlesat1P.M.andrecedestoapproximately300footcandlesat4P.M.,200footcandlesat5P.M.,andunder100at6P.M.(GMT).Inabsoluteterms,suchfiguresrepresentmorethanadequatelevelsofillumination.Buttheeasebywhichonecanviewaparticularobjectisdependent,inpart,ontherelativebrightnessofthatobjectwhencomparedtotheleveloflighttowhichone'seyeshavegrownaccustomed,whatpsychophysiologistscallthebrightnessadaptationlevel.
37Inconsequence,spectatorsstandingoppositethestageindirectsunlightareforcedtosquintatanotherwisewell-litstagethatthereforeappearslessbrightthanitwouldiflightshiningfrombehindthetiring-housewallcouldsomehowbeeliminated.
Figure17showsthenewGlobephotographedat2P.M.undersuchconditions.Thefranksunshineofahazy-sunnyskyfloodsthegalleriesdirectlyoppositethestageandagoodportionoftheyard.38Spectatorssittingorstandinginthisdirectsunshinefindthemselvespeeringintoastage-spacethatis,inmeasurablebrightness,morethanahundredtimesdimmerthan
Fig.17.ThenewGlobe,2P.M.(GMT)inAugust
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thelighttowhichtheireyesareadjusted,andintermsofperceivedbrightness,morethantentimesdimmer.Spectatorssittingintheshadeoftheuppergalleriesortotherightorleftofthestagecanviewthestagemuchmorecomfortably,buteventheymustcomparethelevelofilluminationtheyperceiveonstagewiththelevelstheyperceiveinotherpartsoftheplayhouse.Becauseoureyesadjustthemselvesnottothelowestlevelofbrightnessweseebuttotheaverageofthebrightestareasinandaroundthecenterofourfieldofvision,itfollowsthatifspectatorsintheshadeareneverthelessinapositionwheretheycanseesubstantialsectionsofbrightskythroughtheopeningabovetheyard,they,too,perceivethestageaslessthanbrilliantlylit,atleastincontrasttotheiroverallimpressionofthetheater'sillumination.Thiscontrastinbrightness,then,makesthedarkerareasinourfieldofvisionappearslightlydarkerthantheyactuallyare.Concomitantly,visualacuityalsodecreasesinareasperceivedasdarkthatis,wenotonlyseesuchareasaslessbrightbutwealsoseedetailsinthemlessclearly.Thus,evenearlyintheafternoonwithbrightdaylightstreamingdownfromthesky,thesouthweststageofthenewGlobeappears,atleasttomanyintheaudience,asonlymoderatelywellilluminated.
Thecontrastbetweentheilluminationonstageandthatintheauditoriumismostpronounced,ofcourse,underdirectsunshine,butaconsiderablediscrepancybetweendarkandbrightareasofthenewGloberemainsevenonovercastdays.Underacloudysky,theabsolutelevelsofbrightnessarereducedproportionallyineverypartoftheplayhouse,butcleardifferencesinbrightnesspersist.Onanovercastdayat3:30P.M.inAugust,forexample,lightatthefrontofthenewGlobestagemeasuresbetween350and400footcandles,thebrightestareasintheyardoppositethestagemeasureover1,000footcandles,andgazingdirectlyupintotheskyoverheadregisterssomethingontheorderof3,000footcandles(seefig.18).Theratio
betweenthelightonstageandthelightoppositethestagethusfallsfromonetotenonasunnydaytoonetothreeonanovercastday.Thischangeissubstantial,butasperceivedbrightnessisafunctionofthecuberootofmeasurablebrightness,thecontrastbetweenthelightingonstageandthatintheyardonanovercastdaywouldbeperceivedasonlyone-halfthecontrastpresentonasunnyday.Inshort,theaudiencewouldcontinuetoexperiencemuchoftheeffectofbrightnesscontrastsproducedbyfranksunshine.
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Fig.18.ThenewGlobe,3:30P.M.inAugust
Thiseffectofperceivingthestageasslightlydimmerthanitisinactualityisparticularlytrueforaudiencemembersstandingintheyardorsittinginthelowergalleries,becausetheyareobligedtolookuptoseethefacesoftheactorsand,hence,finditmoredifficultnottogazealsointothebrightskyabovetheplayhouse.Althoughwetendtothinkthatthegroundlingsoccupiedanearlyidealvantagepointfromwhichtoviewthestageaction(apartfromtheinconvenienceofhavingtostand),thesevereangleatwhichtheywereobligedtolookupattheactorsinevitablycausedthemtoadjusttheirvisiontoahigherleveloflightthanthosespectatorsinthehighestgalleriesorgalleriesclosetothestage.ThenewGlobeconfirmsthatthemorecomfortableandefficientpositionsforspectatorstoseetheactorsweretotherearofthosegalleriesrelativelyclosetothestage,asshowninfigure19.Herespectatorscaneasilyadjusttheireyestothelightonstagewithoutthedangerofglancingupatthebrightskyoverhead,becausethefloorsofthegalleriesabovethespectatorsactasawnings.Evenmoreeffectivevantagepointsare
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Fig.19.ThenewGlobe,4P.M.inAugust
attherearofthestageitselforinthewindowsofthetiring-house,wheretheaudiencesitsinvirtuallyinthesamelightastheactors.Itisnotsurprising,therefore,thatthelords'roomswerefoundinsuchlocations.Inadditiontogoodacoustics,proximitytotheactors,andanopportunityforsumptuarydisplay,seatsnearorevenonthestageprovidedthosewhocouldaffordthemthemostadvantageouslightingenvironmentsinwhichtoviewtheplay.
Butifspectatorsavoidedlookingupintothelight,theoppositewastrueoftheactors.Becausetheprincipalsourceoflight(theopeningabovetheyard)illuminatedthemfromasteepangle,actorswereobligedtoholdtheirheadshightobewelllit.Thisisobviouslythecaseiftheactorswantedtobeseen(andheard)byspectatorsintheuppergalleriesaroundtheauditorium,butitevenholdstrueiftheactorswantedtomakeanimpressiononthegroundlings,becauseiftheactorslettheirheadsdroop,shadowswouldobscuretheirfaces.Whereasmodernlightingdesignersregularlylightactorswithinstrumentsmountedinpositionsforty-fivedegreesabovethestage,
39theaverageangleoftheprincipalilluminationatthenewGlobeisroughly
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seventydegrees.Withtheplayhousewallsinterceptinglightfromlowerangles,theactorsareeffectivelylitfromabove.
TheamountoflightonvariouspartsofthenewGlobestagefallsintoaregularpatternoflightconcentrationwithminor,butclear,changesintheamountoflightasonemovesaboutthestage.Ingeneral,thestageisbrightestatitsfrontandgrowsdarkertowardthetiring-housewall.Whetherthedayiscloudyorsunny,thetimeearlyafternoonorneardusk,thecenterofthefootofthestagealwaysremainsthebrightestlocation.Theleftandrightfrontcornersareconsistently90percentasbrightasdownstagecenter,dead-centerstage60percentasbright,theleftandrightrearcorners50percent,andtherear-centeragainstthetiring-housewallonly35percentasbrightasdownstagecenter.Thesedifferencesinabsolutemeasuresoflightseemlarge,butatthelevelsweareconsidering(100to400footcandles),thehumaneyeperceivesbrightnesslogarithmicallyand,hence,construessuchdisparatelevelsofbrightnessasmoreequaltoeachotherthantheyareinactuality.Putanotherway,thelightonanobjectmustbeincreasedeightfoldfortheeyetoperceivethatitistwiceasbright.Althoughthefrontofthestageis,onaverage,nearlythreetimesasbrightastherear,theaudienceperceivesactorsatthefrontofthestageasonly1.4timesbrighter.Theeyecandiscernthisdifference,butnumerousresearcheshaveestablishedthatilluminationmustbedoubledtoproducesignificantimprovementsinseeing.
40
Althoughtheeyemakespoorjudgmentsabouttheabsolutequantityoflight,itneverthelesscanmakefairlyaccuratedistinctionsbetweenwhatitseesas''more"and"less"light.Whiletheperceiveddifferencebetweenthelightatthefrontandthebackofthestageissubtle,itisnonethelessdiscernible,asitwastoJohannesdeWitt,whoaccurately
indicatedthattherearoftheSwanstagewasmarginallydarkerthanthefrontbythecrosshatchingthere.KnowingthattheaudiencesattheSwanandotheramphitheaterssurroundedtheplayers,severaltheaterhistorianshavebeenpuzzledastowhytheactorsindeWitt'sviewhavearrayedthemselvesmoreorlessinastraightlinenearthefrontofthestage,asthoughtheywerenineteenth-centuryactorshuddledupnearthefootlightsofaprosceniumstage.Possibleexplanationsincludeadesiretobenearthelargestnumberofspectators,acousticalconsiderations,andthelike,butIwouldnotbesurprisedifearlymodernEnglishplayerswerenotasproneto"findthelight"ascontemporaryactorsare.
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EvenaftersunsetatthenewGlobe,visibilityremainssurprisinglyadequate,becausetheeyegraduallygrowsaccustomedtothedecreasingamountoflight.Detailsofmovementandfacialexpressionbecomelessclearbutinsomewaysarecompensatedforbythepleasant,butnolongerglaring,glowofthesettingsunaboveandtothewestoftheheavens.Oncertaindays,itisasthoughagoldenhalosurmountsthestageandheavens.Atthesametime,thelossofvisualacuitytendstoblurtheactiononstageandinvitesthespectatortopaycloserattentiontothelanguage.SittinginthenewGlobenow,onecanimaginativelyreconstructThomasPlatter'sresponsetotheconclusionofJuliusCaesarthathewitnessedatthenewlyopenedGlobeon21September1599.Forwhenduskcreptovertheplayhousearound5:30P.M.thatday,Platterheardastirringapostrophetothesettingsun:
OsettingSunne:AsinthyredRayesthoudoestsinketonight;SoinhisredbloodCassiusdayisset.TheSunneofRomeisset.Ourdayisgone.(F254549)
Platterseemsnottohaveunderstoodthenativetongue,buthemaywellhaveseenhowthis"lightingeffect"participatedinthesceneasactivelyasanycostumeorstageproperty.
LightandStaging
Ileaveittootherstodetermineifdramatistswrotewithanopen-airlightingsysteminmind.Wemaynote,however,thatonlycertainmodesofstagingwillbenefitfromsuchlightingconditions.Thelackofstrongcontrastsinbrightnessmeantthattheaudience'sattentioncouldnotbedirectedtospecificactorsorpropertiesbymeansofconvenientlyplacedpoolsoflightorbycolordifferences.TheatricalemphasiswasaccomplishedbywhatwetaketobethemoreconventionalizedtechniquesofElizabethandramaturgysoliloquies,ceremonialentrances,poeticsetspeeches,andthelike.Therelative
uniformityofthelightnecessitated,inpart,theuseofmoreexplicitsignalsandpointersonstagethanwecareforinnarrativedrama.ButconsideranadvantageofearlyEnglishlightingsystems.Althoughthe"heightenedrealism"ofthemodernlightingdesignercanmoresubtlyemphasizeanddeemphasizeactors,thatrealism,onceestablished,willnot
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allowforthemomentthepoetwantstheaudiencetoconcentratewhollyonhiswords.RhetoricaldisplayslikeGertrude'sonOphelia'sdeathorEnobarbus'sonCleopatra'sbargewereneitherhighlightedbyanti-illusionisticspotlightsnormotivatedbyrealisticlighting.Theyhadtospotlightandjustifythemselvesinaluminaryatmospheremorecloselyresemblingmodernlecturehallsthanmoderntheaters.Byneveremployingoursortofillusionintheirlighting,Elizabethandramatistswerefreetodirecttheaudience'sattentiontosometellingstagebusinessortocatchtheirimaginationsbythelanguage.
ThissortofoutdoorstagelightingmustalsobedistinguishedfromtheuniformstageandauditoriumilluminationadvocatedbysuchmoderntheaterartistsasAntoninArtaud,BertoltBrecht,andJerzyGrotowski.Theyyearnforareturntotheactiverapportbetweenspectatorsandactorsthatanaudience,sittingsubmissivelyinthedark,canneverestablish.
41Theirexperimentshavehadsomesuccess,butwemustnotconfusetheiraimswithShakespeare's.LightshiningonthemodernaudienceisareactionagainstVictorianillusionandproducesitseffectinpartbydislodgingthespectators'realisticexpectations.ToShakespeare'spublic,therewasnothingjarringaboutbeingasmuchinthelightastheactorsand,hence,nodislocationofnormalsensibilitiesandnoshockingreminderoftheartificesofthetheater.ThetemptationistoviewShakespeare'slackofillusionasequivalenttotheconsciousanti-illusionismofmuchmodernstagecraft.Tous,theconventionthatpermitsnighttimescenesonadaylitstagemaybea"perversetourdeforce"asJ.L.Styanputsit.42Butitisdoubtfulthatanaudienceunfamiliarwithdimmersandrheostatswouldhavebeensodeeplyimpressedbyaconventionthat,afterall,wentbacktotheCorpusChristiplaysandbeyond.Ourresponsetotheconvention,howeveraccurate,tendstobetooconscious.
Nevertheless,someplaysappeartodemandtheconventioninordertoexplorethefullrepercussionsoftheiraction.CriticshavelongspottedtheironywhentheblindGloucesterjumps,hethinks,offthecliffsatDoverbutinrealitymerelyfallstothestageflooringlareoftheday.Herethelightonstagecommentsunmercifullyonphysiologicaldarkness,butasimilarironyoftenattachestopretendednocturnaldarkness.WhattoCassioandRoderigoisdarkconfusion,forexample,iscleartouswhocanseeIagofurtivelywoundCassiointheirfight.Atcourt,elaboratelightingeffectsinthemasquesemblematized,ifanything,thecontrol,orputativecontrol,ofthekingover
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everyaspectofhisrealm.Attheoutdoortheaters,theactorsmayhavebeenpowerlesstocontroltheirlightbutcouldstillemployittoconveymeaning.
Thereis,forexample,asenseinwhichthenaturalillumination,becauseitwasungovernable,couldoccasionallycomplementoneoftheage'smorepersistentnotionsthatheavencould,butdoesnot,respondtoman'stragedy.WhenFaustusaskstheever-movingspherestostandstill,orwhenBosolaremindstheDuchessofMalfithatthestarsshinestill,wemustrecallthatthesunwascontinuingtotravelacrossthesky,refusingtorespondtothepatheticfallacy.InTheAtheist'sTragedy,suchreferencestouncontrollable,naturallightareexplicitandgofartowarddefiningthecompetingviewsaboutnatureintheplay.WhenD'Amvillecommitsmurder,theskydraws"thecurtainesofthecloudsbetweenethoselightsandmeaboutthisbedofearth";butwhenhebeginstofeelthehorrorofhissin,"thatBawd,theskie,there"exposeshiscrimeand''meetesmei'thefacewithallherlightcorruptedeyes."
43Itisasthoughman'sinabilitytoregulatehisworldwasoccasionallyreflectedintheactors'inabilitytoregulatetheirstagelight.
Incomedy,wearelessconcernedwiththepowersofnatureandtheworkingsoffatethanwithsocialrelationshipsandpracticalexperience.Sometimesa"oneday"conventionisadopted,franklyacceptingthelimitsoflightingvariationpossibleintheafternoonatanoutdoortheater.Butoften,imaginarydarknessisemployedtoconfusethecharactersonstage.WhiletheloversofAMidsummerNight'sDreammeanderthroughthewoods,sunlightsortsouttheircomplicatedrelationshipsforus.Dissemblingonstagecanbesimilarlyrevealed.InWilliamHaughton'sEnglishmenforMyMoney,
performedattheRosein1598,aslyfoolpretendstoofferassistancetotwoforeignersgropingtheirwaythroughthedarkstreetsofLondon.Instead,heleadsbothofthemstraightintotwopoles(perhapsthecolumnssupportingtheheavens).44Thesimplemindedjokeisfoundedonourclearlyseeingthemheadforandthenbumpintotheseobstructions.Werethedarknessconvincinglyrealized,thesceneispointless.In1HenryIV,itissupposedlydarkduringtheGad'sHillrobberyscene(2.2),buttheaudiencemustalsobeabletoseetheactionclearlybecauseHalandPoinshavealreadymadeapointofthenecessityofdifferentiatingandrecognizingthosewhoareandarenotcladinbuckram.
Toaccommodatethemselvestotheunchangeablelight,playwrightsmayhaveadopteda"daylightconvention,"suchasStyanposits,inwhichtheneu-
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trallightofthesuncomplementedtheunlocalized,wide-rangingdrama.ToStyan,theuniformityofthesunlightfreedtheimaginationofthespectatorandoffered"achallengetothepoettoconjurespecialillusions."
45Thischallengewassometimesansweredbypropertiesassociatedwithnightorbyotherspecialeffects,Styanpointsout,butmoreoftenbyasaturationofreferencescalculatedtoevokeasenseofdarkness.Certainlythisisoftenthecase,althoughStyan'sattributionoftheeffecttodaylightandoutdoorproductionmaybetoonarrow,inasmuchasthelightindoorswasnearlyasuncontrollableandevenmoreuniformthanthelightoutdoors;andothersunlitdramaGreektragedy,forinstanceisoftenwelllocalizedandseldomwide-ranging.Theinterchangeabilityofhallandamphitheaterrepertoriescouldhardlyhavealloweddependenceonaconventionthatwasinaccessiblehalfthetime.
Evenso,thesummoningupofpretendeddarknessremainsaconventionsimplybecauseitwassofamiliarandreadilyaccepted.Butwemusttakecaretoevaluatetheconventiononitsowntermsandnotonourown.Iamskepticalthatanytourdeforcecanrightlybethoughtaconventioninthetraditionalsense.Whereastheterm"convention"oncemeantthosetheatricalpracticessanctionedbylonguseandagreementbetweenactorsandaudiences,itnowtendstomeanthoseanti-illusionisticpracticesasserted,sometimesruthlessly,byeageractorsonabewilderedaudience.Forexample,theChorus'sapologiesfornonrealisticstaginginHenryVareoftencitedtodemonstrateShakespeare'srelianceontheatricalconvention.Yet,atheaterthoroughlyimbuedwithwhatwenowcallthepresentationalstylehardlyneedstoinvitethespectators'indulgencewhennightmustbeevokedbyapleato
entertaineconiectureofatime,WhencreepingMurmureandtheporingDarkeFillsthewideVesselloftheVniuerse.(F17902)
Hereandelsewhere,theChorusassuagesrealistic,notconventionalistic,expectationsoftheaudience.Whetherornotrealisticdarknesswaseverartificiallyachieved,itredoundedtotheaudience'senjoymenttobelievethattheywerewitnessinganaturalrepresentationoflifeonstage.46TheChorus'sapologiaforpretendeddarknessinHenryVpredatedthebeginningofJones'sillusionsbyahalf-dozenyearsorso,butithardlyrepresentsapatronizingin-
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vitationtochildlikespectatorstoimaginethemselvesinaworldwherenaturallawsdonotadhere.SirPhilipSidney'sDefenseofPoesy(1595)andJonson'sprologuetoEveryManinhisHumour(1598)hadalreadymadescathingfunofsuchnaivete.
Butalthoughdaylightreinforcedsometheatricaltropes,wemustnotassumethatplaywrightsandactorsregularlyreliedonsunlightoropen-airproductionfortheproperpresentationoftheirdramas.Themoreprosperousactingcompaniesperformedbothindoorsandoutdoors,andmostoftheplaysIhavementionedinconnectionwithoutdoorilluminationOthello,Macbeth,AMidsummerNight'sDream,andTheDuchessofMalfi,amongthemarealsoknowntohavebeenperformedindoorsatprivateplayhousesoratcourt.Onemightsupposethatindoorlightingproducedquiteadifferenteffect,yetitmustberealizedthatthemixtureofwindowlightandcandlelightinthepermanenthallplayhouseswasnearlyasdifficulttocontrolasthelightoutdoors.Indeed,theevidencewehaveregardingthestructuresoftheprivateplayhousessuggeststhattheywerewellprovidedwithwindowsadmittingsubstantialamountsofnaturallight.
Althoughsomecontemporarytheaterpractitionershaveembracedauniformilluminationoftheirstagesandauditoriumsasameansoffosteringaudienceparticipation,theinterplaybetweenactorsandspectatorsintheearlymodernEnglishtheaterisdifficulttoassess,becauseEnglishdramahadneverusedanyotherlightingsystem.Whateveronecanconcludeaboutcurrentpractice,thecontributionofuniformlightingtosuchinteractionisprobablyofsecondaryimportancewhencomparedtothepersonalityofthepublictobeginwithandthemannerinwhichitisinvitedtoparticipate.Werelightchieflyresponsibleforthenatureoftheatricalcommunication,wecouldexpectthesamesortofinterplaybetweenfifth-century-B.C.actorsandspectatorsaswefindintheeighteenthcentury.ForalthoughtheItalianscenographerLeonediSomihadadvocated
darkeningtheauditoriumasearlyasthe1560s,houselightsacrossEuroperemainedlitandtheaterlightevenlydistributeduntiltheintroductionofgasilluminationinthemid-nineteenthcentury.
47Indeed,somelightbrightenedthelargerauditoriumsofLondonwellintothenineteenthcentury.Theindignationofold-timersatCoventGardenwhenitwasproposedtodarkentheauditoriumforWagner'sRinginthe1890sgivesusanideahowrecentthepracticeis.
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ArtificialLight
Thepossibilitythatartificiallightsupplementedfailingnaturallighthasoccurredtoseveralresearchersconcernedaboutlateperformancetimesandearlywintersunsets.E.K.Chambersfoundit"doubtfulwhether,inthedepthofwinter,daylightcouldhaveservedquitetotheend"oftheplays.
48Buttheevidenceforartificiallightintheamphitheatersisslim,restinglargelyonthedefinitionoffalotinRandleCotgrave'sFrench-EnglishDictionarie(London,1611):"ACressetlight(suchastheyvseinPlayhouses)madeofropeswreathed,pitched,andputintosmallandope[n]cagesofyron."AssumingCotgraveisreferringtoEnglishpractice,theplayhouseshementionsin1611maybeeitheramphitheatersorhalls.Thesmokeofsuchcrudeinstrumentsmightwelleliminatetheiruseindoors,althoughcressetscouldstillbeemployedtheretoilluminateentrancewaysforspectators.TheonlystagedirectioncallingforcressetsthatIcanfindcomesfromJonson'soutdoorpageantKing'sEntertainmentinPassingtohisCoronation(London,1604),wherealadyholds"inheronehandalampe,orcresset.''49ButhereJonsonwassurelyfollowingliteraryratherthanpracticalconcerns:cressetswereheavymetaldevicesrequiringconstantreplenishmentofitsmessyfuel.Iftheladydidholdacressetinonehand(theotherhandrangabell),thenwemaybesureitwasaminiatureoneandprobablynotlit.AtTrinityCollege,Cambridge,theseniorbursar'saccountsfor154748reveallargepaymentsforcressetmaterials(pitchandbasketfrales)inconnectionwith"[e]xpensaecircatheatru[m]etludos,"50butweknowthatuniversityplayswereoftenassociatedwithoutdoorfestivities,processions,andthelikeforwhichcressetswouldhavebeenmoreappropriatethanforsmallindoorhalls,whichservedasthepredominantplayingspacesatCambridge.
ThereareseveralContinentalillustrationsofcressetslightingstagessetupintheopenair.Asixteenth-centuryFrenchpaintingplacestwoburningcressetsonlongpolestoeithersideofasimpleplatformstage(seefig.20).Thepaintingisfairlycrude,butitsdepictionofheavyclothingandadaytimeperformancemayshowthatcressetsprovidedwarmthaswellaslight.ConsideringthatCotgravewastranslatingtheFrenchwordfalot,hemay,infact,havehadsuchFrenchutensilsinmind.
Symmetricallyplacedcressetstotherightandleftofgatesandstagesbuiltforroyalentrieswerealsocommoninthesixteenthandseventeenthcen-
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Fig.20.Outdoorstagewithcressets,sixteenthcentury.
Bibliothèquemunicipale,Cambrai.
Fig.21.GillisCoignet'sTheDrawingofLotsforBedlam,1592.
AmsterdamsHistorischMuseum.
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Fig.22.AtableauvivantontheDaminAmsterdam,commemorating
thebeginningoftheTwelveYearsTruce.EngravingbyJ.C.VisscherafterVerschuring,1609.GraphischeSammlungAlbertina,Vienna.
turies,whethertheentriestookplacebydayornight.EspeciallyinFlanders,whereasuccessionofHapsburgrulerswerewelcomedinelaborateblijdeinkomsten,cressetsroutinelystoodtoeithersideofceremonialgatesandplatformsorweremountedtotherightandleftatopornatefacades.
51Duringthesameperiod,cressetssometimeslitthedialoguesandtableauxvivantsperformedonstagesbuiltinthepublicsquaresofAmsterdambyvariouschambersofrhetoric(rederijkkamers).Figure21showsa1592benefitperformanceatnightinsuchasquarelitbytwoburningcressetstoeithersideofthestage.AsimilarengravingbyJ.C.VisscherofanighttimetableauvivantcommemoratingthebeginningoftheTwelveYearsTruce(1609)showsastagelitbytwosmokingcressetsofftoeithersideofapicture-framestageandtwocressetstotherightandleftofthespectatorsassembledintheDam
(seefig.22).
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AlthoughsomeoftherederijkerfacadesbeararoughresemblancetothearchitecturalfeaturesoftheSwantiring-house,therederijkerpresentationswereratherdifferentfromEnglishdrama,insofarastheirstagesusuallyfeaturedcompartmentsattherearofthestageinwhichstaticdialogueswererecited,largepaintingswererevealed,orlivingtableauxinimitationofpaintingsweredisplayed,requiringthattheybeviewedfromavantagepointclosertothecenterlinethanwastrueintheLondonamphitheaters.
52Hence,theplacementofcressetsofftoeithersideofthestageensuredthatthesightlinesofthespectatorsviewingthesepicturesandsceneswouldnotbeobstructedbyburningflames.
TheatricalreferencestotheuseofcressetsundertheTudorsandStuartsarerare.W.J.Lawrencementionsanaccountofaplayproducedforanobleman'sweddingaround1550,whereaftersupper,"IubetheSane,aplaye,withtorchlyghtsandcressetlyghts,lxcressetsandcoftorches,andamaske,andabankett"werepresented.53Sixtycressetsandahundredtorcheswouldlightupthedarkestnight,butitisdoubtfultheywereallusedfortheplay,andthereisnoreasontosuspectthisspecialfestivaloccasionestablishedaprecedentfortheprofessionaltheatersinLondon.InamemorandumbookfoundamongEdwardAlleyn'spapers,thereisanentryofticketreceiptsfromaround1614or1615,probablyinHenslowe'shand,thatrecordseitherapaymentorreceiptofthreepencefor"creset"undertheheading"14daythenoblegrandchild."54GivenHenslowe'sidiosyncraticspelling,Iamnotsurethatthisisareferencetoburningcressets;butifitis,threepenceisbarelyenoughmoneytobuythefuelforanhour'sburningofoneaverage-sizedcresset.
TheonlyunmistakableevidenceforcressetsataprofessionalEnglishplayhousewasfoundbyC.J.Sissonandlateridentifiedandanalyzed
byHerbertBerryinhisexhaustiveresearchontheBoar'sHead.In1603,JohnMago,thebuilderoftheplayhouse,testifiedregardinghisunderstandingoftherunningcostsofthetheater,including"rushesandcressettlightsinWynterwchsomeweekscametotenortwelveshillingsaweeke."55BerryconcludesthatMago'spairingofcressetswithrushesimpliesthatthecressetsilluminatedthestage,whererushesweresometimesstrewn.Thismaybetrue,butrusheswerealsoafueltypicallyburnedincressetsorbythemselvesinrush-holders.Mago'spairingofrushesandcressetsmorelikelysignifiesonlythattheywerepurchasedfromthesamesource;hence,theirjuxtapositioncannotprovethat
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cressetswereplacednearthestage.Thatcertainweeksinthewinterrequiredmorecressetlightsthanotherssuggeststhatonepurposeforthemmayhavebeenforheat,astheaveragewintertemperatureinLondonvariesconsiderablymorefromweektoweekthantheaverageamountofwinterdaylight.Ontheotherhand,publicestablishmentslikeinnsandtavernssometimeshadcressetlightsburningneartheirdoorssothattorchesfortravelerscouldbelit,
56anditispossiblethatplayhousecressetsalsoservedsuchfunctionsforspectatorsapartfromorinadditiontolightingthestageorauditorium.Around1595,SirJohnHarringtontellsofanobleladyclimbingup"darkandprivatstaires"toanunidentifiedplayhousegallerywhentwothievesgrabherandaccidentallyputoutherpage'storch;inthestory,thepagerunsawayandreturnsbeforemuchharmisdonewith"morestoreoflight,"whereuponthethievesflee.57Becausethepagereappearssoquickly,therewaslikelyatorchorcressetneartherearentranceoftheplayhouse.
EvenifthefunctionofthecressetsMagomentionswastolightthestage,theycannothaveproducedagreateffect.Afewyearslater,SalisburyCourtspentasmuchastenshillingstosupplyonlyafewdozencandlesforoneperformance,58whereasMagosaysthattheBoar'sHeadspentthatmuchoralittlemoreonbothcressetsandrushesduringaparticularlyheavywinterweek.Whatismore,thissmallamountoffuelwouldpresumablyhavetoserviceamuchlargerstagethanatSalisburyCourt.IfcressetmaterialswereemployedinilluminatingtheBoar'sHeadstage,thedisparityintheamountsofmoneyspentonfuelatthetwoplayhousesdoesnotspeakofbrilliantresults.WhileitistruethatartificiallightsmayhavebeenemployedonlytowardtheendofwinterplaysattheBoar'sHead,thesameisalsotrueofSalisburyCourt.IfSalisburyCourtlightedcandlesforthe
durationofthewholeperformance(asappearstobethecase),thenwecannotassumethattheBoar'sHeaddidnotdolikewise.
KeithBrownhasrevisitedtheissueofoutdoorartificiallightsandarguesforcefullythatshowmenliketheKing'smenmusthaveknownthetheatricalvalueofbrightlightandthattheychosetopositiontheirstageintheshadowsofthesouthwestquadrantandcoveritwithalargestagecoverinordertoemphasizethesumptuousnessoftheartificiallightthattheycouldthenintroduce.Heproposesthat,insuchreducednaturallight,theKing'smenmadesubstantialuseofpropertylightstoproducemotivationalandmoodlighting,andBrownconcludesthatourhearingsolittleaboutcressetsdoes
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notmeanthattheywerenotemployed,becausetheneedforthem,atleasttowardsunset,issoobvious.
59
Giventhelackofclearevidence,itisimpossibletosaywithassurancethatartificiallightswereorwerenotusedattheendsofamphitheaterperformances.Still,wemustconsidertheeffectthattheuseofcressetsorotherlargeutensilswouldproduce.Toalleviateaproblemoflowlightlevels,weimmediatelythinkofresortingtostronglightsources.ButthelightinginstrumentsatourdisposalareverydifferentfromthoseaccessibletoTudorandStuartactingcompanies.Thesourcesofbrilliantlightavailabletouscanbeconcentrated,easilyshielded,and,hence,allbutignoredbyspectators.Thefilamentsofmodernlightbulbsaresosmall,infact,thatevenwithoutshieldingoureyesfromtheirglarewecanseeobjectsplacedonlyafewdegreesawayfromthefilament(whatlightingengineerscalltheglareangle).Fortwolightsourcesofequalstrengthbutdifferentsize,however,glareincreasesasthesizeofthesourceincreases.60Becauseearlylightingutensilsstrongenoughtoproducereadilyapparentrisesintheleveloflightwereinevitablyquitelarge,itfollowsthatspectatorswouldfinditdifficultnottobeblindedbytheminoveralldimlightunlessstepsweretakentoreduceglare.
Twopossiblesolutionstosuchglarepresentthemselves:cressetsandtorchescouldhavebeenshieldedfromtheeyesoftheaudiencebymeansofshuttersormetalcoverings,orthelightscouldhavebeenpositionedsuchthattheywerenotnearthelineofsightoftheaudience.BecausenoneofthecressetspreservedinthecollectionoftheVictoriaandAlbertMuseumhasashield,andbecauseofthecircularconfigurationoftheamphitheaterauditoriums,itisdifficulttoimagineashadeorshutterthatcouldeliminateglareformuchmore
thanhalftheaudience.Asweshallseeinourconsiderationofthestagelightingatcourt,InigoJoneslearnedthetrickofshieldingtheaudiencefromthesourcesofgeneralvisibilitylightonlyonhistriptoItalyin1615whenhesawwhatcouldbedonewhentheaudiencesatononlyonesideofthestage.
Therewerealsoonlyafewlocationsinwhichcressetscouldbeplacedsothattheywouldnotglareintotheeyesorobstructtheviewoflargesegmentsoftheaudience.IntheContinentalexampleswehaveconsidered,cressetswereplacedbeyondthestagefloortotheextremerightandleftofactorsfacinganaudiencesittingorstandingbeforethem.Butinatheaterthatsurroundedtheactorswiththeaudience,cressetsplacedimmediatelyto
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eithersideofthestagewouldhaveblindedorobstructedtheviewofspectatorssittingnearthem.Alternatively,cressetscouldhavebeenplacedonpolesmountedonthetiring-housefacade,butthentheactorswouldfallintosilhouettewhiletheaudiencesittingorstandingnearthecenterlinewouldbeforcedtolookdirectlyintothenakedflames.Thebestsolutionwouldhavebeentoadoptapracticesimilartothemodernplacementofspotlightshighabovetheauditoriumandstage.Butascressetsneedtobecarefullymindedandtheirfuelregularlyreplenished(figure20showsaboydoingjustthat),theywouldstillhavetobeplacedinlocationswheretheywereeasilyaccessible.Thecolumnsofthetopmostgalleriesorthecolumnssupportingtheheavensabovethestagecouldhavebeenconstructedtosupportheavycressets,andfacilitiesforthenecessaryattendantstoreachthemcouldhavebeenprovided,but,asGurrpointsout,thereisnomentionofsuchamenitiesinanyoftheextantcontracts.
Apartfromthesafetyproblemsinvolvedinpositioningconflagrationshighabovethestageoryard,theplacementofcressetsfarfromthelinesofsightofamajorityofthespectatorswouldnecessarilymovethelightsourcessofarfromtheactorsthattheywouldaddlittleadditionalilluminationonstage.Ifweassumethatacresset(producing,say,tenfootcandlesofillumination)wasplacedateitherendoftheGlobestage,eachcressetwouldproduceonlyapproximately0.025ofafootcandleatthecenterofthestage.Thehumaneyecanperceivethissmallamountoflight,butonlyifithasbecomeaccustomedtorelativedarknessoveraperiodoftimeintheabsenceofglare.Thelightemanatingfromsuchcressetscouldimprovethevisibilityofactorsstandingcenterstageonlyifallotherilluminationontheplayerswasequaltoorlessthanthesameorderofmagnitudeasthelightfromthecressets;inotherwords,verydimindeed.
ButonthesummerdaysonwhichItookreadings,thenaturallighton
thenewGlobestageatsunsetrangedfrom0.8to2.5footcandles,which,althoughdiminabsoluteterms,istoobrightfortheaveragespectatortonoticethelightemanatingfromlargeartificialsourceslocatedatthetwosidesofthestagesometwentyfeetaway.Foraspectatoraccustomedtotheselevelsofambientnaturallighttodiscernariseinvisibility,theactorwouldhavetomovewithinsixorsevenfeetofoneofthecressets.
61Thisproximitycouldbeaccomplishedbymountingthecressetsonthestagepillarsclosertothecenterofthestage;butinsuchpositionsdirectlyabovetheplayers,thecres-
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setbasketsthemselveswouldtendtoblockoutilluminationdirecteddownwardontheplayersandexacerbatetheproblemofglare.Asisfrequentlythecaseinearlylightingsystems,effortstoreduceglareandincreasevisibilityworkedatcross-purposes.
Inestimatingtheeffectofartificiallightintheamphitheaters,theimportanceofbrightnessadaptationlevelsiscrucial.Thehumaneyeisextraordinarilysensitive,abletoseetolerablyeveninmoonlight,butonlyifoureyeshavebecomeacclimatizedtodecreasinglightoveraperiodoftime.Althoughthecolor-sensitiveconesadaptthemselvestolowlightfairlyquickly,reachingfulladaptationwithintenminutes,themoreimportantrods,whichdeterminevisualacuity,adjustthemselvesmoreslowlytothedark,approachinggoodsensitivityonlyafterhalfanhourandnotreachingmaximumsensitivityuntilnearlyanhourispassedinthedark.
62Anaudiencewatchingaplaylitbynaturallightwillgraduallygrowaccustomedtothedecreasinglightandmayeasilyfindviewingcomfortablewellpastsunset.Althoughindividualperceptionswillalwaysdiffer,thewaningdaylightatthenewGlobeisentirelyadequateformostmodernspectatorshalfanhourpastsunset,anditseemsreasonabletoassumethatearlymodernspectatorswouldfindsuchnaturallightequallyorevenmoresufficient,unaccustomedastheyweretomodernincandescentlighting.InJanuary1569,infact,theCitybannedplays"afterthehowreofvoftheClocke,"whichwasanhourpastsunset.63AlthoughthelevelofilluminationproducedbynaturallightonthenewGlobestageahalfhourpastsunsetmayseemdimtous,intermsofmeasurableilluminationitwas,infact,approximatelythesameamountoflightproducedbythecandlesburningabovethehallstageslikethatatSalisburyCourt.
Havingadjustedtheireyestotwilight,spectatorswouldfindthatthe
lightingoflargecressetstowardtheendofawinterplaywouldcausethemtolosetheiraccommodationtodimlightandrequirealengthyperiodofreorientationastheyreturnedtheirfocusontothestage.Thus,iftheamphitheatersdidregularlylightcressets,theyprobablydidsonotasduskapproachedbutfromthebeginningoftheplay.Thiswastheprocedureattheindoortheaterswherecandleswerelitastheplaywasabouttobegin.Butapartfromthedistractionofanattendantclimbinguptolightthecressetsfollowedbytheirsuddenignition,thelightingofartificiallightsinthefinalminutesoftheplay
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whennaturallightwaswaningwouldhaveabruptlyraisedthebrightnessadaptationlevel,destroyingthespectators'acclimatizationtolowlevelsoflightandmakingactorsandproperties,exceptthoseimmediatelybesideacresset,appeardimmerthanbeforethecressetswerelit.
Modernlightingdesignersmakeconcerteduseofthisprinciple.Forexample,ifadirectordoesnotwanttheactionsofstagehandsvisibleduringablackout,acompetentlightingdesignerwillmakesurethattheblackoutwasimmediatelyprecededbybrightlight.UnlessmoneyisoflittleconcernasonBroadwayorintheWestEndthebestwaytoensureconsistentlyhighvisibilityonthemodernstageistoemployaslowabrightnessadaptationlevelasispractical.Infact,stronglights,becausetheyraisethebrightnessadaptationlevelprecipitously,alsoraisethelevelofilluminationbelowwhicheverythingseemsblack;thatis,theyraisethethresholdatwhichwecanseeanythingatall.
Thisprincipleappliesasmuchtotheauditoriumastothestageitself.Cressetsnearthestagewould,ineffect,maketherecessesofthegalleriesandpassagewaysfarthestawayfromthestageseemevendarkerthantheyhadappearedmomentsbeforethecressetswerelit.Theuseofbrightlightsnearthestagewouldthereforenecessitatethelightingofartificiallightsinotherareasoftheplayhouse.Iflowlightwasofmajorconcern,themostefficientwaytoincreasevisibilitywasnottolightafewlargecressetsnearthestagebutrathertodispersemanysmallsourcesoflightabouttheactingareaandauditorium.This,atanyrate,wastheprocedureusedintheindoorhallplayhousesandatcourt.
Consideringthesizeoftheareatobelit,thedesirabilityofusingasmanylightsaspossible,andtheproblemsEnglishweathermighthavecausedinkeepingthemlit,Iamskepticalthattheartificiallightsattheactors'disposalplayedamajorroleinthegeneralilluminationof
theamphitheaters.Tiremenwouldhavehadtogoaboutthestageandauditoriumlightingandreplenishingtorchesorcressets.Andshouldanywindorraincomeup,thesesametiremenwouldhavehadtotendtovulnerableinstruments.Intheprivatetheaters,therewereactbreaksduringwhichsuchdutiescouldbecarriedoutwithoutinterruptingtheperformance.Butthecustomofinter-actmusicandactbreaksdidnotspreadtothepublicstagesuntilshortlybeforeShakespeare'sretirement.
64Becausethemajorityofreferencestolateper-
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formancesandtheirpresumedneedforartificiallightsoccurredwellbeforethen(especiallybefore1594),lightsatthepublicplayhouseswouldhavehadtobelitandattendedtowhiletheplaywasinprogress.
Stillmoreinconvenientwerethedangerspresentwithburninglightsintheinflammablepublicplayhouses.Thesetheaterswerealmostentirelyofwood,anditisnotlikelythattheactorsriskedilluminatingtheirtheaterswithfiresthatmaynothavebeennecessary.LawrencetakesHowe'sdescriptionoftheburningofthefirstFortuneattwelveo'clockmidnight"bynegligenceofacandle"torefertoacandlelitperformanceatnight.
65Butbecausewepossessnoproofofanyamphitheaterplaycontinuingsolate,itismoreprobablethatacandlewassimplyleftunattendedbysomeoneworkingafterhours.IftheFortunefirein1621tookplaceataperformance,Iamamazedthatthemanyreportsofitfailedtomentionthefateoftheaudience.Whatismore,ifartificiallightweresoprevalent,asKeithBrownwouldhaveusbelieve,itispuzzlingthatthereisonlythisoneincidentthatcanbeattributedtolightingutensilstheonlyotherrecordedfireinvolvingburningcannonfodderatthefirstGlobe,thefateofwhoseaudiencewasindeedwellrecorded.
Itisinthenatureofthingsthatwecannotdismissthepossibilitythatartificiallightswereusedoutdoors.Butweshouldrecognizethatthewholequestionofsupplementallightneveraroseuntilearly-twentieth-centuryscholars,accustomedtothecarefullycontrolledstageilluminationoftheirownera,begantoworryaboutactorsperformingintheuncontrollablelightandtwilightofearlymodernLondon.Itwasassumedthattheactorsmusthavedoneeverythingintheirpowertocorrectthedeficienciesofnaturallight,thattheywould
attempttoperforminasconsistentlybrightanenvironmentaspossible.Yet,theoppositeseemstohavebeentrue.Theoccasionaldiminutionoflightdoesnotappeartohavebotheredtheactors.Indeed,theiranswertotherandomfluctuationoflightoutdoorswastheapproximationofthereducedlevelsoflightindoors.Byplacingthestageatthesouthwest,theactorswerewellshadedfromthesuninthemiddleoftheafternoon,whiletowardseveningtheaudiencecouldadjusttoalowerbrightnessadaptationlevelbecausethecanopyabovethestageeliminatedglarefromthesettingsunlowonthewesternhorizon.PracticalmenoftheElizabethantheaterapparentlywantedastageprotectedfromtheelements,in-
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cludingsunshine.Dissatisfactionwithalackofbrightnessontheirstagemustbeaccountedamodernconcern.
Thegeneralpictureoftheamphitheatersthatemergesisoneofawell-shadedstagewithneitherartificiallightforgeneralilluminationnortheextremecontrastsoflightanddarkduetodirectsunlight.
66Asanactorcameforwardtowardthefootofthestage,thelightwouldincreaseslightlybecausethecoveroverheadinterceptedlesslight.TheSwansketchshowsactorswellforwardonthestagethrowingsoftshadowstowardthecenterofthearena.SincetheconventionsofshadinginbothamateurandprofessionalnorthernRenaissancedrawings,etchings,andwoodblocksmakeitunlikelythatdeWittorvanBucheladdedshadowsinfrontoftheactorsforartisticreasons,wemaytaketheshadingasgenerallyaccurateandacceptitasconfirmationthatthestagewasplacedsothatlightshonefrombehindthetiring-house.Andapartfrommodernconjecture,thereislittleevidenceofanyconcertedefforttointroducemorelightintothetheaters.Wereadnothingoflargewindows,reflectiveinteriors,habitualuseofartificiallightsforgeneralillumination,ornoontimeperformancesbuthearratherofpaintedimitationmarble,stainedoak,blackhangings,andperformancesstretchingintotwilight.
Regardingtheeffectoftwilightonthetheatricalresponsestotheplays,wecanbelesssureofourselves,dependentassuchperceptionswereonpsychologicalreactionsoftheoriginalaudiences.Buttheuseoftheword''shadow"forwhatiselsewherecalledtheheavensintheFortunecontractandthefewnarrowwindowsweseeinthevariousperspectivemapsoftheBanksidetheatersshowthatplayhouseswerenotdesignedsolelyforthepurposeofintroducinglightintothem,howevermuchitmayhavebeenoneconsideration.Thatthestagewas
notengineeredtoappearasbrightaspracticableisalsosupportedbythefrequentbringingonofstage-propertycandlesandtapers,whoseweakflamescouldnothavemademuchofanimpressiononastagefloodedwithbrightsunshine.
Whereasmodernstagelightingtendstobehighlydirectional,emanatingfromtwodistinctpositionstothefrontoftheactor,Elizabethanlightingcamefromallaroundhim.Totheamphitheateraudience,therewasnoimpressionoflightfocusingontheactor,nosenseoflightexposinghimtotheinterpretiveschemeofalightingdesigner.Inourmoderntheaters,Ham-
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letandMacbethareexaminedunderablazingglareofspotlights,evenifapervasivegloomgathersaroundthemandintheauditorium.EnglishRenaissanceactorsmovedinmorenaturalsurroundings.Theyperformedinapleasant,ungovernablelightthatshoneonthetiring-housefacadeandspectatorsaswellasontheactors.Likethebare,openstage,theoverallilluminationpermittednotonlyflexibilityinstagingbutalsoasenseofcontinuitybetweenthestageandtheauditorium,betweentheactorsandtheirbackground.Shakespeare'saudienceviewedhisplaysbyanatural,subduedlightthat,becauseitisasfamiliartousasitwastothem,helpsustorecreatehisplaysinperformance.
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6DaylightintheIndoorPlayhousesIncontrasttothelargeamphitheatersthat"laypartlyopentotheWeather,and...alwaiesActedbyDaylight,"hallplayhousessuchastheCockpitinDruryLane,Blackfriars,andSalisburyCourtwere"smalltowhatweseenow,...hadPitsfortheGentry,andActedbyCandlelight."SostatestheHistoriaHistrionicaof1699.
1Thedistinctionitdrawsbetweenthelightingsystemsatthetwokindsoftheatersisconfirmedbyseveralearliersourcesthatmentionartificiallightinconnectionwiththehallplayhouses.Butwemusttakecarenottomakemoreofadistinctionthanwasactuallythecase.TheHistoriatellsusthe"public''playhousesemployeddaylightandthe"private"playhousescandlelight;butitdoesnotsaythattheprivateplayhouses"alwaies,"thatis,exclusively,employedartificiallight,nordoesitfollowthatperformancesthereregularlyorevenoccasionallytookplaceatnight,asissometimesasserted.2Infact,referencestothetimesofperformancesareconsistentlyintheafternoon;thenumberofcandlesemployedwasapparentlynotlarge;andsuchevidenceaswehaveindicatestheauditoriumswerewellprovidedwithwindows,admittingsubstantialamountsofsunshine.
PerformanceTimes
Earlyhallplayhousesapparentlyabidedbyeveningprayerprohibitionsmorestrictlythandidcontemporaneousamphitheaters.AlthoughallbutoneofthehalltheaterslayoutsidetheCity'sjurisdictionandcouldhaveignoredsuchprohibitions,earlyhalltheatercompanieswereecclesiasticalinoriginandapparentlyfeltnoinclinationtodoso.Thesefirstcompanieswereec-
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clesiasticalinthesensethattheywerecomposedofboyactorsdrawnfromthechoirschoolsofSt.Paul'sandtheChapelRoyalatWindsor,andtheirmastersevidentlyfeltcompelledtoobeyorderspromotingattendanceateveningprayer.Weknowlittleabouttheplayhousestheyused,buttimesofperformancescanbefixedratherpreciselyinonecaseandinferentiallyintheother.
Weareuncertainwhenthefirstchildren'splayhouse,thetheateratSt.Paul's,beganoperations.By1575,playsforthegeneralpublicwereperformedsomewherewithinthechurch'sprecincts,becauseinDecemberofthatyeartheLondonCommonCouncilgavenoticetothedeanofSt.Paul'sthatplaysandtheresortofspectatorsattendingthemwereincitingdisorderwithinhisjurisdiction.
3CommonCouncilminutesmakeplainthattherealdissatisfactionwaswiththeboys'master,SebastianWestcott,whohadrefusedtorenounceCatholicism.ButElizabeth'sapprovalofthecompanyontheonehandandherreligioustoleranceontheotherpreventedthemfromobjectingonsuchgrounds.Lackingknowledgeofanyparticularmisdeeds,theCityresortedtothevaguechargeofabettingdisorder,theindefinitenatureofwhichsuggeststhatthecompanyobservedotherregulationsmoreorlessscrupulously.IfperformancesatPaul'sweregivenatthetimeofeveningprayer,theCityfatherswouldundoubtedlyhavebroughtthemtothedean'sattention.Asearlyastherearerecords,then,performancesatPaul'swereprobablygivenaftereveningprayer.
Twenty-eightyearslater,thislatestartingtimeisconfirmedbya"NotetotheMasteroftheChildrenofPowles,"whichalsomentionsasixo'clockfinishingtime.ThenotewaswrittenbyWilliamPercyandaccompaniedseveralplaysthatheofferedthereorganizedPaul'sboysinhopesofperformance.Percyworriedthathisplayswere
"somewhattoolong";andwithamixtureofcomplaisanceandpridecommontounproducedplaywrightsofalleras,heauthorizedcuts"ifanyof...thesePastorallsandComoedyes...overeachinlength(ThechildrennottobeginbeforeFoureafterPrayers,AndthegatesofPowlesshuttingatsix)theTymeofsupper."4NotonlydoesPercymakeplainthatplayslastedfrom4to6P.M.,buthisuseoftheproscriptivephrase"nottobegin"ratherthanadescriptiveonelike"notbeginning''impliesthatthetimeofthecompany'sperformanceswasestablishedbyofficialpolicyandnotsimplybycustom.Timesmayhavevariedovertheyears,ofcourse,butbecausewehaveevidenceoflateafternoonperform-
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ancesfromthebeginningandneartheendoftheatricalactivityatPaul's,itisimprobablethatdrasticchangesoccurred.
Thenexthallplayhouse,thefirstBlackfriars,leavesusnousefulinformationregardingitstimeofperformance.Nevertheless,inasmuchasitwassetupforboyactorswhowerejoinedbytheChildrenofPaul'safterWestcott'sdeathin1582,itmaybethattheChildrenoftheChapelatBlackfriarsplayedatsimilartimes.Thisjointboys'companydisbandedin1584,andBlackfriarswentunusedasatheatricalvenueuntilJamesBurbagebegantorenovateanotherroomforplayingintheautumnof1596.HeintendedtolodgetheChamberlain'smenthere,buthisplanswerethwartedwhenlocalresidentscomplainedtothePrivyCouncil,whichquicklyputastoptotheenterprise.Althoughthetroupedidnotactthere,theresidents'petitionindicatesthatperformanceswereexpectedtocoincidewitheveningprayer.Theworriedcitizenspredictedthattheactors'drumsandtrumpetswoulddisturbbothparishionersandministers"intymeofdevineservice."
5Itwillberecalledthattwoyearspreviously,theLordChamberlain'smenhadrequestedpermissiontoperformattheCrossKeysinnbeginningattwointheafternoon.By1596,thecompany'shabitofplayingduringeveningprayerhadbecomesofirmlyestablishedthatBlackfriarsresidentsexpectednothingelse.
Inpartbecausetheboyactorsdelayedtheirplaysuntilaftereveningprayer,theresidentsdidnotobjectwhenanewChildrenoftheChapelcompanybeganperforminginBurbage'splayhousebefore1600.In1604,KingJamesgrantedthecompanyapatentastheChildrenoftheQueen'sRevels,butinFebruaryof1606,theyimprudentlyridiculedtheking'snationalorigininTheIsleofGulls.Twoyearslater,aftermoreunwelcomesatires,thekingangrilyorderedthemdisbanded.As
ithappens,itisintheinductiontoTheIsleofGullsthatwelearnthisthirdchildren'scompanyalsoperformedlateintheafternoon.Anactorposingasastage-sittingspectatorexplainshecanonlyseeanactortwooftheplaybecause"Ilayinbedtillpastthreeaclock,sleptoutmydinner,andmystomackewilltouletosupperaforefiue."6Presumably,theplaybeganaroundfouro'clock(thatis,aftereveningprayer)andcontinueduntilsixorsointheevening.
TheLordChamberlain'smenfinallytookpossessionofthissecondBlackfriarsplayhousein1608undertheirnewname,theKing'smen.AsbefitsthemostprestigioustheaterinLondon,severalcontemporarydocumentsspeaktoitstimeofperformance.By1619,forexample,thepopularityoftheplay-
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househadcausedlogisticalproblems.InalettertothePrivyCouncil,neighborsprotestedthat"multitudesofCoaches"cloggedthestreetsanddisruptedbusiness"almosteveriedaieinthewintertyme...fromoneortwoeoftheclocktillsixeattnight,whichbeingethetymealsoemostvsuallforChristeningsandburiallsandafternoonesservice."
7Certainlytheplaydidnotlastfrom1to6P.M.;itmusthaverequiredatleastanhourbeforeandaftertheperformanceforthecoachestopushthroughthetraffic.Andforspectatorswhocameearlytoavoidthecrowd,one-hourconcertsweregiventopassthetimebeforetheplaybegan.8Theplaysthemselvesmusthavelastedfromtwoorthreeo'clockuntilaroundfive.
UnderElizabeth,thePrivyCouncilmighthavelistenedtosuchacomplaint,buttheStuartcourtsconsistentlysidedwithplayersingeneralandtheKing'smeninparticular.UnderCharles,infact,ourinformationregardingperformancetimesatBlackfriarsisfurnishedbypatronsfromthehighestclassesthegentry,nobility,andeventheroyalfamily.In1628,thebishopofSalisburyacidlydescribedhowJosephTaylor,theleadingactoratBlackfriars,hadwontheadmirationofInns-of-Courtlawyersandmade"themAfternoonesmen."9Ontwoseparateoccasionsinthefallof1633,themasteroftherevels,SirHenryHerbert,foundKing'smen'splaysunacceptableandsuppressedthem"forthatafternoone."10Andfrom1633until1640,SirHumphreyMildmayrecordedsixafternoontripstoBlackfriarsinhisaccountbookanddiary.11
Fromthesameperiod,however,comesuggestionsthatafewBlackfriarsplaysmayhavebeenpresentedatnightfortheenjoymentofthequeen,HenriettaMaria.Noneofthesixrecordedperformancesthequeensawthereisdescribedashavingtakenplaceatnight,butJ.
Q.AdamsandG.E.BentleyarriveatthisconclusionbyreferencetothetypeofremunerationtheKing'smenreceived.12WhentheKing'smenperformedatWhitehallnearLondon,theyreceivedastandardpaymentoftenpounds.Butwhenthecompanywasobligedtotraveltooutlyingpalaces,theyreceivedanadditionaltenpoundsbecause,astheystipulatedintheirbillstothelordchamberlain,"ourday[was]lostatourhouse."13Becausethesebillsrecordnoextrapaymentsfortwoofthequeen'svisitstoBlackfriars(5May1636and23April1638),AdamsandBentleyassumethatnoregularperformanceswerelostandthatthequeensawspecialperformancesthatmust,therefore,havebeenatnight.14Indeed,severalscholarshavegoneontoassertthatperformancesforthepublicwerealsoregularlyatnight.15AsAdamsandBent-
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leywouldadmit,however,theirargumentforthequeen'snightplaysisconstructedofsuccessivelyappliedinferences,eachofwhichisprobably,butbynomeansabsolutely,certain.Theirargumentthusbarelysupportsitself.
Thelastchildren'stheater,inWhitefriars,hasleftbehindastartingtimeof"about"threeo'clock.Whitefriarswasleasedin1605,occupiedbytheChildrenoftheKing'sRevelsaround1608,andthencontinueduntil1614witharegroupedChildrenoftheQueen'sRevelsandotherboycompanies.In1611,amemberofPrinceOttovonHesse-Cassel'sentouragenoted,"Dastheatrum,dadiekinderspielen,istaufdiesseitdeswassers,spielenum3uhr,abernurvonmichaelisbisaufostern."
16BecauseWhitefriarswastheonlychildren'stheaterinoperationatthetime,theGermansmusthavevisitedtheWhitefriarsplayhousearoundthreeo'clock.
ThepredominanceoftheKing'smen'sBlackfriarsplayhousewaschallengedin1617whenaquondammemberofthecompany,ChristopherBeeston,remodeledtheCockpitinDruryLaneintoanindoorplayhouse,alsoperformingintheafternoon.Bythe1630s,MildmaystillpreferredtheBlackfriarstoallothertheatersbutonatleastoneoccasionwasdelightedwiththe"afternoone"playattheCockpit.17ItissurprisingthatMildmaynevernotedgoingtothelastprivatetheatertobesetup,theSalisburyCourtplayhouse(c.1629).Inconsequence,wehavenodirectevidenceastowhenplayswereactedthere,althoughitisprobablethatitsperformanceswerepresentedatthesametimeastwopublictheaters.ThiscanbededucedfromareferenceinthepraeludiumaffixedtothepublishedtextofTheCarelessShepherdess,whichhasas"TheScene.SALISBURYCOURT."Init,aparsimoniouscitizenthinksbetterofpayingthe
steepprivateplayhouseadmissionprice(oneshilling)anddecidesinsteadto"gototh'BullorFortune,andtheresee/APlayfortwopense,withaJigtoboot."18BecausetheRedBullandFortunepresumablygaveafternoonperformancesandbecausethecitizencangothereortoSalisburyCourt,thislasthallplayhouseseemstohavehostedafternoonplays,aswell.
DaylightandCandlelight
Asithappens,thebestestimateoftheamountofcandlelightemployedindoorscomesfromaproposedarticleofagreementbetweenhousekeepersandhirelingactorsatSalisburyCourtin1639.Intheagreement,thehousekeeperspromisedtopayhalfthecostofthelights,"bothwaxeandTallow,
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wchhalfeallwinterisnear5saday."
19Aswillbediscussedinthenextchapter,itisfromsuchafigurethatwecanmakeamore-or-lessintelligentguessaboutthenumberofcandlesusedatSalisburyCourtinthewinter.Dependingontheirsizeandtheproportionsofexpensivewaxcandlestocheapertallowones,thetotalnumberworksouttoabouttwotofourdozencandlesforeachperformanceagoodlynumber,tobesure,butinactualbrightnessnotevenequaltothepowerofonesixty-wattlightbulb.20Theuseofthephrase"allwinter"suggests,inaddition,thatfarfromprovidingtheprincipalsourceofilluminationallyear,candlelightwasusedprimarilytohelpdispelwinterdarkness.Foralthoughsomehallplayhouseswereusedonlyinthewinter(theKing'smen'sBlackfriars,forinstance),SalisburyCourthasleftbehindrecordsofanumberofsummertimeplays.21Aplausibleinterpretationofthefactsisthatsummertimeperformancesdispensedwithmuchorevenallartificiallightandthatwintertimeperformancesreliedonamixtureofnaturalandartificiallight.
HowsuchamixturemighthavelookedisshowninthefamiliarfrontispiecetoTheWits,orSportuponSportof1662(seefig.23).Init,weseesixteencandlesarrangedintwobranchedchandeliershangingaboveasmallstage.Theprincipallightcomesfromtheactors'right,butnotfromthechandelierthere,astheoppositechandeliercastsnosimilarshadows.Apparently,daylightwasplentifulfromthatdirection.WhatkindoftheaterTheWitsfrontispiecepurportstorepresentwedonotknow,butitprovidessomeassurancethatconjecturebasedonthe1639SalisburyCourtarticlesandonotherevidencehasnotstrayedtoofarfromthepossible.22
WindowLight
ThattheactorstookadvantageofdaylighttoilluminatetheirpermanentindoortheatersisattestedtobyThomasDekker,whonotedspecificexceptionstothepractice.InTheSevenDeadlieSinnsofLondon,DekkerdescribesatypicalLondonnightfall,sayingthathefoundthat"alltheCittylooktlikeaprivatePlayhouse,whenthewindowesareclaptdowne,asifsomeNocturnal,ordismallTragedywerepresentlytobeactedbeforealltheTradesmen."23Dekkerwaswritingin1606whenthreeearlyhallplayhouseswereinoperation:St.Paul's,thesecondBlackfriars,andWhitefriars.Thepassagesuggestsseveralpointsaboutindoorlighting.Itindicatesthatforsomehall
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Fig.23.FrontispiecetoTheWits,orSportuponSport(London,1662).Reproduced
bypermissionofTheHuntingtonLibrary,SanMarino,California(RB107896).
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playhouseperformances,daylightwasspecificallyblockedout.Italsohintsthatplayhouseilluminationwasused,notonlyforthesakeofvisibility,butalsotoreinforceaestheticqualitiesofaplay.Darknessisbothmetaphoricallyandtechnicallyassociatedwith"dismallTragedy,"andthereisthestrongimplicationthatafternoonperformancesofhistories,comedies,romances,andevennot-so-dismaltragedieswouldfindthewindowsopen.
WhatkindofwindowswerethesethatDekkerrefersto,andhowweretheyopenedor"claptdowne"?Wepossessplansandsectionsoftwoindoortheatersthatshowthepositionsandsizesoftheirwindows,andweknowenoughaboutmedievalandRenaissancearchitecturetoformanideaofthefenestrationinthepermanentprivatetheatersforwhichwehavenopictorialevidence.Further,thewindowsofseveralhallsthatweresometimesusedastheatersstandtodayforourinspection.Ofthese,mostinterestattachestothehallsatHamptonCourtPalaceandtheInnsofCourt,sinceShakespeareprobablyactedinthem.
TheGreatHallatHamptonCourtwasbuiltbyHenryVIIIandcontinuedasafavoritelocationforChristmastimeplaysuntiltheInterregnum(seefig.24).TheKing'smenwerefrequentgueststhereandonatleastoneoccasionperformedintheafternoon.
24Thehallis105feet6incheslong(includingthescreenpassage),40feetwide,and60feettothesummitofthehammerbeamroof.25Itslongitudinalaxislieseastandwest.A"minstrelgallery"atthewestenddefinesthefirstofsevenbaysandissupportedbyasimplescreenwithtwodoors,whichmayoccasionallyhaveservedasatiring-housefacade.Abovethegalleryisawindowofsevenlights,andhigherstillaretwosmallwindowstreatedalmostaspartoftheroof.Thesewindowsarerepeatedintheeastwall,whereadaisforthekingreplacesthescreen.Inthenorthwallaresevenmullionedwindows
highupaboveFlemishwalltapestriesandmoldings.Inthesouthwall,sixofthesewindowsarerepeated;intheseventhbaytotheleftofthedaisisatall,mullionedbaywindowdividedintoforty-eightlights,thepurposeofwhichwastolightthedaisandtofocusattentiononitandtheking.
Thepredominanteffect,characteristicofallTudorhalls,isthesoft,descendingnatureofthelight.Thesidewallsarepaneledanddrapedtoaheightofovereighteenfeetsothatnodirectsunshineispermittedtocrosslighttheroom.Instead,thewindowsaresethighonthewallswiththeirsillsnearlytwentyfeetabovethefloor.Thewindowsareeasilyhighenoughthat
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Fig.24.ThehallatHamptonCourtPalace.
CrownCopyright:HistoricRoyalPalaces.
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onlyintheearlyafternoonattheheightofmidsummerdoesdirectsunlightilluminatemorethananarrowstripoftheflooralongthenorthwall.Inwinter,whenHamptonCourtwasusedasatheater,thesunisneverhighenoughintheskytolightanypartofthefloordirectly.Rather,adim,gentlydiffusedlightdescendsfromthewarm-tintedglassandheavilymullionedwindowsandispartlyabsorbedandreflectedbythearches,pendants,andcorbelsofthedarkoakrooffrettedwithgold.Figure24givesagoodideaoftheindirectlightnearthefrontofthescreen,eventhoughthephotographwastakenwithdirectmiddaysummersunlightfloodingdownfromthesouthwindows.Inpointoffact,evenonthebrightestdaysofsummerwiththesunatitshighestaltitude,thehallremainsarelativelydimroomwhosewindowsadmitlessthanahundredthofthelightavailableoutside.
Inoverallplan,theGreatHalloftheMiddleTempledifferslittlefromthatatHamptonCourt(seefig.25).Constructedinthe1560s,itwasusedforaproductionofTwelfthNighton2February1602.AsatHamptonCourt,thehallisorientedeastandwestandisdividedintosevencrossbays.Inthefirstbayarethemagnificentscreen,twosmallwindows,andalargeendwindow.Inthesecondthroughthesixthbaysaresquare-headedwindows,fiveoneachside,withtransomsandfourelliptical-headedlightseach.Intheseventhbay,lightingthedais,aretwolargeorielwindows.
26ThehallisthesamewidthbutsomethirteenfeetshorterinlengththanthehallatHamptonCourt.Figure25againshowsusdiffusedlightfilteringdownfromelevatedwindows.AsatHamptonCourt,lightemanatesfromabandofveritableclerestorywindows.Evenonabrightsummerday,theaveragelevelofilluminationinsidethehallisonlyabouttwentyfootcandles.
Infigures26and27,thescreensofthesetwohallshavebeensketchedasiftheyweretiring-housefacades.Stageshavebeenplacedbeforeeach,andbywayofsuggestingthedirectionoflightfromabove,diagonallineshavebeendrawnfromthecenterofthestagetothesillsofthesouthwindows.Thediffusedlighttypicalofthesehallsseldomproducesbeamsoflightasdistinctasthesediagonallines;theyaremeantonlytoindicatethelowestanglesfromwhichdaylight,unreflectedbytheinteriorofthehall,couldilluminateactorsstandingatthecenterofastage.
Forpurposesofcomparison,IprintasimilarsketchofthestageandgalleriesoftheSwan,againbasedonRichardHosley'sreconstruction(seefig.28).Itwillbeseenthatinbothindoorandoutdoorplayhouses,lightenters
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Fig.25.ThehalloftheMiddleTemple.BypermissionoftheMastersoftheBenchoftheHonourableSocietyoftheMiddleTemple.
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Fig.26.Cross-sectionaldiagramofthehallatHamptonCourtwithconjecturalstage
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Fig.27.Cross-sectionaldiagramofthehalloftheMiddleTemplewithconjecturalstage
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Fig.28.Cross-sectionaldiagramoftheSwan
fromarelativelysteepangle,crossingthestagefromanaltitudeapproximatelyequaltotheheightofthebalconiesabovethestage.TheanglesoflightfromthehallwindowsareslightlylowerthanthatintheSwanthirty-twoandfortydegreesascontrastedwithforty-eightdegrees.Butifonetakesintoaccounttheloweraltitudeofthesunduringthewinter,latefall,andearlyspringwhentheindoortheaterswereprincipallyoccupied,itisclearthatthewallsofbothkindsoftheatersdonotpermitdirectsunlighttostrikethestage.Rather,toanobserverstandingatthecenterofthestage,theanglesaresuchthattheafternoonsunisnormallyjustbelowthehallwindowsillsinwinterandjustafewdegreesbelowthetopoftheoutdoorgalleryroofinsummer.
Thereareseveralreasonstosupposethatthepermanentprivateplayhousesweresetupinhallslikethese.Foronething,theresemblancebetweentheearly-sixteenth-centuryhallscreenandthelate-sixteenth-centuryminorumadesoftheSwanimpliesthattheirchronologicalintermediariesthetiring-housefacadesoftheprivateplayhousesof1575and1576didnotdifferwidelyfromtheseminal
models.Moreover,thefirstprivatetheater
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companiesatSt.Paul'sandBlackfriarswereoriginallyfoundedforthepurposeofentertainingElizabethinhallssuchasthese.Theboys'familiaritywithsuchhallsislikelytohavebeenafactorinthesiteschosenfornonroyalperformances,especiallysincetheboysclaimedtoplaybeforethepubliconlybywayof''practicing"theircraft"toyieldHerMajestyrecreationanddelight."
27
ThesimilaritybetweenTudorhallsandearlyprivateplayhousesisalsosupportedbytheinformationwehavepertainingtothekindsofbuildingsthatwereacquiredforprivatetheatricalproductions.Twoofthesetheaters,thesecondBlackfriarsandtheWhitefriars,wereinfactcalled"greathalls"inlegaldocumentsarisingoutofsquabbleswithintheirmanagements.PresentthinkingisthatthehallBurbageboughtinBlackfriarswasthelarge(approximatelyonehundredfeetbyforty-sixfeet)ParliamentChamberonthesecondflooroftheUpperFraterinthewesternrangeofthedissolvedDominicanpriory.IrwinSmithhasshownthatthiswasnotacharacteristicDominicanroombutratherahalltypicalofthosemadefortheuseofthecourt,withwhomthemedievalMendicantfriarsenjoyedacloserelationship.28ThenearlyequaldimensionsandthesimilarusestowhichthesehallswereputsuggestthattheParliamentChamberandtheseveralhallsatcourtwerebuiltalongthesamelines.
InBurbage'sdeedforthesecondBlackfriars,wehearnothingofwindows,althoughallthe"glasse"belongingtothepremisesisincluded.29Butinalawsuitbroughtin1609,ashareroftheChildrenoftheChapelmentionsglassandwoodenwindowsbothaboveandbelowoneachsideofthepremises:"invitrio&infenestrisligneistamsupraquaminfrainvtrisquepartibuspremissorum."30Thewindows"infra,"orbelow,donotconcerntheParliamentChamber
itself;theywereinthegroundfloorthatwasalsoboughtbyBurbage.WedolearnthattheBlackfriarswasthrough-lighted;thatistosay,ithadwindowsonbothsidesoftheroom,asdomostTudorhalls.Thetheateritselfseemstohaveoccupiedonlypartofthehall,becauseitsdimensionsweregivenassixty-sixbyforty-sixfeet,presumablyincludingthetiring-houseandstage.OnthebasisoftheanalogybetweentheParliamentChamberandotherhalls,andconsideringthesedimensions,wemayguessthatthesecondBlackfriarshadfourteensidewindowswithtenintheauditoriumitself,fiveoneachside.31Thesouthend-windoworwindowswouldhavebeenobstructedbythetiring-house.
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InasuitbroughtregardinganagreementbetweentheoriginalsharersoftheWhitefriarstheater,wehearagainofaplayhousebuiltwithina"greathall."Adepositionof1609statesthattheroomsleasedwere"thirteeneinnumber,threebeloweandtenneabove,thatistosaie,thegreathall."
32ThehallatWhitefriarsthushadformerlybeendividedintotenroomsand,likethesecondBlackfriars,was"above"otherrooms.Anearly-seventeenth-centurysurveyoftheWhitefriarsdistrictsurvivesinwhich''TheHale"isprominent,33anditistherethatChambersputstheplayhouse.ButthishallisunusuallynarrowforaJacobeantheater,onlysomesixteenorseventeenfeetwide.Asthesharersalsorented"thekitchinbytheyard,"J.Q.AdamsandWickhamassumetheplayhousewassetupintheoldrefectorythatstoodonthesecondfloorofthesouthrangeandwasapproximatelythirty-fivebyeightyfeet.34Thesurveyshowsonlythefirstfloorofthesouthrange,butthegenerallateraldivisioncomprisesfiveunits.Ifthedivisionofthehallaboveintotenroomswasaccomplishedinrespecttothearchitecturalplan,thenwemayassumethattenwindowspiercedthewallsoftheWhitefriarsplayhouse,againprobablyfivetoaside.
Refectories,orfratersastheyweresometimescalled,werethehallsinwhichreligiousorderstooktheirchiefmealstogether.SeeingthattwoimportantprivateplayhouseswerelocatedintheoldrefectoriesofMendicantfriars,itisunfortunatethatmedievalEnglishrefectoriesarenotbetterpreservedforourexamination.AtBeaulieuinHampshireandatChester,twothirteenth-centurymonasticrefectorieshavesurvivedrelativelyunchanged.Theydisplayhigh,shaftedlancetwindowsonbothsidesandlarge,pitchedtimberroofsquitesimilartothegreathalls.Oneauthority,thearchitecturalhistorianGeoffreyWebb,believesthatsuchrefectoriesweretheprecursorsofthegreat
hallsofthefifteenthcentury.35Becausethepreachingfriarsgravitatedinthethirteenthcenturytothecities,wherespace,thenandafterwards,wasatapremium,norefectoriesoftheMendicantordersescapedtheDissolutionunaltered.However,atCanterburyandatGloucester,afewmiddle-thirteenth-centurywindowsdoremaininwhatwererathersmallfriars'refectories.AtCanterbury,thewindowsaredoublelancetsaboutfivebysevenfeetwithplainquatrefoilsabove.Thefloortherehasbeenraised,soitisdifficulttoconfirmhowhighthewindowswere.AtGloucester,thesurvivinglargeend-windowisfourteenfeetabovetheoriginalfloorlevel,whiletheremainsofthesidewindowsaresomewhatlowerinahallonly
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twenty-fivefeetwide.
36Ontheaverage,refectoriesoftheDominicansandtheCarmelitesweresmallerthanthehallsoftheMiddleTempleandHamptonCourt,buttheirproportionsweresimilar,includingtheanglessubtendedbythewindows.WindowswerekepthighinrefectoriesnotonlyinadherencetotheGothicstylebutalsoforthepracticalreasonthatanarcadedroofregularlyjuttedoutfromtheexteriorwalloftherefectorytocovertheobligatorycloisterwalk.
WrittenarchitecturaltheoryinEnglishbeforetheRestorationishardtocomeby,butwhatlittlethereissupportsthispatternofhighwindowsonbothsidesofrectangularrooms.ElevenyearsafterhesawthefirstGlobeburn,SirHenryWottonpublishedTheElementsofArchitecture(London,1624),basedlargelyonVitruvianprinciples.WottonwasamemberoftheMiddleTemplewhospentagoodpartofhislifeasadiplomatinVenice,wherehewasinfluencedbyneoclassicalarchitecture.Still,heheldtheviewapplicabletomoststylesofarchitecturethatthebestlightwas"adescendingLight,whichofallotherdothsetoffmensFacesintheirtruestSpirit"(N2).HeallowedthatVitruvius"seemstohavebeeneanextreameLoverofLuminousRoomes,"butWottonhimselfpreferrednot"tomakeaHouse(thoughbutforcivilluse)allEyes,likeArgus''(G4).Especiallyinecclesiasticalbuildings,"whichwereancientlydarke,astheyarelikewiseatthisday,"caremustbetakennottodistracttheeyewithtoomanywindows.37Becausealltheprivateplayhouses,exceptingonlythetwoCockpitsandSalisburyCourt,weresetupinformerecclesiasticalbuildings,itisnotsurprisingthatapatternofclerestoryilluminationwasobserved.
Thelightingoflargeroomsfrombothsidesisendorsedbycontemporarywisdomaswell.Inashortchapteronbuilding,inThe
HolyState,publishedin1642,ThomasFuller(whoseinterestintheaterextendedtoanearlybiographyofShakespeare)expressestheopinionthat"[t]horow-lightsarebestforroomsofentertainment,andwindowsononesidefordormitories."38Fullerdoesnotreferspecificallytotheaters,ofcourse,butitmaybethathehadthemandotherhallsandrefectoriesinmindwhenhespokeof"roomsofentertainment."Withbothcontemporarypracticeandtheorycallingforhighwindowsonbothsidesofsuchrooms,itseemslikelythatwhentheactorssoughtpermanentindoortheaters,theilluminationavailabletothemresembledthatofthehallstheyhadsooftenplayedinasguests.
Figures26and27representtheuseofhallsastheystandtodayandpre-
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sumablystoodintheseventeenthcenturywithoutanyelaboratetheatricalpreparation.Onlysimple,lowstageshavebeenintroduced.Butthereisanotheraspectofthephysicalarrangementsthatmayhaveaffectedthequalityofthelight:theseatingoftheaudience.WeknowfromseveralsourcesparticularlyOfficeofWorksaccountsthathallswerenormallyfurnishedwith"degrees,"ortieredscaffoldsfortheseatingofthespectators.Inthe16034holidayseasonatHamptonCourt,forexample,carpenterswerepaidfor"makingofthestageandsettingupdegreesandp[ar]tic[i]onsfortheplayeinthehall."
39Thedegreesatcourtwerehigh,bleacher-typeaffairs(typicallyofsevenrowsofbenches)thatwereprobablyonlyofoneorder.Butintheprivateplayhouses,wherespaciousmagnificencegavewaytoquestionsofprofit,itislikelythattwoorperhapsthreeordersofgallerieslinedtheauditoriumwalls.
JonesPlayhouse
Ifweturntothetheatersforwhichcontemporaryarchitecturaldrawingsexist,wecanunderstandhowsuchgalleriesmightaffecttheauditoriumlighting.InthecollectionofdrawingsbyInigoJonesandhisdiscipleJohnWebbatWorcesterCollege,Oxford,aretwosetsofdesigns,oneofanunidentifiedindoortheaterandtheotherofrenovationsfortheCockpit-in-Court.TheCockpit-in-Courtplansandelevationwereidentifiedaslongagoas1913,butitwasnotuntilG.E.BentleystudiedthemthatitbecameclearthattheyreflectedOfficeofWorksrecordsofsubstantialremodelingtoturntheoldCockpit,whichhadonlyoccasionallybeenusedforplays,intoapermanent,activetheaterforprofessionalactors.In1969,D.F.RowanrepresentedtheothersetofdrawingsbyInigoJonesasa"missinglink"betweentheElizabethanandJacobeanprivatetheaterssetupinpreexistingecclesiasticalbuildingsandthePalladianstyleofthe
CarolineCockpit-in-CourtandlaterRestorationtheaters.40Morerecently,JohnOrrellhasarguedthattheseunlabeleddrawingsrepresentJones'sideasforChristopherBeeston'sconversionoftheCockpitinDruryLaneintoapermanentplayhousein1616.41Orrell'scaseisstrongbutcircumstantial;cautionsuggeststhatwerefertotheseunidentifiedplansasthe"Jonesplayhouse,"followingtheleadoftheInternationalShakespeareGlobeCentre,whichisreconstructingitinSouthwark.Whatevertheauspicesofthedrawings,theinformationthey
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revealissubstantial,fortheylargelycorroborateindependentlyderivedreconstructionsofthehallplayhousesparticularlyRichardHosley'sreconstructionofthesecondBlackfriars.Itismanifestlynotthattheater,butitsdiscoveryreassuresusthatrecentconjecturehasnotgonetoofarastray.
ThearrangementofthewindowsintheJonesplayhouseconfirmsthepatternoftheclerestorylightingoftheTudorhallsbutshowssignsofadaptationaswell(seefig.29).TheplayhouseisalittlesmallerthanthehallsatHamptonCourtortheMiddleTemple;but,again,theproportionsaresimilar.Sixelliptical-headedwindowsareplacedaroundtheauditoriumhighabovethestageinthesecondgallery,whilenolightatallentersfrombelow.Thecrosssectionshowsthatasimilarrowofwindowscouldeasilyhavebeenaccommodatedinthelowergallerybutthatnonewasneeded.Onlynarrow-slitwindows(similartothoseinviewsoftheoutdoorpublictheaters)lighttheotherwisedarkpassagewaybeneaththefirstgallery.
Thewindowsintheuppergalleryareunusualarchitecturally,andtheysuggest,Ithink,howTudorhallswereconvertedintoprivateplayhouses.BothnativeEnglishandContinentalproportionswouldhaverequiredsuchwindowstobenearlytwiceastallastheyarewide.ButJoneshasapparentlycutofftheirlowerhalves,leavingtheremainingtopsofthewindowstoosmallandtoohighontheexteriorwalls.Whythesillshavebeenraisedisexplained,ofcourse,bythepositionofthesecondgallery.Asmaybeseeninthecrosssectionthroughthestage,thesteppedgallerywouldhaveobstructedlightenteringfromthebottomhalfofanormallyproportionedwindow.Theheightofthewindowsillsabovethegroundhasconsequentlybeendeterminedbyextendingalineintersectingthecenterofthestageandthegallerybenchesthroughtheexteriorwall.Therakeofthegallery(aboutforty-threedegrees)thusequalsthelowestangleatwhichunreflectedlightmaystrikethecenterofthestage.
ToexemplifyhowtheheightoftheJonesplayhousewindowswasdetermined,IhaveplacedtheJonesplayhousegalleriesatthestage-leveloftheMiddleTemple(seefig.30).Itwillbeseenthatthesecondgalleryblocksoutthelowerportionofthesidewindow,producing,ineffect,asmaller,higherwindow.
42ThesimilaritybetweenthispartiallyobscuredhallwindowandthepermanentlyreducedwindowsintheJonesplayhouseisunmistakable.IfearlyprivatetheatergalleriesweresetupinhallswithwindowssimilartothoseintheMiddleTempleorHamptonCourt,thenthereducedsizeand
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Fig.29.Elevation,plan,andcrosssectionsofaplayhousedesignedbyInigoJones.
TheProvostandFellowsofWorcesterCollege,Oxford.
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Fig.30.Cross-sectionaldiagramoftheMiddleTemple
hallwithJonesplayhousegalleries
elevatedpositionoftheresultingopeningswouldmatchtheshortenedandraisedwindowsofJones'sdrawings.AllJoneshasdoneistomaketheobstructionpermanent.
Infigure30,asecondlinehasalsobeendrawnintersectingthetopofthewindowandthecenterofthestage.Thisupperdiagonallinegivesanideaoftheapparentwidthofthebandoflightfromthesidewindows.Toimaginethetotaleffectofnaturallightfromallthewindows,oneshouldthinkofthisbandasrevolvedaboutaperpendicularaxis,producingaconeoflight
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withitsapexatthecenterofthestage.Wereallwindowsthesamesizeandevenlyspreadaroundthehall,lightfromthewindowsoppositethestagewouldbelessbrightandlowerthanfromthesidesowingtotherectangularnatureofthehallandtheconsequentgreaterdistanceofthewindowsoppositethestage.Butinactuality,lightfromalldirectionsdescendsatvirtuallythesameangleandintensitybecausethewindowsoppositethescreensinroomssuchasthehallsatHamptonCourtandtheMiddleTempleandintherefectoryatGloucesterarehigherandlargerthanthesidewindows,therebycompensatingfortheirgreaterdistance.
Infigure31,aheavenshasbeenaddedtotheSwansectionandsimilardiagonallineshavebeendrawn,theupperoneintersectingtheroofabovethestage.Thetotalimpressionofthisamphitheaterilluminationmaylikewisebeestimatedbyrevolvingthisbandaboutaverticalaxis.Theimpressionscreatedbytheconesofnaturallightattheindoorandoutdoorplayhousesarethusroughlysimilar.Inbothkindsoftheaters,tallsidewallseliminatefranksidelight,whilearoofabovethestageeliminatesoverhead
Fig.31.Cross-sectionaldiagramoftheSwan
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light.Primaryilluminationisrenderedbyacircleofindirectlightemanatingfromanangleofaboutfortyorfiftydegreesabovethehorizontalplaneofbothindoorandoutdoorstages.
AlthoughthedateandprovenanceoftheJonesplayhouseplansareuncertain,theplansappeartorepresenteithertheextensiveremodelingofapreexistingbuildingorthedesignofanewtheater,intendedfromthestartfortheproductionofdrama.Iftheseconddecadeoftheseventeenthcenturyiscorrectforthedate,thenthedesignofthewindowsmaywellhaveincorporatedchangesmadelesspermanentlyintheprivatetheatersaroundtheturnoftheseventeenthcentury.TheownerofthefirstBlackfriars,letitbenoted,complainedthatwhentheChildrenoftheChapelvacatedthepremisesin1584,hiswindowswere"spoyled."Andin1609,asharerofthereorganizedcompanytestifiedagainsthisformercolleaguesthat,again,thesecondBlackfriarshadbeenleft"dilapidated...andunrepaired,namely...inthewindowglassandinthewoodenwindows."
43ArecurrentexpenseafterCambridgetheatricalswasalsotherepairofwindows.Nearlyeveryyearinonecollegeoranother,glazierswerehiredtofix"windoweswchwerebrokendowenattheplaies.''44Perhapsgalleriesrisingabovethewindowlevelweresetupalongthewallsandtheirscaffoldsfastenedtothewindowjambs,orspectatorsinthetoprowofthegalleriesleanedorwerepushedagainstthewindowglass.Ineithercase,someportionofeachwindowwouldbeobstructedbythegalleryitself,bymodificationstothecasementsorshuttersfortheprotectionofthewindowsorbythespectatorssittinginfrontofthem.
Cockpit-in-Court
Atfirstglance,theCockpit-in-Courtseemstocontradictthispattern
ofangledilluminationfromaboveandtheenclosureoftheperformingspacebyhigh,solidwalls.AnexteriorviewoftheCockpitpaintedbyHendrikDanckertaround1675showsnotonlytworowsofsquare-headedwindowscirclingthetheaterbutalsoasmalllanternatopthecastellatedwalls(seefig.32).AlthoughtheupperwindowsareinapositionsimilartothoseintheJonestheater,thelowerwindowswouldallowsunlighttofloodlowerportionsoftheauditoriumwhilethelanternwouldintroducelightfromoverhead.Perhapsanexceptionwasmadetothestandardpatternoftheaterlighting,becausethebuildingJoneswasconvertingintoaplayhousewasnotatypical
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halland,moreover,wasnotoftenemployedfordaytimeperformances.ButbasedonananalysisoftheverticaldimensionsoftheCockpit-in-CourtandtheplacementofthewindowsinDanckert'spainting,JohnOrrellhasarguedthattheCockpit-in-Courtmayhaveaccommodatedonlyonegallerycirclingtheauditorium,thusoccludinglightfromthelowerorderofwindows.
45Moreover,pertinentOfficeofWorksaccountsalsosuggestthatsomeofthewindowswerecoveredandthatmuchofthelightfromthelanternwasobstructedbyafalseceilingabovethestage.
TheplanfortheCockpit-in-CourtshowsthatJoneshituponthenotionofplacinghisstagewithinthreesidesoftheoriginaloctagonwiththeauditoriumcomprisingtheremainingfivesides(seefig.33).ButJonesencoun-
Fig.32.ExterioroftheCockpit-in-CourtaftertheRestoration.Detailfrom"Whitehall
&StJame[s]'sPark"byHendrikDanckert,c.1675.BerkeleyCastle.
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Fig.33.ElevationandplansforrenovationoftheCockpit-in-Court,
Whitehall,c.1630.TheProvostandFellowsofWorcesterCollege,Oxford.
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teredproblemsinfittingsuchanarrangementintothesmallspaceavailable.Tomakeroomforthetiring-houseandstage,Jonespushedthestageforwardintothehall,obliginghimtojointhewallsextendingfromeithersideofthescaenafronsnottoanangleoftheoctagonbuttooneofitsfaces.Itwillbeseenthattheprosceniumwalltoeithersideofthestagejoinseachsidewalloftheauditoriumattheunfortunatepositionwheretherewerepreexistingwindows.Becausetheseprosceniumwallspresumablyextendedfromthestagefloortothetopofthescaenafrons,itisunavoidablethattheoutsideedgeoftheprosceniumnotonlyjoinedthesidewallitselfbutalsoabuttedagainstthetwowindows,oneabovetheother,oneachsideoftheauditorium.
Theseintersectionsoftheprosceniumwallsandsidewindowswouldhavebeenawkwardatbest.Thewallswouldhaveobstructedlightenteringtheauditoriumandcreatedarchitecturalproblemsofwhattodowiththewindowopeningsandhowtosupporttheprosceniumwallsthatmustsomehowbeattachedtothesewindows.Theonlysatisfactorysolutionwouldhavebeentoboardupthewindowbays,makethemflushwiththeinteriorwalls,andthenproperlyjointheprosceniumtothenow-solidsidewalls.Howevertheconjunctionwasaccomplished,theauditoriumwindowsnearthestagemusthavebeenmodifiedinsomewaysoastoaccommodatethejoiningoftheextensionsofthescaenafronsandthesidewallsoftheauditorium.
Atoneofthestage-rightwindows,forinstance,Webbhasindicatedadoorwaycommunicatingwiththetiring-houseandgallery.Werethedoorwayandwindowonthesamelevel,theirintersectionwouldhavebeenevenmoreungainlybothstructurallyandvisually,becausethedoorjamb(representedbyasmalldot)wouldhavebeenunsupportedandexposedwhileitranuptheinteriorfaceoftheopenwindowbay.Atthestage-leftwindow,asimilardifficultyarises.HereWebbalsoindicateswhatappearstobeadoorwayintheprosceniumwallnextto
thesidewindow,buthehastreatedtheopeningdifferently,inkingintheoutlineofthedoor,perhapstoindicatethatitwastobenewlyframedorboardedoveraswell.Again,thearchitecturalandaestheticproblemsarisingoutoftwoaperturesabuttingeachotherinacornerimplyeitherthattheopeningintheprosceniumwallwasnotatthesameheightasthewindowbayorthatthewindowbaywasindeedwalledupandmadepartofthesidewall.Orrellarguesforthefirstsolution,butiftheverticaldimensionsofthewindowsandtheirheightsaboveground-levelare
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takenintoaccount,itisunlikelythatadoorthatcommunicatesbetweenthegalleriesandtheuppertiring-housecouldbepositionedsoastoavoidabuttingeitherthelowerorupperwindowsnearthestage.SinceDanckertshowsthedistancebetweenthetopofthelowerwindowsandthebottomsillsoftheupperwindowsinthenorthwall(thestage-rightwalloftheauditorium)asnomorethanthreeorfourfeet,therewouldsimplynotbeenoughroomforadoorwaytobeplacedverticallybetweenthem.
46
Itisnotsurprising,therefore,thatOfficeofWorksaccountsbothbeforeandaftertheInterregnumspeakofpaintingoverandboardingupwindowsintheCockpit-in-Court.Therenovationaccountsof162930,forexample,listapaymentofthirtyshillingstopaintersfor"payntingelikeglassexxtypaneswchhadbinLightes."47Wedonotknowwhichwindowswerepainted.Twentypanessuggestthatonlyafewwindowswereinvolved.Butthemotiveforpaintingpanestolooklikeglassislogicallyexplainedonlybythecircumstancethatthewindowshadbeenboardedupontheinsideofthebuilding,makingthemlookstrangefromtheoutside.Thepaintingwasthusprobablynotforthebenefitoftheinteriordecorationbutameansbywhichthenow-blankwindowscouldbemadepresentabletopassersbyinSt.JamesPark.AftertheRestoration,whenthetheaterreopened,OfficeofWorksrecordsmentionsimilarpractices.InJanuary1662,carpenterswerepaidfor"bourdingvp2windowes,"andthefollowingApriltwosetsofshutterswereinstalledwhenjoinerswerehiredfor"makingshuttingwindowesforyeCockpitplayhowse,"whichwerefourfeetthreeincheswideandfourfeettenincheshigh.48Someoftheseboarded-upwindowsandshuttersmayhavebeenintendedforthetiring-house,butthemeasurements(whencomparedinthecornersofthebuilding.Thatnotallofthewindowswerewalledupisattested
tobyapaymenttoplasterersinOctober1661for''poynting[applyingmortararound]theglassinthreewindowesatthecockpitplayehouse."Perhapsthesewerethethreecornerwindowslightingthestairwaysandthepublicentrance.
Analternativetoboardingupwindowsthatcouldnolongerservetheirpurposewastomovethem.JohnAstingtonhasnotedthatDanckertshowsthetwolowerwindowsonthestage-rightoftheauditoriumasconsiderablyhigheronthewallthanthecorrespondingwindowsbehindthestage.49Heconcludesthatthesestage-rightlowerwindowswereraisedsoastobeclear
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ofrankedseatinginthegallery.Ifthisisso,thenitspeaksofaneffortbothtomaintainthepresenceofdaylightinthetheaterandtoraisetheanglefromwhichthedaylightdescended.Allwecansayforcertainisthat,atsometimebefore1675,thelowerstage-rightwindowswereatadifferentheightthantheircounterpartsbehindthestage.
ThelanternabovethepitmusthavebeenanoriginalorveryearlyadditiontotheCockpit.AdrawingbyWyngaerde,datingfromthemid-sixteenthcentury,showsalargepolyhedralcantroofadornedwithanimpressivelantern.
50Butwhenthebuildingwasremodeledintoapermanenttheaterintheearly1630s,overheadfacilitieswereconstructedthatwouldlikelyscreenoutdaylightfromthelantern.Inthe162930accounts,artisansaredescribedassettinguppoststosupportaceilingand"cuttingfittingandsoweingofCallicoetocoueralltheroomeouerheadwthintheCockpitt."Thisclothfalseceiling,garnishedwithmany"StarresofAssidue,"wassuspendedby"agreatnumberofCopprings[copperrings?metallicdecorativepieces?]toDrawetheclothtoandfro.''Atthesametime,apropertymakerwaspaidfor"hangingtheThroneandChaireintheCockpitwthclothboundaboutwthwhalebonepackthredandwyerforthebetterfouldingofthesametocomedownefromtheCloudstotheStage."Orrellassumesthatthisdescendingthronewaspositionedupstageclosetothescaenafrons;thisispossible,butbecausethecantroofbeganitssteepascenttowardthecenterofthebuildingatjustthispoint,itseemsmorelikelythatthehoistingmachinerywaslocatedfartherdownstage.Itakeitthatwhenthebuildingwasconvertedintoapermanenttheater,thespaceimmediatelybelowthelanternbecameahuttohousemachinery.Belowthishutand"tocoueralltheroomeouerhead,"aclothheavenswashungbyringsandwires.Butthisheavens,orpartofit,couldbedrawnasidesothatthethronecouldbeloweredthroughthecloth.
Withallthisparaphernaliainterveningbetweenthelanternandthestage,onewondershowmuch,ifany,naturalilluminationcoulddescendfromabove.
Itremainstobesaidthatneithertheboarding-overofwindowsnortheuseofclothfalseceilingswasunusual,architecturallyortheatrically,indoors.Courttheatersasearlyas1522hadbeencompletelycoveredbylarge,star-studdedcloths,welldescribedbyJohnOrrellinTheHumanStage.51InthesecondJacobeanbanquetinghouseatWhitehall,completedin1622,wheretodayonecanseetwoordersofwindows,Jonesboardedoverthe
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lowerwindows,turningtheminto"bastardwyndowes,"asJohnWebblatercalledthem.
52Inhisstudyofthisfamousbuilding,PerPalmedemonstratesthatatleasteightofthefourteenlowerwindowswereeitherwalledup,convertedintonichesforstatuary,orcoveredwithrichtapestries.53Here,forceremonialoccasionsparticularly,butperhapsalsoforafternoonplays,JonesemulatedtheEnglishhalltraditionofilluminationfromhighabovethemainfloor,whiletheking'sstatewasbrilliantlylitbyagreatwindowintheendwall.
ShutteredWindows
WhenDekkerspeaksofwindowsthatcouldbe"claptdowne"andAlexanderHawkinsof"woodenwindows,"theydonotrefertothecommonsashwindowsweknow,slidingsashesnothavingbeeninventeduntillateintheseventeenthcentury.54EvenwoodencasementwindowsthatcouldopenoutwardsfromaverticalhingewereuncommoninEnglanduntilInigoJonesmadethemfashionableafterhereturnedfromtheContinent.55Thus,thewindowsintheoldecclesiasticalbuildingsatBlackfriars,Whitefriars,andSt.Paul'swereprobablyframedbyheavystonetraceryandnotbywood.Ifthesewindowscouldbeopenedatall,theywouldnothaveworkedupanddownbutwouldhaveincorporatedseveralsmalllightswhoseironcasementscouldbeswungoutwardslikeadoor.ThewindowsDekkerandHawkinsrefertomusthavebeenwoodenshuttersor"shuttingwindows,"astheywerecalled.MostearlyEnglishwindowshadnoshutters,butwhentheydid,theshutterswerenormallyontheinteriorsideofthewindowandcouldbeopenedinwardlyfromthesidesortoporlessfrequentlyslidhorizontallybackandforthingroovesacrossthewindow.
Wehavenospecificevidenceofwindowsbeingclosedattheprofessionalindoortheaters,althoughrecordsof"woodenwindows"inthesecondBlackfriarsundoubtedlyrefertowoodenshuttersratherthantowoodenwindowframes.56WedoknowthatforafewafternoonperformancesatCambridgeandOxford,hallsweredarkenedbyclosingsuchshutters.57Dekker'sreferenceto"claptdowne"suggeststhattheshuttingwindowsheknewwerehingedtoatransom,butanallusionbyBenJonsontoJones'stheatrical"windows"inthesecondJacobeanbanquetinghouse,maskinghouse,orperhapseventheCockpit-in-Courtmayimplyslidingshuttingwindows.Inthe1631
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or1632poem"ToInigoMarquessWouldBe,"acorollarytothescathingattackin"AnExpostulationwithInigoJones,"Jonsoncontrastedatruearchitect'sachievementswithJones'stheatrical"shopp/Wthslydingwindowes,&falseLights."
58
Dekkeralsomakesclearthatwhenshuttingwindowswereemployed,theywereclosedbeforethebeginningoftheperformance.Theirbeingclappeddown"ifsomeNocturnal,ordismallTragedywerepresentlytobeacted"meansthattheycouldnothavebeenusedtoindicatedarkness,say,inanyillusionisticsenseasthesceneoftheplaychangedfromdaytonight.Someonewouldhavehadtositbesideeachwindowandopenandclosetheshuttersoncueasthetimeoftheplaywassupposedtochange.Iventuretosaytheexpenseofhiringapprenticestoperformthisdutywouldhaveeliminatedthepracticefromnormalconsideration.Sincetheshuttingwindowswereclappeddownatthebeginningoftheplayandsincetheirclosingwasassociatedwiththeoverallmoodoftheplayratherthanwiththespecifictimesoftheplay'saction,thedarknessDekkeralludestoisartistic,compositionallightingratherthanrealistic,motivationallighting.
Dekkertellsustheshuttingwindowswerealsoclosedfor"nocturnals,"butwhatkindofshowsthesewereisnotrecorded.W.J.Lawrencedescribesthenocturnalasasubgenreofcomedyinwhichdarknesscausesthemajorcomplications.59Hefindsahalf-dozenplaysfromboththepublicandprivatetheaterrepertoriesthatfithisdescriptionsamongthem,AMidsummerNight'sDream,TheMerryDevilofEdmonton,andTheDutchCourtesan.Butnotoneoftheplaysheciteswasevercalledanocturnalincontemporarydocuments,
andotherevidenceregardingthenocturnalhardlysupportsLawrence'stheory.InanundatedJacobeanprospectusforamammoth,butunrealized,amphitheater,planswereannouncedtopresent"NOCTURNALLSofvnexpressable[thatis,mute]Figures;Visions,andApparitionsFigureingdeepeMelanchollyandvnusuallRepresentationes."60Thesenocturnalswereapparentlysaddumbshowsratherthancomedies.
Inanotherpamphlet,Dekkerimpliesthatnocturnalsweremoresolemnthantragedies.Undertherubric"Playhousesstandempty,"inhisWorkeforArmorours,Dekkerdescribestheplagueof16089,whentheplayhousedoorswerelockedand"thePlayersthemseluesdidneuerworketillnowe,thereComodiesareallturnedtoTragedies,thereTragediestoNocturnals,andthebestofthemareallwearyofplayinginthoseNocturnallTragedies."61
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Nowifcomediesbecametragediesduringtheplagueandtragediesbecamenocturnals,thenitseemsnocturnalsmusthavebeenmelancholyindeed.SinceDekkerstatesthattheregularplayhouseswereempty,thesenocturnalsandnocturnaltragediesmusthavebeenpresentedelsewhere.WeknowthattheKing'smen,Queen'smen,Prince'smen,andtheQueen'sRevelschildrenofBlackfriarsallperformedduringthe16089winterseasonatcourtandthattheKing'smenreceivedspecialremuneration"fortheirprivatepractiseinthetimeofinfeccon."
62DoesDekkermeanby"thebestofthem"performing"NocturnallTragedies"duringtheplaguethatthesecompaniesplayedatnightforroyaltyandthenobility?Marston'sAntonioandMellida(London,1602)mentions"nocturnallcourtdelights"(E3),whichmightreinforcesuchaconstruction.Doesheimplyby"thePlayersthemseluesdidneuerworketillnowe''thattheactorsweresohardputtoearnalivingthattheyperformedwheneverandwherevertheycouldandthat,inconsequence,theirplaysbecamesadandmelancholylikenocturnals?Ordoeshemeanthat,inplaguetime,allthatwasfittingtobeperformedatnightweresadsongsorpoems,likeJohnDonne'stouching"NocturnaluponSt.Lucy'sDay,beingtheShortestday"(1631),orthelaterecclesiasticalreadingwhere"Fryeries...saytheOfficesforthedead,andcauseaNocturnaltoberehearsed"?63Atallevents,thenocturnalappearstohavebeenaveryminordramaticformjudgingbythedearthoftheatricalreferencestoit.Alargercorpusofdramamayfairlybedesignated"dismallTragedy";butwhenDekkerassociatedclosedwindowswithbothtypesofplays,Iwonderwhetherhewaspointingtoanessentialdifferenceorsimilaritybetweenthem.Inthelattercase,"dismallTragedy"asusedinTheSevenDeadlieSinnsofLondonwouldbesynonymouswiththe"NocturnallTragedies"intheWorkeforArmorours,andwecouldassumethatprivateplayswererarely
performedwiththeshuttingwindowsclosed.
Moreover,thereisthepossibilitythattheclosingoftheshuttingwindowshadlittletodowithreducingtheamountofdaylight.AllDekkermaymeanisthatwhenplayswereperformednocturnally(thatis,atnight),thewindowsandshutterswereclosed.Peopletendtocloseshuttersanddrapesatnighttocovertheblackholesinthewall,tokeepoutnightvapors,andtopreventpassersbyfrompeepinginside.ForthePyramusandThisbyplayinAMidsummerNight'sDream,forexample,Bottommakesthestartlingsuggestionthatthewindowcasementsofthehallbeopenedsothatrealmoonshine
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mightlightthescene(3.1).Actorsperformingsurreptitiouslyatnightduringtheplagueintavernswouldcertainlyhaveclosedthewindows,iffornootherreasonthantopreventnonpayingpatronsfromwatchingperformancesorofficialsfromreportingthem.Atanyrate,theclosingofwindowsandshutterswasprobablymoreafunctionofthecomfortoftheaudienceandactorsthanoftheaestheticenvironment.Inthedepthofwinter,windowsandshuttersmightbeclosedtokeepoutthecold;butowingtothesmokeandfumesofthecandles,Iimaginetheywerenothabituallyclosedtherestoftheyear.AftertheRestoration,PepysmentionsopenwindowsatKilligrew'sDruryLaneseveraltimes,butalwaysinthespring.
Beforeturningtotheartificialilluminationoftheprivatetheaters,weshouldhavesomenotionoftheamountofnaturallightthatsuchwindowsintroducedintotheplayhouseauditoriums.Wecanphysicallymeasurelightinextanthalls,butthecalculationofnaturallightwithinabuildingnolongerstandingisobviouslyinexact,dependingonthevaryingpowerandchangingdirectionoflightfromoutside(includingobstructionfromneighboringbuildings,buttresses,andthelike),thelocationandsizeofthewindows,thetypeofglazing,andthereflectanceoftheroom'sinterior.Byassumingthepresenceofanaverageovercastsky(astandardestablishedbytheCommissionInternationaledel'Eclairage)andbyusingprotractorsforthedeterminationofdaylightfactorsfromarchitecturaldrawings(availablefromtheBuildingResearchStationofGreatBritain),alongwithothersimplifyingconveniences,however,onecanestimatethepercentageoflightfromtheskythatabuilding'swindowswilladmitinside.
64
IntheMiddleTemplehall,themanylargewindowspermitroughly
twopercentofthetotallightfromtheskytoreachthestage.Iftheskyisbrightlyovercast,theluminanceonstageequalsabouteighteenfootcandlesbutdecreasestoaroundtwoorthreefootcandlesondarkwinterdaysat3P.M.Ontheotherhand,thefewsmallwindowsoftheJonesplayhousewillintroducelessthanhalfasmuchlight,thequantityonstagerangingfromunderonefootcandleondarkafternoonstosevenoreightfootcandlesonbright,overcastafternoons.TheCockpit-in-Courtwithitstwoordersofwindowswouldhavebeenalittlebrighter,reachingapproximatelyninefootcandlesonbright,overcastdaysat3P.M.,assumingforthemomentthatnoneofthewindowswasboardedup.
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TheselevelsofbrightnessarelowerthantheaverageilluminationmeasuredatthenewGlobe.Candlessupplementedthenaturallightindoors,ofcourse,butitshouldbeborneinmindthatalltheselevelsrepresentmeasurable,notapparent,brightness.Abrightlylitlocationoutdoorswillhavealevelofilluminationbetweenonethousandtothreethousandfootcandles,whilewindowlitpapersonadesktypicallyreflectonlythreetoeightfootcandles.
65Yetobserverscancomfortablyaccustomtheireyestoviewingbothafteronlyafewminutes.Therangeofhumanvisualadaptationisthuseasilymorethanonethousandtoone.Becausetheratioofnaturallightattheamphitheaterstothatatthehallplayhouseswasatmostthirtytoone,theadaptationrequiredtoseebothstagesasequallybrightfallswellwithinthepossiblehumanrange.Inconsequence,wemustnotthinkoftheadultprivatetheatersasdim,atleastnotintheearlyafternoon.Onthecontrary,wemayimaginethemassatisfactorilylitevenbyourownstandardsandentirelyadequatebymedievalandearlymodernstandards.
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7TheatricalLightingatCourtLongbeforetheyestablishedprofessionalindoorplayhouses,troupesofadultandboyplayershadactedfrequentlybeforeTudormonarchsunderartificiallightinthehallsofstate.BythetimeofQueenElizabeth,responsibilityforthelightingoftheseperformancesfellprimarilytotheRevelsOfficeinthequeen'shousehold,andsincemanyofitsaccountssurvive,wecanreconstructagooddealoftypicallightingarrangementsatcourt.Undoubtedly,theseaccountsgiveuscluesastowhatprofessionalprivatetheaterlightingwaslike,butwecannotassumethatcourtmethodsinevitablyfiltereddown(orup)totheplayhousescateringtothegeneralpublic.IofferasummaryoftheartificiallightatcourtbywayofdescribingcourtlightingtechniquesandcontemporarytheatricalequipmentandinhopesthatRevelsOfficerecordswillplacethemorescatteredreferencestoprofessionalplayhouselightinginunderstandablecontexts.
PerformanceTimes
Theextensiveuseofartificialilluminationatcourtwasprimarilyafunctionofthewintertimeseasonandlatehoursatwhichmostperformancesweregiven.UnderbothTudorandStuartmonarchs,playsandmasquesatcourtnormallybeganaround10P.M.androutinelystretchedwellbeyondmidnight.TarletonissaidtohaveactedbeforeElizabethuntiloneo'clockinthemorning,andforeignambassadorsoccasionallycomplainedof10P.M.startingtimesandrevelsextendinguntil1:30and2inthemorning.WhenJon-
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son'sPleasureReconciledtoVirtueendedearlyonthemorningof17January1618,forexample,OrazioBusino,chaplaintotheVenetianembassy,grumbledaboutwendinghiswayhomeat2A.M."halfdisgustedandexhausted."
1
Giventhelackofcompleterecords,however,Chambers'sconclusionthat"courtperformanceswerealwaysatnight"maybetoocategoricaland,atanyrate,doesnotapplytolateJacobeanandCarolinepractice,whichfellbeyondhisscope.2Accordingtolateraccounts,theKing'smenperformedFletcher'sRollo,DukeofNormandyattheCockpit-in-Courtduringthe"daytimeatWhitehall"on21February1631andLodowickCarlell's1ArviragusandPhiliciaatHamptonCourtonthe"Afternoon''of26December1636,forexample.3HowmanyotherCarolineplaysandmasqueshaddaytimepresentationsatcourtisdifficulttosaybecausethebestsourceofinformationinthisregard,themasteroftherevels,SirHenryHerbert,didnotalwaysbothertonotethetimesofperformancesprecisely.Ofthenearlysixdozenplaysandmasquesatcourtmentionedinhisofficebook,Herbertindicatesthat52percentwereat"night,"5percentonagiven"day,"and2percentonan"afternoon,"while42percentofhisrecordsgivenoindicationofthetimeofperformance.4
Othersources,liketheDeclaredAccountsoftheChamber,alsorarelylistperformancetimesatcourt,buttheyoccasionallyindicatetwoseparateperformancesonthesameday.Forinstance,theKing'smenperformedtwiceonboth6and17January1608.5BecausemostofthesemultipleperformanceswereinFebruary,matineesmayormaynothavebeenperformedaftersunset,whichoccurredaround4:45P.M.atthebeginningofthemonthandafter5:30P.M.attheend.Thefirstperformanceofaplayon1January1604musthavestartedearly
enoughtoallownotonlyforanotherplay(presumablyAMidsummerNight'sDream)butalsoforamasqueandbanquetafterwards.6Andbecausebothplayswereactedbythesamecompany(theKing'smen)whowouldhaverequiredsomesortofbreakbetweenperformancesthefirstplaymaywellhavebeenperformedbeforesunset.
Althoughmostcourtproductionsinthewintermusthavebeenperformedwithoutbenefitofnaturallight,weshouldneverthelessrecallthatthehallsinwhichtheseproductionscametolifewere,asarule,generouslyfenestrated.WehavealreadynotedthatthehallatHamptonCourtisilluminatedbysixteenlargeandfoursmallwindows.TheElizabethanbanquetinghouseatWhitehallhadatleastsixty-threecasementwindowsinadditiontotwo
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greatbaywindows.
7ThewallsofthefirstJacobeanbanquetinghousewerepiercedwithforty-sixdouble-casementwindowsintwoorders,andJones'ssurvivingbanquetinghouseismagnificentlylitbytwenty-eightlargesidewindows,alsointwoorders.8Thatsomeofthesewindowswereoccasionallycoveredwithtapestriesorboardedover,however,suggestsapartialdiminutionofnaturallight,evenifthereasonforcoveringwindowshadmoretodowiththemechanicsofplacingofdegreesinfrontofthemthanwithaestheticconsiderations.Ontheotherhand,wefindareferenceintheaccountsoftheOfficeofWorkstotheapparenteliminationofdaylightinthehallatWhitehall.In1625,carpenterswerepaidfor"[b]oardingvppallthewyndowesintheHall,settingvpprayles,andboardesvppontheDegreesandfittingtheHallforPlayes,"implyingdaytimeperformancestherethatemulatedanighttimeatmosphere.9Butbecausethereisonlythisoneexplicitrecordofboardingupallthewindows,wecanimaginethatnaturallightnormallymingledwithcandlelightwhenperformancesbeganbeforesunset.
LightingEquipment
ExtantRevelsOfficeaccountsfrequentlytelluswhatsortsoflightinginstrumentsilluminatedtheaudiences,actors,andmasquersatcourt.Butbecausetheaccountsrunbytheseason,itisdifficulttodistinguishbetweenthefacilitiesmadeavailableforthevariouskindsofentertainmentthattheRevelsOfficesupervised.Rarelycanindividualexpendituresbelinkedtospecificmasques,plays,dates,andlocationstoprovidedetailedpicturesofgivenperformances.Instead,wemustsettleforageneralideaofstandardElizabethanlightingequipmentandproceduresbeforeInigoJonesmadeseveralimportantchangesincourtlighting.
JudgingbytheRevelsOfficeaccounts,theprincipallightinQueenElizabeth'shallscamefromcandlesmountedinwhatwerecalledbranches.Thecandlesweregenerallyoftallow,notwax,andwerepurchasedinthreedifferenttypeswick,cotton,andwhite.Wickcandleshadwicksofflaxorrushes;theywerecheaperthantheothersbutwereboughtinfrequently.Cottoncandlesweremadeoftallowimpregnatingcottonstrandsandwerebyfarthemostpopulartype.Theycameinvarioussizesbutwereoftenquitelarge,typicallyweighingapoundapiece.Whitelightswereusedlessoftenandwererathersmall.Theirnamederivedfromthebleachedtallowusedintheirmanufacture.
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Thebranchessofrequentlymentionedintheaccountswerecandelabrausuallysuspendedabovethehallaschandeliers.Inhallswithhigh-pitchedroofs,brancheswerenothungdirectlyfrombeamsorraftersbutfromwiresstretchedacrossthehallfromonewalltoanother.For"BraunchesthatbarethelightesinthehallatHamptonCoorte,"forexample,theRevelsOfficebought"Wyertostraynecrossethehall&tohangthebrauncheswiththelightes,"whilecarpenterssuppliedvicesandwinches"todrawthewyerstightewhereonthelightesdidhangcrossethehall."
10WeknowthatoneplaybyLeicester'smen(ofwhomJamesBurbagewasamember)andanotherbytheMerchantTaylors'children,aswellastwoshortmasques,wereperformedunderthesehanginglightson21and23February1574.ThefollowingChristmas,whentheChildrenoftheChapelandLeicester'sandLincoln'smenacted,"Wyerofthegreatesorte"wasagainpurchased''tohangortostraynecrossethehallatHamptonCoorte."InacanvasandlathbanquetinghouseatWhitehall,twenty-fourbranchesand"Wyertohangthemby"aswellas"Greatewyersthatwentcrossthehall"wereprovidedforaJune1572masque.11SimilarentriespertainingtothehallsandtemporarybanquetinghousesatWhitehall,Windsor,andGreenwichforplaysbysuchtroupesasWarwick's,Sussex's,Chamberlain's,andtheChildrenofSt.Paul'sandtheChapeldemonstratethathangingbrancheswerecommonforprofessionalplaysatcourt.
ThenumberofbranchesusedinElizabeth'svarioushallsfallswithinanarrowrangenormallytwenty-eightortwenty-nine.AtWhitehallin1572,therewereonlytwenty-four,andatRichmondin1575,onlynineteen.12Butbythe1580s,thequantityhadincreased,andthebrancheswerefurthermorenumberedintwodistinctsizes,regularly
designatedintheaccountsasgreatandsmall.AtWindsorin1583,twenty-sixsmallbranchesandthreegreatoneslitthehallwheretheLordChamberlain'smenplayed.AteitherGreenwichorSomerset(theaccountsarenotclear),thereweretwenty-foursmallandfourgreatbranchesinthe158485season.13Whilevaryingslightlyovertheyears,thenumbersatWhitehallshowhowstandardizedtheElizabethanarrangementswere.InFebruary1579,fourteensmallbranchesweremended,andeightsmallandthreegreatwerenewlypurchased.ForChristmastideentertainmentsin157980,thereweretwenty-sixsmallandthreegreat,andagainthefollowingChristmas,twenty-sixsmallandthreegreat.14Jacobeanarrangementsweremoregenerous.In1611,theRevelsOfficeincreasedthenumberoflargebranchesinthefirstJacobeanbanquetinghousetotwelve.
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Ayearlater,thirty-sixlargebrancheswereordered;thesemusthavesupportedalargenumberofcandles,butassomethirtyplayswereperformedthatseasoninvariouslocationsaswellastwomasquesinthebanquetinghouseandoneinthehallatWhitehall,itisimpossibletoestimatetheamountoflightforanyoneperformance.
15
HowthebrancheswerearrangedabouttheEnglishhallscannotbedeterminedfromtheaccounts.ButtheVenetianchaplainwhosawJonson'sPleasureReconciledtoVirtuethroughtothebitterendinJanuary1618happenstotellusthattherewere"tworowsoflights"inthebanquetinghouse,thesmallbranchesapparentlyhavingbeeneliminatedentirely.16UnderElizabeth,thethreeorfourgreatbrancheswereprobablyhungoverthestageorthecenterofthehallwhiletenortwelvesmallbranchesweredistributedtoeachside,perhapsmountedasbranchedsconces.Lightmayhavebeenconcentratedneartheactors,butevidenceforsuchapracticeisnotforthcominguntillateintheperiod.Indeed,becausesomanyElizabethanarrangementswereobligedtoserveforbothplaysandmasques,inwhichlargedancingareasneededtobelit,wecanassumethatarelativelyevendistributionoflightprevailed.
Someofthebranchescouldbeloweredbywiresandpulleyssothatthecandlescouldbelit,snuffed,andextinguished.Lines,ropes,andpulleysarefrequentlymentionedintheaccounts,butthereareonlyafewexplicitreferencestotheraisingandloweringoflights.In1576,wiredrawerssupplied"TenpoundofwyerfortheComingvpofthesmalllightes"atWhitehall,andin1612"8.newPullyesfortheBranches"werepurchased.17Specialutensilsmentionedforthemanagementoflightinclude"Alongstaftoreachevp&downeyelightes''forWhitehallplaysormasquesin1574and"Dowtes
[doubters,thatis,extinguishers]forCandells"and"snuffersvjpaire"in157980.18Suchutensilsarenothabituallymentioned,however,andIassumethatthesewereusedasstagepropertiesbytorchbearersinmasques.The1527accountsforthebuildinganddecorationofthebanquetinghouseatGreenwichlist"4greatcansor[of?]reedstolightthecandles";perhapssuchutensilsremainedrelativelysimpleovertheyears.19IntheearlyJacobeanaccounts,themasterwiredrawernormallychargedexpensesforsixassistantsworkingbothdayandnightimmediatelybeforeeachperformance.By1633,fivemenwererequiredtoworksixdaysandsixnightseachtohangbranchesinthehallatWhitehall.20Thewiredrawerssawtotheinstallation,
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decoration,andrepairofthelightsratherthantotheirbeinglitandsnuffed,dutiesthatwerehandledbyservantsofthehallorchamber.
Onlyoccasionallydotheaccountsindicatehowmanycandlesweresupportedbyeachbranch.InJune1572,awiredrawerwaspaid"forwhiteRowndeplatesturndeinwithacrestforxxiiijbraunchesechebearingiiij(forlightes)."
21Withonlyfourcandlesoneachbranch,Ipresumethesearewhattheaccountselsewherecallsmallbranches.Forthe16045season,however,eight"Gre[a]ttBranchestoholdefiftingreatLightesApece"wereacquiredpresumablyforthegreatchamberinWhitehall.22Ifthesefiguresforsmallandgreatbranchesaretypical,thenwemayestimatethattheaveragetotalnumberofcandlesforcourtperformancesfrom1576toaround1588wasforty-fiveinthesmallbranchesandninety-sixinthegreatbranches,oratotalof141candles.
Jacobeanaveragesarelarger.In1605,thegreatbranchessupported120candles,andthesmallonesatleastthirty-two,probablymore.In1611,whentwelvenewbranches"ofthelargestsort"werepurchased,therewasaminimumof180candlesinallshiningoverhead.23Itwasunderthisparticularsplendor,weknow,thatearlyproductionsofTheTempestandTheWinter'sTaleweregiven.Thenextyear,theRevelsOfficepurchasedthirty-sixgreatbranchescontainingfifteenlightseachforvarioushalls.BytheendofJames'sreign,however,thesizeofthebranchesalsoseemstohavegrown:in1621,branchesthatheldfifteenlightswerecalled"ordinary"incontrasttomoreexpensive"greate"branchesthatweregarnishedwithgiltandcrowns.24
Thatthegreatbranchesheldninety-sixcandlesin1572isconfirmedbythepurchaseofninety-sixcorresponding"plates,"whichisa
common,thoughsomewhatambiguous,termthroughouttheaccounts.Theterm"plate"seemstohavebeenusedinatleastfoursenses:(1)shallowpansbeneaththecandlestocatchdrippings;(2)metalsheetsplacedabovethecandlestoprotecttheceilingfromburning;(3)mountingsforwallbrackets,perhapsreflective;and(4)giltorsilverplatingonbranches,candlesticks,orwallbrackets.Sinceoneplatewasoftenprovidedforeachcandle,onepurposewastopreventtallowdrippingsandcharredwicksfromfallingonthespectatorsandplayersbelow,aswastrueatGreenwichin1520and1527whenlargebranchesstoodingiltbasinsattachedtothetopsofpostsservingaspartofthedegreesaccommodatingtheaudience.25ForChristmastideplaysandmasquesateitherHamptonCourtorGreenwichin157273,therewere
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"Rowndeplatesforsockettes"and"wyertohangthemby,"implyingthatoneplatewasattachedtoeachcandlesocket.
26
Atothertimes,however,plateswereattachedtotheceiling,notaboveeachcandlebutabovetheentirebranch.In1605,forexample,onelargeplatewasprovidedforeachoftheeightbranchesatWhitehall"tokepeyeGreatbranchesfor[from?]bur[n]ingeyeRoufeofyeChamber."27PerhapsthegreatchamberatWhitehallhadadangerouslylowceiling.Eventhebrickbanquetinghousebuiltin1607requiredsimilarprotection;thereisnomentionofplatesforitsceiling,whichpresumablywashigh,butin1612fourdozenlarge"pastbordestosavetheColloumes"wereordered.28Apparentlythe"tworowsoflights"inthebanquetinghousewereattachedtocolumnsarisingfromeachsidegallerytosupporttheroof.Iftheolderbanquetinghouseshadhorizontalceilingsasthepresentbanquetinghousedoes,platescouldeasilyhavebeenattachedtotheirpaintedcanvasceilings.Butthismethodwouldhavebeenunnecessaryinhallswithhigh-pitchedroofs.Jones'sbanquetinghousecertainlydidnothaveplatesattachedtoitsceiling,asaconstantfearwasthatsmokefromthecandleswoulddamageRubens'spaintingsthere.Infact,CharlesIwasobligedtobuildawoodenmasquinghousein1637because,asonecourtierexplained,"theKingwillnothavehisPicturesintheBanqueting-househurtwithLights."29
Branchesusuallyrequiredroundplates,butotherkindsofplateswereassociatedwithwallbracketsandcandlesticks.ForautumnrehearsalsinthegreatchamberatSt.John'sofJerusaleminBlackfriars(wheretheRevelsOfficeitselfwaslocatedin1580),eightinexpensive"PlatesfortohangevponWallestosett.vCandellsin"wereprocured.30Thesemusthavebeenfive-branchedwallbracketswith
platesprotectingthewalls.OtherplatesboughtbytheRevelsOfficearespecifiedas"forpillers,"for"Boordes,""forwalls,"and''forhattes."31Thislastreferenceto"Plateswithholesforhattes"hasbeentakentoimplyalantern-likeutensilinwhichacandle,securedtoaflatplate,wassurroundedbyacylindrical"hat"attachedtotheplatethroughholes.32Somethinglikethisispossible,butsuchaninterpretationisbasedentirelyonamodernuseoftheterm"hat"(from"stovepipehat,"anineteenth-centurycoinage)todescribethereflectiveshieldsaroundgasfootlightsandearlyelectricspotlights.
Plateswerealsoacquiredforusewithsimplecandlesticks.Wehearof"PlatesforsmallCanstickes"in1573and"PlatesfortheCandlestickes"thefollowingyear.Therearealsorecordsof"Dubbleplatecandlestickes"in1572
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and1573andof"BranchesmaiedofDobllwhitPlat"in1611.
33Theseprobablyrefertodrippansortoplated,thatis,gildedorsilver-plated,branches.OtherextravaganciesincludedthreeCaroline"Cristall"branchesandaJacobeanbranchorbranchestrimmedwithfortydozen"Lookingglasses,"thatis,smallmirrorsorcrystals.34Ontheotherhand,thedecorationofotherbranches,eventhoselightingtheauditorium,wasessentiallytheatrical:agooddealoftroublewastakentogarnishbrancheswithinexpensivemetalfoilcalledarsedine,cutintointricateshapessuchasroses,tassels,andpendantsinordertomakethemappearmorerich.
Truecandlestickswerepurchasedinalargevarietyofstyleshand,stock,small,high,vice,andprick.Someofthesenamesexplainthemselves:handcandlestickswerecarried;prickcandlestickssupportedcandlesnotinsocketsbutimpaledonmetalspikes.Iassumehighandsmallcandlesticksstoodonfloorsandtablesrespectively,butotherexplanationsarepossible.Icanoffernoprecisedefinitionsoftheattributives"stock"and"vice."In157980,twelvestockcandlestickswereacquired"forpainters"whooftenworkedlateintothenightfinishingthegarnishingsforthehalls.35Probablytheyweresimplymadeofwood.Vicecandlestickswerethemostexpensive,costingashillingapiece.Theword"vice''maydescribeamethodofsecuringthecandlesbysidepressure,butitmorelikelyreferstoscrewclampsofsomesort,bywhichthecandlestickscouldbefastenedtorailings,scenery,cornices,andthelike.
Smallandstockcandlestickswereboughtinlargenumbers,sometimesasmanyasfourdozeninoneholidayseason.High,vice,hand,andprickcandlestickswereboughtinsmallerquantities,usuallylessthanadozenatatime.Foranygivenseason,however,onlytwoorthreestyleswerepurchased.In157273,forexample,the
RevelsOfficeobtainedfourdozensmallbutonlytwelvehighandtwelvevicecandlesticks.Thenextyear,thenumberofhighcandlestickswasdecreasedtosix.Thefollowingyearsawthepurchaseoffourdozenstockandsixvicebutnosmallorhighcandlesticks.HandandprickstyleswereboughtonlytwiceeachintheElizabethanandJacobeanyearsforwhichwehaverecords.36
Theusestowhichthesecandlestickswereputvaried.Somewereusedasstageproperties,asoneobviouslywasin1574whena"silktreeforAdeviseinoneoftheCandellstickes"wasmadeforaCandlemasplayormasqueatHamptonCourt.Awaxchandleralsoprovidedsixornatelydecoratedcandlesticksandsix"sweetelightesofwhitewex,"presumablyforthemasque,
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sinceitwasdescribedasa"MaskeofLadieswithlightesbeingvjvertues."
37Othercandlesticksmayhavebeencarriedbythetorchbearers,whoregularlyaccompaniedthemasquers.
AlthoughtheRevelsOfficepurchasedsuchutensilsformasques,itseemslikelythatprofessionalactorssuppliedsomeoralloftheirownpropertylights.Butevenforthemasquesthatitproduced,theRevelsOfficedoesnotseemtohaverecordedpaymentsforallthelightingequipmentandmaterialnecessary.AtleastthatisonewayofinterpretingtheremarkableconsistencywithwhichtheStuartRevelsOfficespentpreciselythreepoundseachseason,yearinandyearout,"forTorches,lights,andCandles,ashathbeeneaccustomed."38Onemighthavethought,becausesomeyearswitnessedconsiderablymoreentertainmentsthanothers,thatagooddealofvariationintheamountofchandlerygoodspurchasedwouldreflectvariationsinthenumberoflightsrequired.Butalthoughthenumberofcandlesticksandbranchesorderedeachyearvariesgreatly,theamountspentoncandlesandtorchesdoesnot.Threepoundswouldnormallybuyapproximatelyeighthundredtallowcandlesandseveraldozentorches,whichwouldprovidesufficientlightingforperhapssixorsevenmodestentertainmentsalongthelinesofthoseunderElizabeth.
ButtheearlyStuartsregularlyenjoyedmanymoreeveningsofrevelsthansixorsevenandapparentlyviewedthemundermoreamplelight.Hence,thefigureofthreepoundsismuchtoolowtoaccountforallthelightingrequired.InoneoftheyearsforwhichtheRevelsOfficerecordedpurchasesofonlythreepoundsforlights,wearefortunatetohaveaseparatememorandum,dated31December1631,onthebackofoneofJones'sdesignsforAlbion'sTriumph,requestingthepurchaseoffourdozentorches,threedozen"ordinary"torches,
sixteendozenwaxlightsforthebranches,andtwohundredsises,orsmalldevotionalcandles.39Thememorandumdoesnotgivethecostoftheselights,butbyitselfthisorderwoulduseupnearlyhalftheyearlylightingallotmentoftheRevelsOffice.Evenmorebrightlylit(andundoubtedlythemostextravagantmasqueoftheera)wasJamesShirley'sTheTriumphofPeace(performedatthebanquetinghouse,3February1634,andrepeatedattheMerchantTaylors'Hall,13February1634).AlthoughtheRevelsOfficeagainrecordedapaymentofonlythreepoundsforlightsthatyear,thecombinedresourcesofthebenchersoftheInnsofCourtspentnolessthan£142ontorchesforthetwoevents.40Suchasumcouldpurchasenearly
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athousandtorchesandsomefiftyflambeauxforeachpresentation,althoughmanyofthesemusthavebeendeployedfora"shewthroughthestreets,"whichSirHenryHerbertfound"glorious."
41WearelefttosurmisethattheRevelsOfficeprovidedlightingforgeneralilluminationofplaysandmasquesbutthatmanyofthetorchescarriedbythetorchbearersandatleastsomeofthespeciallightingarrangementsassociatedwithJones'sincreasinglyelaboratescenerywerepaidforbyothercourtfunds,bythesponsorsofmasques,or(lesslikely)fromJones'sownfees.PerhapsanunstateddistinctionaboutwhowasresponsiblefortheilluminationoftheearlofSalisbury's1607EntertainmentoftheKing&QueenatTheobaldsliesbehindtheequivocalcommentintheinventoryofexpensesthat''MrIoneshathallthewaxelightestorchesandcandlestickes."42
Itisreasonabletoassumethattheresponsibilitiesforpaymentmayhavebeendeterminedbythedifferentpurposestowhichvariouslightswereput.AftertheRestoration,lightingexpensesareclearlydividedamongsuchcategoriesas(1)tallowcandlesfortheplayers'rehearsalanddressing-roomneeds;(2)waxcandlesforthebranchesinthehall;(3)torchesforguards,porters,andwaiters;(4)yellowwaxlightsforthescenes;and(5)waxlightsfortheking'sandqueen'spresences.43Thepre-InterregnumRevelsOfficesdonotfurnishusthissortofdetail,butOxfordrecordsoccasionallyprovidemoreparticularcategoriesofexpenditures.FortwonighttimeplaysbeforeCharlesIatChristChurchinAugust1636,forexample,Jonespurchasedsometwenty-threedozenwaxlightstoilluminatethehallandscenerybutpurchasedonlylessexpensivetallowcandlesforthemusicroomsandtiring-roomsand"fortheBackepartoftheSceenes."44AftertheRestoration,the"vsualallowances"forlightswereproportionallysimilar:in1679,thelordchamberlaingaveorders
stipulating,ineffect,that34percentofthelightingexpendituresbeforthehall,63percentforthescenes,and3percentforthedressingroomsandbackstageareas.45
Whateverthepre-Interregnumaccountingprocedures,thememorandumforAlbion'sTriumphandtheMiddleTemplewarrantsforTheTriumphofPeacedemonstratethatbytheearly1630s,largenumbersofwaxlightsilluminatedJones'sspectacles.Withtheliteraryinhibitionsof"BenJonsonbeing...discarded,"asonecourtgossipputit,Jonescouldaccomplishhisgoalofmakingmasques"nothingelsebutpictureswithLightandMotion."46
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StageLightingforMasques
Beforereturningtotheprofessionalplayhouses,weshouldcontrastthetheatricalilluminationtypicaloftheTudorcourtwiththemoreelaborateilluminationthatInigoJonesarrangedforStuartmasques.Atthetimethatadultactorsbegantoinhabittheprivatehallplayhouses,Jonesintroducedimportantinnovationsinstagelightingforthesophisticatedamateurperformersinmasques.Theseinnovationsconcernedthecolor,placement,andmovementoflightonhisscenes.Jonesusuallyexperimentedwithallthreeoftheseaspectsatonce,butearlyinhiscareer,coloredlightseemstohavefascinatedhimmost.InJonson'sMasqueofBeauty,forexample,performedinthebanquetinghouseatWhitehallon2February1609,Jonescreateda"tralucentPillar,shiningwithseuerall-colour'dlights";andinthenextyear,thefriezesoftheHouseofFameintheMasqueofQueens"werefilldwthseuerall-colourdLights,likeEmeralds,Rubies,Saphires,Carbuncles,&c."
47Forafewyears,coloredlightshiningthrougharchitecturalscenicelementswastherage:theMasqueofFlowers,performedbythegentlemenofGray'sInnatthebanquetinghouseon6January1614,featuredpyramids"glisteringwithtransparentlights,resemblingcarbuncles,saphires,andrubies."48Theseeffectsmayhavebeenaccomplishedbyplacinglightsbehindcoloredglassorcoloredoiledpaper.InthesecondbookofhisRegolegeneralidiarchitectura(Paris,1545)andagainintheEnglishtranslationof1611,theItaliandesignerSebastianoSerliosuggestsplacinglightsbehindglass,paper,orpaintedclothinhiscomicscenesothat"alltheroundelsandQuadranswhichyouseeintheBuildings,theyareartificialllightscuttingthrough,ofdiuerscolours.''49Jonesfrequentlymadewholepiecesofsceneryglowbythismethod.InOberon(1January1611,
banquetinghouse,Whitehall),afterthecustomaryscenewithadarkrock,agloriouspalaceisdiscovered"whosegatesandwallsweretransparent";thispalace,inturn,openedtorevealfairiesbearinglights,which,presumably,furnishedtheilluminationthatradiatedthroughthetransparentshutters.50
Tostrengthentheeffectofcolor,Serliorecommendsplacingspecialbottlesorglassesfilledwithcoloredwaterinfrontoflampstoactaslenses.Theseglasseswerethenplacedsothattheyprojectedthroughsmallholescutinthescenery.Thus,inJonson'sEntertainmentoftheKing&QueenatTheobalds,22May1607,aftertheopeninggloomyscenelitbyonlyonelight,
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agloriousshrineisdiscovered,inthecolumns,frieze,andcorniceofwhich"wereplaceddiuersDiaphanallglasses,fill'dwithseuerallwaters,thatshew'dlikesomanystones,oforientandtransparenthiewes."
51Thenextyear,Jonesjotteddownalistofexpensesontheversoofadesignforanothermurkyscene,chargingthreeshillingseightpence"forglassesforyeRocke,"apparentlyalsoforcoloredlightinamasquetoentertainJamesinthelibraryofSalisburyHouseintheStrand,May1608.52
OneofthefewdiscussionsofearlymodernstagelightingwasoccasionedbyaminordebateaboutwhetherlampsorcandlesburnedbehindthesebottlestoilluminateJones'sscenes.BasinghisviewonItalianpracticeandtheEnglishtranslationofSerlio,AllardyceNicollmaintainedthat"lampsweremoreconvenientlyadapted"thancandles"forback-stagework,"butC.F.Bellassertedthatoilwasneverused.53Bell'sargumentisthestronger:hisanalysisofSerlio'sinfluenceonJonesiswellinformedandjudicious,andthereisnoevidenceofanywidespreaduseoflampsoutsidethekitcheninStuartEngland.Moreover,theRevelsOfficeaccountsclearlydemonstratethatcandlessuppliedtheprincipalilluminationofbothauditoriumandstage.
Allthesame,Bellmayoverstatethecase.Foronething,hemakesnodistinctionbetweentheutensilsprovidingoverallilluminationofthestageandthosepositionedinopeningsinthescenerytoproducecoloredlight.Heleavestheimpressionthatmostofthelightonstagepassedthroughbottles,whereastheactualnumberofinstancesinwhichglassesarecalledforissmallandconfinedtotheyearsfrom1607to1614orso.Toclinchhisargumentagainsttheuseoflamps,Bellcitesthe1631memorandum,alreadyreferredto,requesting
sixteendozenwaxlightsforbranchesinadditiontotorchesandsises.Hereasonsthat"theexpenditureofsuchagreatquantityofwaxcanscarcelybeaccountedforunlesscandlesalonewereinuseforlightingbothstageandauditorium."54Butchandeliersorbranchedwallsconceswouldbeunsuitableforprojectingcoloredlightthroughthescenes,and,atanyrate,theRevelsaccountsforthatholidayseasonmakeitclearthatmostofthesebrancheswerenotspecialtheatricalinstrumentsbutratherstandardutensilscarteddowntoWhitehallfromDenmarkandSomersetHouses.Indeed,thesixteendozenwaxlightswereundoubtedlyintendedforthesixteendozen"Wallers"and"Prickers,"thatis,wallbracketsandspikesonwhichtoimpalelargecandles.55Byconfusinggenerallightingwithspeciallycoloredlight,Bellarguesthat,becausepaymentsforlampsandoilare
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"entirelyabsentfromtheRevelsAccounts,"waxmusthaveburnedbehindJones'svials.ButBell'sassertionnotwithstanding,thereisatleastonereferenceto"lamps&Vialles"intheElizabethanRevelsaccounts,andontheauditoriumplanthatJohnOrrellsuggestsrepresentsthe1605theateratChristChurch,Oxford,isanotethat"manylightsorlampsofseueralcoulersmaybeplaced"onaporticoneartheking'sstate.
56AftertheRestoration,lampswerealsooccasionallyhungabovethescenes,asSerlioandNicolaSabbattinihadsuggested,althoughnotapparentlybehindthescenes.57
TheRevelsOfficeaccountsindicatenopurchasesofoil,andthesinglerecordoftheuseoflampsdoesnotimplyheavyuse.Thisrecord,inalongsummaryofexpensesforthe158182season,readsinpart,"CandleslinksTorcheslighteslamps&Vialles."58Thatlampswereplacedneartheendofthelistaftertheinclusive"lightes"suggeststheselampswerenotmajorexpenses.Infact,theirjuxtapositionwithvialsclearlysuggeststhattheywereusedinspecialcolored-lighteffects.Certainly,theuseoflampsratherthancandlesinconjunctionwithvialswouldhavesolvedonepracticalproblem.Thedifficultyinusingacandletoshinethroughaglassvialisthat,asthecandleburnsdown,theangleatwhichthelightisprojectedbythecondensingvialwillchange,castingthebeamofcoloredlightgraduallyhigherasthecandlegrowsshorter.Givenasubstantialreservoirofoil,however,thepositionoftheflameofafloating-wicklampremainsmoreorlessstationary,and,hence,thecoloredlightemanatingfromtheglassvialcanbefocusedinaparticulardirectionwithlessfearthatthedirectionwillchangeasthemasquewearson.Italianpracticeindicatesthatlampswerefoundmostusefulinpositionswhereitwasinconvenienttoattendtothelights.For
example,Sabbattini,whoequippedtheTeatrodelSolinPesaroaround1636,employedlampsbehindthetopofhisprosceniumarchwheretheycouldbelefttoburn,butbecausethelampssmokedprofusely,hepreferredtoplacecandlesnearhissceneswheretheycouldconvenientlybetrimmed.
Theuseofpaper,fabric,andglassbottlestocreatecoloredlightwould,ofcourse,tendtodecreasethebrightnessproducedbyanyoneflame.Apparently,somecolorsoccludedmorelightthanothers.Inhisessay"OfMasquesandTriumphs"(1625),writtenafteryearsofobservingandevensupervisingmasques,FrancisBaconadvised,"Letthescenesaboundwithlight,especiallycolouredandvaried,"butadmittedthatnotallcolors
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workedwell:"TheColoursthatshewbestbyCandle-lights,"hewrote,are"White,Carnation,andaKindofSea-Water-Greene,"inshort,relativelyunsaturatedcolors.
59Effectsproducedbyshininglightthroughliquidsofdeeperhueblues,purples,andredswereapparentlylesssuccessful.
Toproduceastrikingeffectwithcoloredlight,then,thegeneralilluminationmustbekeptdim,astheItaliandesignerLeonediSomirecognizedbythemid-sixteenthcentury.60Apparently,thiswasnotthedirectioninwhichJoneswantedtogo.ThoughJoneswasfondofdarkscenesatthebeginningofhismasques,hiscoloredlightingeffectsweremorefrequentinbrightlyilluminatedscenesthaninscenesofgloom.Andindeed,overtheyearsJonesreliedlessoncoloredlightingeffectsandmoreonsheerbrilliance;atleast,therearefewerandfewerreferencestocoloredlightinthetextsanddescriptionsofhisCarolinemasques.Itmaybethatcoloredlightwassocommonbythenthatitwentunreportedorthat,becausewearemissingsomanydescriptionsofthe"bodilypart"ofmasquesfromthe1620s,wesimplydonotpossesstherelevantdata.Still,evenwhenJoneshimselfseemstohaveprovidedthedescriptionofthemiseenscène(asforTempeRestored,1632),wehearnothingofcoloredlight.PerhapsJonestooklessinterestincolorforitsownsake;hecertainlydrewfewercolorrenderingsastheyearswentby.
Inemphasizingbrilliance,Jonesalsoexperimentedwiththeconcentrationoflightontoparticularobjectsandareas.NicollandBellassumethatmuchofthisconcentrationwasaccomplishedbyglassvials,anditispossiblethatcondensingglasseswereusedforthispurpose.Butsphericalcondensingglasseswillfocuslightonlyatadistanceequaltothedistanceoftheflamefromtheglassand,hence,couldnotilluminateanobjectsituatedmorethanafootortwofrom
theglass.Aglobeflattenedononeside,likeamodernconvexlens,wouldthrowlightfarther,ofcourse;Serliomentionsthat"ifthebottels...onthesidewherethelightstandswereflat,orratherhollow,itwouldshowtheclearer,"buthisconditionalmoodcausesonetodoubtifevenhisproximitytoVenetianglassmakerscouldregularlysupplyhimwithsuchinstruments.61CertainlytheearlybozzeglassesfoundattheTeatroOlimpicoandprominentlydiscussedbyNicollareallspherical.ThepurposeofSerlio'svialslikeJones'swasclearlylesstofocuslightontoparticularscenicelementsthantoprovidedecorativehighlightsonthescenesthemselves.
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Toeffectbrilliancebyconcentratinglight,Jonessimplyusedthemethodshehadadoptedforhisscenechangesthemachinaversatilisandthemachinaductilis.Joneshadlearnedthattoproduceaneffectofglowingbrightness,heshouldhidethesourcesoflight,placetheutensilsclosetothescene,andmaketheobjectstobelitasreflectiveaspossible,henceJones'srelianceonmetallicfabricsandmetallicsequins,orwhatFeliceinAntonioandMellida(1602)calls"glisteringcopperspangs,/ThatglisteninthetyreoftheCourt"(E3).InTheMasqueofQueens,forexample,thebrilliancesurroundingthequeensintheHouseofFamecamenotonlyfromthefriezeswith"seuerall-colouredLights"butalsofromthereflectionofthoseandotherlightsonthequeens'costumes,or,asJonsonputsit,"Thereflexeofwch,wthotherlightsplac'dinyeconcaue,vpontheMasquershabites,wasfullofglory."
62Jonesfoundsuch"concaves''usefulnotonlyasturntablesbutalsoinconcentratingthelightontoarelativelysmallarea.Thus,TheHaddingtonMasque(9February1608,banquetinghouse,Whitehall)reliedonan"illustriousConcaue,fill'dwithanampleandglisteringlight"inwhichthemasquerswerediscoveredinaturningeighteen-footsilversphere.63
Thelightsintheseconcavesweresometimeshiddenbehindreveals,castingtheirlighttowardthecenteroftheconcave.The"greatconcaueshell"inthemasqueBlackness(6January1605,banquetinghouse,Whitehall)"wasstruckwithacheu'ronoflights,which,indentedtotheproportionoftheshell,strookeagloriousbeame"onthemasquers.64Presumably,theseindentationsprovidedsupportfortheutensilsandservedtoshieldthesourcesoflightfromtheeyesoftheaudience,astheydidinGeorgeChapman'sTheMemorableMasque(inthehallatWhitehall,15February1613),wherea"rich
andrefulgentMineofgolde"featured
lights...soordered,thatthoughnonewereseene,yethadtheirlustresuchvertue,thatbyit,theleastspangleorsparkeoftheMaskersrichhabites,mightwitheaseandcleerenessebediscernedasfaroffasthestate[oftheking].65
Likehisuseofcoloredlight,Jones'stechniquesforconcentratinglightevolvedovertheyears.Earlyon,Joneswascontenttoconcentratelightonrelativelysmallareas(shells,caves,mines,andthelike),usuallywithinamachinaversatilis.AfterhisreturnfromItalyin1615,Joneswasinclinedtospreadbrillianceoveranentireperspectivescene,aneffectheapparently
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hadadmiredattheTeatroOlimpicoinVicenza.InJones'scopyofthe1601editionofAndreaPalladio'sIQuattrolibridell'architettura,JonesrecordshisimpressionsoftheTeatroOlimpico,whichhevisitedon23September1613.Therehesawthreethree-dimensionalperspectivealleywaysdisappearingintothedistancebehindtheornatescaenafrons.Hewasparticularlyimpressedbytheplacementofthelightsinthesidealleys:"OnthePassagesofthesidesallthelighteswearPlaced,"henoted,presumablymeaningthatinadditiontotherelativelydimgeneral-purposeilluminationofthestageandcavea,manylightswereplacedbehindthescaenafrons,brightlyilluminatingthepassagewaysbuiltinforcedperspective.
66Jonescanhardlymeanthat"all"thelightsforthestagewereplacedinthesidealleys,butbecauselightsinthealleyscouldbeplacedmuchclosertothescenery,itmaywellhaveappearedso.Whenthemachinaductilissupplantedthemachinaversatilisasthewayofchangingscenes,JonescouldmoreorlessduplicatethelightinghehadadmiredinVicenzabyplacinglightsbehindtheslidingshuttersorprosceniumarchtoproducebrightnessovertheentirescene.Thus,inTheGoldenAgeRestored(1January1616,Whitehall),shuttersaredrawnasidetodiscovera"Sceneoflight,"andinTempeRestored(14February1632,banquetinghouse,Whitehall),asimilar''LightsomeSceneappear'd."67
ThewondersooftenexpressedbyspectatorsatJones'slightingeffectscomesinpartfromthisplacementoflightbutalsofromhistechniqueofmovingandturning,notthelightsindividually,butthewholestructureonwhichthelightsweremountedoronwhichtheobjecttobeviewedwasdisplayed.ThetextofDaniel'sTethys'Festival(5June1610,banquetinghouse,Whitehall)quotesJones'sowndescriptionofoneoftheseeffects:"Firstattheopeningoftheheavensappeared
threecirclesoflightsandglasses,onewithinanother,andcamedowninastraightmotionfivefoot,andthenbegantomovecircularly."68Heretheringssupportingthelightsandglassescouldnotonlybeloweredbutalsoberevolvedtoproduceashimmeringilluminationthatdistractedtheeyesofthespectatorssufficientlytohidethemethodofchangingthescene.SimilarlyinCampion'sMasqueofLords,askyisrevealedwitheightlargestarsmoving.Thestarsvanishandcloudsgivewayto"artificialfires,withseverallcirclesoflightsincontinualmotion."69SucheffectscontinuethroughoutJones'scareer,andW.A.ArmstrongcorrectlyremindsusthatJonson'sridiculeofJones's
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ffeatofLantern-lerry:wthfuliginousheatWhirlinghisWhymseys
refersnottoadistasteforgorgeouslightassuchbutto"lightsandmachineswhichmovedbeforethespectators'eyes."
70Still,inJones'sdefense,wemaynotethatovertheyearshisexperimentswithmovinglightbecamelessabstractthantheywereoriginally.Intheearlymasques,weoftenseecirclesoflightturning,moreorlessgratuitously,onorwithinmachinaeversatileswithlittleornoconnectiontotheillusionisticoreventheallegoricalenvironment.Inthelatermasques,lightsstillmove,buttheytendtodosoaspartofapictorialrepresentationofaplace,howeverimaginary.Insteadofrevolvingcircles,mostofthemovinglightsintheCarolinemasquesaccompanyfloatingcloudsandrefulgentgloriessurroundingdeiexmachinae,asinTempeRestored(1632),Coelum*Britannicum(1634),andTheTempleofLove(1635).71
Althoughmasquesceneswerecommoninplaysproducedattheprofessionaltheaters,thereislittleevidencethatthissortofspectacledevolvedtotheprofessionalhallplayhouses.72Allthesame,JohnOrrellhasunderlinedJones'spersonalandprofessionalassociationswiththeadultplayers,andJonesmaywellhavedesignedBeeston'sCockpitandcertainlydesignedtheCockpit-in-CourtatWhitehall,atwhichadultcompanieswereregulartenants.73Asweconsidertheartificiallightattheseandotherprivatetheaters,then,InigoJones's(andour)knowledgeoftheatricalilluminationatcourtmayhelpustounderstandthelesswell-documentedpracticesintheindoorhalltheaters.
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8ArtificialLightintheIndoorPlayhousesHavingconsideredtheavailabilityofdaylightintheprivateplayhousesandtheuseofartificiallightatcourt,wecannowattempttomakesenseofthesparsereferencestoartificiallightattheprivateplayhouses.Idistinguishbetweenartificiallightandnaturallightattheseindoorplayhousesforconvenienceandforthepracticalreasonthatcontemporarydescriptionsdidso,too.Butforthepresent,Idonottakeupthequestionofartificiallightscarriedbytheactorsasstageproperties.
Theseprinciplesoforganizationareopentocriticism.Certainly,theytendtodisintegratethetotalvisualeffectintodistinctelementsthattheaudienceneversawexceptinrelationtoothers.Butbecausethelightproducedbydaylight,chandeliers,andstagepropertiescouldnotbeeasilycontrolled,eachsourceoflightremainedmoreorlessindependentfromtheothers,sometimesproducingdisparateeffectsandevenparticipatinginapparentlycontradictorytheatricalconventions.Wehaveseenevidence,forexample,thatdaylightwasreducedforcertainsombertragediesbyabsorbentblackhangingsoutdoorsandperhapsbywindowshuttersindoors.Butthereisnoevidencethatcandlesweredimmedorevencouldbedimmedforsimilarreasons.Infact,inFletcher'sTheQueenofCorinth(c.1617,Blackfriars),burningtapersareexplicitlyassociatedwithtragedy.Theheroinehasshutherselfupinherroomafterhavingbeenrapedandhasobstructedallthewindowlightwithblackhangings,wearetold.Butshehasmanytaperslightingtheroom,whichherfriendfindsunhealthy.Thefriendcounsels
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outwiththeseTragickLights,Andletdayrepossessehernaturallhowres:Tearedownetheseblacks.
1
Theconventionalusesofdaylightandcandlelightthusattendoppositeeffects.
ArtificialLightintheAfternoon
Becausetheearlychildren'scompanieswaiteduntilaftereveningprayertobegintheirplays,littlenaturallightcouldhaveilluminatedtheirhallsinthedepthofwinter.InacommendatoryversetoFletcher'sTheFaithfulShepherdess,forinstance,whichhadbeenunsuccessfulatitspremierebytheQueen'sRevelsboysatthesecondBlackfriarsin1608,BenJonsondescribedtheunreceptivespectatorsas"rank'dinthedarke."2Thephraseisafusionofdoublemeanings:"rank'd"suggestingbothsocialrankandtieredseating,"darke"referringbothtotheputativeignoranceofFletcher'saudienceandtotheliteraldarknessinwhichtheysat.AstheQueen'sRevelsboysperformedonlyfromaroundMichaelmas(29September)untilEaster,naturaldarknessinevitablyaccompaniedmanyoftheirperformances.3
AcommentbyaGermantouristvisitingthesecondBlackfriarssixyearsearliermayormaynotimplythatnodaylightilluminatedthechildrenthere.AdiaryentryofFredericGerschow,tutortothedukeofStettin-Pomerania,saysthatthechildren'sperformanceswere"AllebeyLichteAgieret,welchseingrossesAnsehenmachtt"allactedbylights,whichmakesagreateffect.4Itisunclearifby"Alle"hemeantthattheilluminationwasfurnishedexclusivelybyartificiallights,orifhewassayingthechildrenusedlightsateveryperformance,orifhe
simplymeantthatthewholeeventwasartificiallyilluminated,incontrasttotheamphitheaters.Consideringthatthevisitwason18Septemberwhenthesunsetatalittlebefore6P.M.,onewouldbesurprisedifnosunlightilluminatedtheentireperformance.Tohaveproduceda"greateffect"throughoutthelargeParliamentChamberwouldhaverequiredmanycandlesindeed.Inalllikelihood,theaudiencesatinwindowlightforthemostpart,whilecandleswereplacedasneartheactorsaspossibletoemphasizethesplendoroftheircostumes,withwhichGerschowwasmuchtaken.
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Althoughthechildren'stroupesweremostactiveinthewinter(preparingforandrepeatingtheirJanuaryandFebruaryentertainmentsforthemonarch),wecannotsaythatartificiallightwasabsolutelynecessarythroughouteachperformance.Infact,theinductiontoMichaelmasTerm,performedatSt.Paul'saround1604,suggeststhatnightfalloccurredneartheendoftheplay.Middletonconfirmsthetwo-hourdurationmentionedataboutthesametimebyWilliamPercy(4to6P.M.)butinlegalmetaphorsappropriatetohisthemepromisestheaudiencethat"weedispatchyouintwohowers,withoutdemure;yourSuiteshangnotlonghereafterCandlesbelighted."
5Thephrase"notlong...afterCandlesbelighted"mightrefertoplayhousecandleslitneartheendoftheperformance,butitmorelikelymeansthattheplaywouldnotdetaintheaudiencemuchpastcandlelightingtimefortheCityingeneralapparentlyaround6P.M.atthattimeofyear.
Hence,darknessmaynothavebeenthesolereasonfortheuseofartificiallight.Thechildren'scompanieswereaccustomedtoactingunderthequeen'scandlelightandmaynothaveforegoneitsrefinedassociations,nomatterhowmuchdaylightpouredthroughthewindowsattheirowntheaters.Aslateas1636,candlelightwasadvertisedasameasureoftheatricaldistinctionandrefinement,eventhoughithadbecomecommonplacelongbeforethat.6Onthebasisofthechildren'stroupes'attentiontosuchmattersastouchedontheirreputations(theadoptionoftheword"private"todescribethoroughlypublicperformances,forexample),wemaysurmisethatearlytroupesusedcandlelightnotjustforthesakeofvisibilitybutinhopesthatitssophisticationwouldcontributetotheirgoodreport.Earlymasques,mummings,anddisguisingshadforcenturiesbeenperformedto
artificiallights,whetherornotthelighttheyprovidedwasnecessary.BecauseofextremeheatinthebanquetinghouseatWhitehallinJune1610,forinstance,torchbearerswereomittedatthelastminutefromSamuelDaniel'sTethys'Festivalwithoutcomplaintsaboutdarkness.7ForSirHenryUnton'sweddingmasque,torchlightgracedthefestivitieseventhoughstrongsunlightcamethroughthewindows,brightlylightingtheroom.Visibilitywasundoubtedlytheprincipalimpetusforintroducingcandles,butitmaynothavebeentheonlyreason.
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LightingandExtinguishingtheCandles
Severalplayhouseinductionsmentionorshowusthelightingofplayhousecandles.TheearliestcomesfromMarston'sWhatYouWill,actedatSt.Paul'sin1601.Attheopening,thereistheauthorialstagedirection"BeforetheMusickesoundsfortheActe:EnterAtticus,Doricus,&Phylomuse,theysitagoodwhileontheStagebeforetheCandlesarelighted,talkingtogether."Immediatelyfollowingisthestagedirection"EnterTier-manwithlights,"whereuponDoricusexclaims,"OFiesomelights,sirsfie,lettherebenodeedsofdarknessedoneamongvs."
8Weneednottakehisreferencetodarknessliterally,ofcourse,butthestagedirectionsmakeclearthatspectatorsfindingtheirseatsorwaitingfortheplaytobegindidsowithoutthebenefitofartificiallight,atleastnearthestage.Instead,candleswerelitonlyjustbeforetheplaywastobegin.Referencetoasingletiremanalsoindicatesthatonepersoncouldattendtothecandlesquicklyandconvenientlybecause,asAtticusexplains,"theStageissoverylittle."
WegetaglimpseoftiremenlightingcandlesatanadulthallplayhouseinJonson'sTheStapleofNews(London,1631),performedaroundFebruary1626,whentheKing'smenoccupiedBlackfriars.9Intheinduction,fourladygossipsdecidethattheywillsitonthestageliketheirmalecounterparts.Butwhen"TheTiremenentertomendthelights,"theProloguemustcalmthem:"Nay,startnotLadies,thesecarrynofireworkestofrightyou,butaTorchi'theirhands,togiuelighttothebusinesse."Atthesametime,weheartheBook-holder(probablyfromwithinthetiring-house)givingthetiremendirections:"Mendyourlights,Gentlemen.MasterPrologue,beginne."10WhilethetheateratSt.Paul'swassmallenoughtorequireonlyonetireman,theprestigiousBlackfriarssometwentyyearslaterlavishedtwoor
morementoattendtothelights.Yet,theuseoftheword"mend"heremayimplythatsomeofthecandleswerealreadyburningbeforetheprologuebegan.Whetherdaylightorminimalcandlelightilluminatedtheauditorium,itmustbetruethattherewasenoughilluminationtopermitspectatorstofindtheirseatsandadmireeachothers'clothesaswellastoallowtheactorstobegintheinductionwithoutafullcomplementofcandlelight.TheladiesinTheStapleofNewsenjoyalivelyconversationandthegallantsinWhatYouWillsit"agoodwhile''beforethecandlesarelighted,andonedoubtssuchactionstookplaceinutterdarkness.
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Atcourt,wheremoneywasoflessconcern,mostofthecandleswerealsonotlituntiltheplayormasquewasreadytobegin.WhenOrazioBusinowenttoWhitehallinJanuary1618,hearrivedtwohoursbeforethekingwasduetoappearbecausehewantedtoviewtheladiesathisleisure.WhenheenteredthefirstJacobeanbanquetinghousearound8P.M.,"therewaslittlelight,asifitwerethetwilightofduskordawn,"herecalled,becausethetworowsoflights"weretobelit[only]atthepropertime."
11Ifthecourtdidnotsquandermoneyonartificiallightatnight,thenonedoubtsthattheKing'smenwerelavishwithcandlelightintheearlyafternoonbeforetheirplaysbegan.
ThecorrespondingextinctionofcandlesiscalledforbyastagedirectioninacollectionofthreeplayspublishedaftertheRestorationastheGratiaeTheatrales(London,1662).12Intheepiloguetothefirstplay,Thorney-Abbey,thedeathoftheheroisassociatedwiththeputtingoutofcandles.Weareremindedthat"deathbetidestoMen,andTaperstoo,"afterwhich,inafootnotedstagedirection,itisexplainedthat"HeretheCandlesareputtingout"(*6v).Giventhevagariesoftheepilogue'sauspices,wecannotclaimitnecessarilyreferstoeitherpre-orpost-Interregnumplayhouses.Whateverthevenue,thepracticeofquicklyputtingoutthecandlesattheconclusioncomplementsthelightingofcandlesimmediatelybeforetheplaywastobeginand,moreover,speakstotheprobabilitythattherewassufficientwindowlightor,inthedepthofwinter,sufficientnumbersofwallsconceslefttoburnintheauditoriumandexitpassagestoensurethatspectatorscouldmaketheirwayhomewithouttrippingovereachotherinthedark.
Regardingthekindsoflightingutensilsused,privateplayhouselightingdoesnotseemtodiffermuchfromthatprovidedbythe
ElizabethanRevelsOffice.Survivingplaytexts,inductions,preludes,andepiloguesmentiononlycandlesandthegeneralterm"lights"inregardtoartificialilluminationforvisibility.Thesereferencesarenotplentiful,butwithcorroborationcomingfromtheRevelsOfficeaccounts,theytakeprecedenceasevidenceovervagueallusionstotorches,lamps,andcressetsinanevensmallernumberofnon-playhousesources.InFrancisLenton'ssatiricpamphletTheYoungGallant'sWhirligig,forexample,wehearthatthepennilessherohassoldthefineclothesthatonce"glistredintheTorchyFryers."13Butthephrase"TorchyFryers"hasobviouslybeencompressedtofittheiambicpentameterandtorhymewiththeprecedingline.Itprobablyconnotednomorethan
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anartificialthatis,aburningmethodofillumination.Similarly,aphraselike"lamps,whichataplay,"foundinGeorgeWither'sFaire-Virtue,mayprivilegepoeticrhythmovercarefulclassificationoflightingutensils.
14Oilwassoexpensivethateventhewealthiesthomesregularlydidwithoutlamps;evenatcourtwehaveseenthattheirusewasconfinedtooccasionalcoloredlightingeffects,effectsthatwerenotreproducedattheprivateplayhouses.
ManagementofArtificialLight
Anotherdescriptionofayounggallantintheplayhousementionscandlesandapparentlyreferstotwochandeliersoverthestage.InoneofThomasOverbury'spopularcharactersketches,publishedaround1615,astage-sitting"Phantastique"showsoffhisclothes,"andwhenthePlayisdone,ifyoubutmarkhisrising,'tisakindofwalkingEpiloguebetweenthetwoCandles,toknowifhisSuitemaypasseforcurrant."15Sincestage-sittersenteredandexitedthroughthetiring-houseandnotfromthepit,16Overburyismakingthepointthatthegallantisostentatiouslyparadingoverthestageinsteadofmodestlyretiringdirectlythroughthetiring-housewall.Infact,thegallantbrazenlywalkstotheplacefromwhichtheepiloguewasspoken,presumablydownstagecenterand"betweenthetwoCandles."Thereareseveralpossibleinterpretationsofthepassage.Perhapscandlesticksorwallsconceswerepositionedtothesidesofthestage,andthearea"betweenthetwoCandles"wassimplythestageitself.W.A.ArmstrongtakesthesceneinTheChangeling(London,1653)whereDeFloresstabsAlonzoasproofofsuchsconces.17DeFloresinduceshisvictimtoturnhisbackbyinvitinghimto"takespeciallnoticeofthatSconcebeforeyou''(D4).ButArmstronghasmisunderstoodthepassage:"TheSconce,"asAlonzohimselflater
comments,ispartofthe"impregnableFort"heistouring,whichcanbeseenthroughawindow(D3v).18Infact,theterm"sconce"wasnotappliedtowallbracketsuntiltheRestoration.TheRevelsOfficecalledsuchequipment"platesforwalls,""wallers,"andthelike,andotherreferencestosconcesinsuchplaysasTheMalcontent("EnterMendozawithasconce"[C4v])refernottopermanentwallmountingsbuttoakindofportablelantern.Wecannotbesurewallbracketsneverlitthestage,butitshouldbepointedoutthatsconcesintheRestorationtheaterwererelegatedtothewallsoftheauditoriumandonlylaterandonspecialoccasionsplacednearthestage.CongrevedescribedabrilliantlylitgalaperformanceatDorsetGardenin1701that"was
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allhungwithsconcesofwax-candles,besidesthecommonbranchesoflightsusualintheplayhouses."
19
TheremaininginterpretationofOverbury's"twoCandles"isthattwochandeliershungsymmetricallyabovethestageandthatactorsspeakingepiloguesdownstagecenterwouldtherebybestanding"between"them.ThisarrangementiscorroboratedbyTheWitsfrontispiecebutbynootherpre-Restorationsource.Still,theinterpretationofOverbury'scandlesasstagechandeliersmeetswithlesscountervailingevidencethandoesthinkingofthemasfloorcandlesticksorwallbracketsandissupportedbytheRevelsOffice'spersistentuseofthreeorfourgreatbrancheshangingaboveearlycourtperformances.
TheWitsfrontispiece(1662)showstwobranchedchandelierssuspendedbylongwiresovertheleftandrightedgesofanarrowthruststage(seefig.23).Eachchandeliersupportseightcandleswithdrippansbeneatheachsocket.Thechandeliersappeartohangratherlowtothestage,buttheartisthashandledtheperspectivecrudely.Whilethevantagepointofthedrawingandthepositionofthechandelierswouldseemtoindicatewearelookingdownonthebranches,theyareneverthelessdrawnfromthepointofviewofsomeonelookingupatthem.Itmaybethatthebrancheswereactuallyhigherthanisshownbutthattheartistloweredthemsoastosimplifyrenderingthegalleryabovethestage.Theprincipallightcomesfromtheactors'rightbut,judgingbytheshadows,notfromthebranchthere.Apparently,daylightwasplentifulfromthatdirection.Crosshatchingindicatesthattherearofthestagewasdimmerthanthefront,butthesixdouble-wicklampsservingasfootlightsarenot,againfromtheshadowscastatthecharacters'feetandonthehostess's
gown,verybrightincomparisontothesunlight.TherelevanceofTheWitsfrontispiecetopre-Interregnumplayhousesisuncertain.Inhisedition,J.J.Elsonconcludesthatthedrawingwas"purelyaworkoftheartist'simagination"andnotarenderingof"theactualsettinginwhichsomefurtiveCommonwealthshowsweregiven."20JohnAstingtonhasrecentlytracedseveraliconographicsourcesforthepictureandconcludesthat,whileitwasprobablybasedonpre-1660stheatricalstyle,itshouldnotbeconsideredevidenceforanyparticulartheater.21AlthoughnotraceofEnglishfootlightspredatesTheWitsfrontispiece,itsarticulationofsunlightandcandlelightiscongruouswithwhatwehaveconjecturedwastypicalofpre-Restorationhalllighting.
Wegetanotionofthepersonnelrequiredtotendtoburningcandlesin
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themasquesceneofTheTwoMerryMilkmaids(1620).Lodwickeisseenreviewingthearrangementsjustbeforehisprivatemasqueistobegin.Heordershisgentlemanusher,"PrayhaueacarethoselightsbenotoffensiuevntotheLadies,theyhangsuspiciously."By"offensiue,"hemeansnotonlythatthecandlescouldfallordripontheaudiencebutalsothatleaningcandlessmokedprofusely,creatinganunpleasantodor.Thegentlemanusherdelegatesthejobtoanusher;"LooketothoselightsIpray,"hesays,''myLordisveryangry,fearingtheymightdotrespasse."Theusherinturnrepeatstheordertoagroom,whereuponthegroomreplies,"Theyshallsir,where'sthefellowheereshudlookevntotheselights,thingsaredonesovntowardly."Afterashortwhile,wegetthestagedirection,"EnterFerdinand[thegentlemanusher],GroomeswithTorches."
22
Attheheightofitsfinancialsuccessin1624,theKing'smenboastedtwenty-onehirelings,mostofwhomwereactorsandmusicians.Whennotrequiredonstageorinthemusicroom,somemayhavebeenpressedintoserviceascandle-snuffers,butacitationfromthepraeludiumtoTheCarelessShepherdessimpliesonlyafewattendantsorevenoneregularlysawtothecandlesatSalisburyCourtaround1638.Commentingonthepovertyofmostplaywrights,acitizenopines:
IdonotthinkbutIshallshortlyseeOnePoetsuetokeepthedoor,anotherTobeprompter,athirdtosnuffthecandles.23
Consideringthedisparityinavailablepersonnel,theprivatetheatercompaniescouldrelyononlyafractionofthenumberoflightingattendantsatcourtandinnoblehouses.OthertroupeshadevenfewerhirelingsattheirdisposalthantheKing'smen.Itisunlikely,therefore,
thatenoughattendantswerepresenttowatchlightsspreadgenerouslythroughouttheentiretheater.
Becausethemajorconcernwasthedrippingofhottallow,lightshangingoverspectatorswereprobablyavoided.Itwouldhavebeenawkwardanddistractingtoraiseladdersortolowerbranchesintheauditoriumtosnuffsmokingordrippingcandlesduringtheperformance.AthisItaliancourttheater,Sabbattiniassignedtoeachchandelierintheauditoriumone"reliableperson"equippedwith"twopoleslongenoughtoreachthecandletops.""Ononeofthepolesisataperforlighting,"heexplains;"ontheotherpoleisaspongesoakedinwater...toextinguishacandlethatbeginstodripbe-
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causeitisnotburningevenly."
24AsitisunlikelythattheJacobeanprivatetheatercompaniescouldsparethismanyattendantstowatchbrancheshangingabovethepit,itisimprobablethatthetwenty-eightbranchescommontoearlycourtplaysweretransferredenmassetotheprivateplayhouses.Iftherewereartificiallightsinthepit,theyweremorelikelytohavebeenplacedtothesidesandneartheboxes.Thisarrangement,atanyrate,wasthepracticeaftertheRestoration:atWren'sDruryLane(1674),thescenesbehindtheprosceniumarchwerelitbyfourbranches(eachwithtwelvecandles),theapronstagebytwosimilarbranches,andthehousebyapproximatelysixteensconces,holdingtwoorfourcandleseach,whichwereprobablyplacedonthepillarssupportingthegalleries.25Indeed,thereisnoevidenceofachandelierhangingabovethepitinLondonuntilGarrick'stenureatDruryLaneinthemid-eighteenthcentury,whenlesstroublesomewaxcandleswereused.
Thecandlesburningabovethestagewouldalsohaverequiredattentionduringperformances.Thetiremenwholitandextinguishedthelightsatthebeginningandendoftheplaypresumablywouldalsoemergefromthetiring-housetotrimorextinguishsputteringcandlesduringactbreaksorevenduringtheaction.Ortheactors,whowouldhavebeentheunhappytargetsoffallingcandledrippings,maywellhavemendedbothersomecandlesthemselves.WehavenospecificreportsofactorsperformingthischorebeforetheRestoration,butafteritthereareoccasionalreferencestotheplayerssnuffingthecandlesevenwhiletheyacted.26
SalisburyCourt
Wearefortunateinthat,forSalisburyCourtin1639,wecancomparethetotalamountofmoneyspentonlightingwiththatspentatcourt.In
1849,PeterCunninghampublishedatranscriptionofaseriesofarticlesendorsed"InstructionsTouchingSalesberyCortPlayhouse,14Septem.,1639,"whichcontrastedanoldandanewsystemofdividingtheplayhouse'sexpensesamongthehousekeepersandtheactors.Oneofthearticlesexplainsthat,whilethehousekeepershadformerlynotpaidanythingforillumination,theynowagreedtopay"Halfeforlights,bothwaxeandTallow,wchhalfeallwinterisnear5saday."27Sinceitisclearthearticlesweredrawnuptoconvincetheactorshowgenerouslythehouseholdersweregoingtotreatthem,wemay
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assumethat"near5saday"isagenerous,evenaninflated,figure.Inthefollowingcalculation,Iadjustthishalf-expensetofourshillingsadaytoallowforthehouseholders'exaggeration.BecauseweknowtheaveragepriceofcandlesinthelateCarolineperiod(sixpenceapoundfortallow,twoshillingsapoundforwax)andtheirtotalcost(eightshillings),wecanmakearoughestimateofhowmanycandleslitSalisburyCourtifwemakeseveralassumptionsastothesizeandtypeofthecandlesused.
Inallottingcosts,Isetasidetwoshillingsofthedailytotaltoaccountforbackstageandrehearsallightsandforthetorchesthatlitthecandlesandservedasproperties,aswellasformiscellaneousexpensessuchaspropertylanterns,torches,squibs,matches,flints,tinderboxes,snuffers,douters,andgeneralreplacementandupkeep.IfSalisburyCourtreplaceditsequipmentasoftenasthecourtdid,twoshillingswouldnotbesufficient.Theprivateplayhousesgaveasmanyasonehundredmoreperformancesayearthanthecourtdid,runningupexpensesdayinanddayout,afterall.Ontheotherhand,actorswerenotobligedtobuynewbrancheseveryyear,astheRevelsOfficeoftendid.Sincetorchescostoverashillingapiece,twoshillingsisnottoomuchtoascribetomiscellaneouslightingexpenses.
InestimatingthesizeofthecandlesemployedatSalisburyCourt,wemaynotethat,althoughtheRevelsOfficeacquiredseveraldifferentsizesovertheyears,mostcandlesatcourtweighedfourteenorsixteenounceseach.GiventhebudgetatSalisburyCourt,onlythreewaxcandlesofthisweightcouldhavebeenpurchasedeachday.Buttheywouldnothavebeencompletelyconsumedduringasingleperformance.Presumingthataslittlewaxandtallowwasthrownawayaspossible,wemayestimateamaximumnumberofsourcesoflightbysettlingontheaveragesizeofcandlesthatwouldbeefficientlyconsumedduringanyoneperformance.Awaxortallow
candleweighingsixinthepoundwillburnfornearlyfourhoursifitiswelltrimmed.Butiflefttogutteranddrip,agoodhalfofthefueliswasted,andthecandleswillburnlessthantwohours.Therefore,Itakeitasthesmallestcandlethatwouldhavebeenpracticalintheprivateplayhouses.Acandleweighingsixinthepoundisalittlemorethantenincheslongandalmostthree-quartersofaninchindiameter.ThecandlesinTheWitsfrontispieceareapparentlyclosetothissize.
Bymeansofsuchassumptions,then,wemaycalculatetheapproximatenumberofcandlesatSalisburyCourt.Ifallthecandleswereofwax,general
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illuminationwasprovidedbyamaximumofeighteencandles.Ifthree-quarterswereofwaxandone-quartertallow,thentherewouldhavebeenfifteenwaxcandlesandfivetallowcandlesforthesameamountofmoney.Butifthenumberofwaxandtallowwereequal,thentherecouldhavebeenfourteencandlesofeach.Andifonlyone-quarterwereofwaxandthree-quarterstallow,thentherecouldhavebeenasmanyastenwaxcandlesandthirtytallowones.
The1639articlesdonotrecordthesharesofwaxandtallowatSalisburyCourt.Sincewaxhadlargelysupplantedtallowintheoverheadbranchesatcourtsomesevenyearsearlier,wemightguessthatmorethanjustafewwaxlightswereemployedandthatthetotalnumberofcandleswas,therefore,closertotwentyorthirtythanforty.Thearticles'specificationoflights,"bothwaxeandTallow,"suggestsmorethanatokenuseofwaxcandles.Butourmoderninclinationtowardfindingevolutionaryprocesseseverywheremayleadusastrayinaccountingforashiftfromtallowtowax.AsearlyasthepremiereofFletcher'sTheFaithfulShepherdessatBlackfriarsin1608,hisfriendBeaumontdeploredspectatorswhobasedtheiropinionsofplaysonsuchephemeraaswhether"thewax-lightsbenewthatday."
28Beaumontconfirmsthatlargewaxcandlescouldbereused,butIdonotknowthatwecantakehimtomeanthatwaxwasregularlyusedattheearlychildren'splayhouses.Thatcandleswerereusedshowsthateconomywasanimportantconsiderationinthelighting.Beaumont'spointisthatthenewwaxlightswerespecialenoughtoswayanuncriticalspectator'sjudgment,especiallyatthepremieresofplays.Aslateas1667,ThomasKilligrewreportedtoPepys"[t]hatthestage[oftheremodeledTheaterRoyal,BridgesStreet]isnowbyhispainsathousandtimesbetterandmoregloriousthaneverheretofore.Now,wax-candles,andmanyofthem;then,notabove3lb.oftallow."29Threepoundsoftallowmakesonlyabouteighteencandles
ofsixinthepound,slightlylessthanappearstohavebeenusedatSalisburyCourtin1639andslightlymorethaninTheWitsfrontispieceof1662.TowhatperiodKilligrewwasreferringby"heretofore"and''then"isnotbeyonddoubt.TheBridgesStreettheaterwasbuiltin1663butclosedbytheplagueandthegreatfirefrom1665to1666,duringwhichtimeKilligrewmadetheimprovementshedescribedtoPepys.Heprobablymeantthattallowwasusedfrom1663to1665,buthemaybecastinghismindbacktothepre-Interregnumtheatershewroteforasayoungman.TheBridgesStreettheaterwasapproximatelythesamesizeas
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oralittlelargerthantheaveragepre-Interregnumhalltheater.
30Killigrewobviouslythoughtthreepoundsoftallowinsufficientforaplayhouseofthesedimensions,buthenonethelessillustratesthatlargenumbersofwaxcandleswerenotstandardequipmentbefore1667.
Whatevertheproportionsofwaxandtallow,itisplainthatSalisburyCourtemployedonlyaboutone-tenththenumberofcandlesusedattheCarolinecourtroughlythirty,say,ascontrastedwithovertwohundred.WedonotknowtheexactdimensionsofthetheateratSalisburyCourt,althoughaccordingtoa1629indenture,theplayhousesatonaplotofland42by140feet;achamberbuiltovertheoldtheaterin1660was40feetsquare.31Ifitswidthweresomethingcloseto40or42feet,thenthisdimensionwouldapproximatethewidthsofotherhallsandtheatersHamptonCourt(40),MiddleTemple(40),secondBlackfriars(46),Jones'splayhouse(42),andWhitefriars(35).Giventhesimilarityinsizes,onecanbestexplainthereductioninthenumberofcandlesfromcourttoprivatetheaterpracticebyassumingthatthecandleswereconcentratednearthestageandthattheprofessionalplayhouseauditoriumsmadedowithwindowlightorminimalcandlelight.
AfurtherimplicationoftheSalisburyCourtarticleisthatcandlesseemtohavebeenusedinthewinterbutnotnecessarilyinthesummer.Thearticlespeaksoflightingexpensesincurred"allwinter,"butwehaverecordsofplaysproducedthereinthelatesummertime.32Infact,thereisreasontobelievethattheoccupantsofSalisburyCourtatthattime,QueenHenrietta'smen,performedthereregularlyduringthesummerbecausetheyhadnoalternateoutdoorvenueanddonotseemtohavemadeprovincialsummertours.33Wearelefttoassumethatsummerplaysrequiredfewornoartificiallightatall.Ifthe
windowsatSalisburyCourtwereanywherenearaslargeasthewindowsinsurvivinghalls,artificiallightwouldcertainlynothavebeennecessaryinthesummer.Inwinter,earlysunsetsandovercastdaysweresofrequent,evidently,thatcandleswerelitdailyasamatterofcourse.
Weshouldliketohaveasdetailedfiguresoflightingexpendituresforothertheaters.Perhapssomeweightcanbegiventothefactthatinenumeratingthevariouscategoriesofexpenses,legaldocumentsconnectedwithboththesecondBlackfriarsandWhitefriarsmentionlightsneartheendoftheirlists.InalawsuitbetweenthesharersandhirelingactorsemployedbytheKing'smen,forinstance,thecostofrunningboththeGlobeandBlackfriarsin1635
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isgivenasninehundredoronethousandpoundsayear,including"wagestohiredmen&boyesmusickelightes&c."
34Similarly,inthearticlesofagreementbetweenthesharersoftheWhitefriarssigned10March1608,theplayhouse'sexpensesarelistedas"gatherers,thewages,theChildrensbourd,musique,bookekeeper,tyreman,tyrewoman,lights,theMaisteroftherevell'sDuties,andallotherthingsneedefull."35Fromthesewecansaythatlightingwasnotthemajorexpenseofthecompanies.
Cockpit-in-Court
Wehavenorecordsofday-to-dayexpensesforcandlesattheCockpit-in-CourtatWhitehall,butforitsrenovationintheearly1630swehavedetailedOfficeofWorksaccountsthatmentionthefixturesinwhichcandleswereplaced.Althoughithadlongbeenavenueforprofessionallyproduceddrama,theCockpit-in-CourtapparentlyreopenedinNovember1630withnewfacilities,butthefirstwehearofitslightingarrangementsoccursthefollowingMaywhentheRevelsaccountsmentionremovingandthenhangingbranches.InaccountsfortheyearOctober1631throughSeptember1632,nolessthanfifteencandelabraorchandeliersarementioned.JohnDeCritz,HisMajesty'sSergeantPainter,waspaid"fordiuerstimesCullouringinGouldcullo:rtheBraunchesofxveCandlesticksintheCockpitt."36Ofthesefifteenbranches,twelvewereplacednearthestageandareagaindifferentiatedassmallandgreat:"tennsmallerandtwoegreaterthenthotheraboutandbeforetheStage."AnunspecifiednumberofgreatbranchesperhapstheremainingthreeofthefifteenDeCritzpaintedwereplaced"inthefrontofthestage."Thetennewfixtureswere''CandlestickesofIron,"beautifullygarnishedatacostofthirtyshillingseach.ButtheheatordrippingofthecandlesobligedDeCritztoregildallthebranchesseveraltimes.Thenextyear,theOfficeof
Workspurchasedtwoveryexpensivechandelierswith"diversebranchesfortheCockpit"atatotalcostofoverthirteenpounds.Igatherthesereplacedeitherthe"twoegreater"branches"aboutandbeforetheStage"ortheunspecifiednumberof"greatBraunchesinthefrontofthestage."Butintheverynextyear,163334,theRevelsOfficeagainorderedtwogreatbranchesatacostofsixteenpounds.
Thedistinctions,ifany,between"about,""before,"and"inthefrontof"thestageareratherfine.Smallbranchescouldhavebeenattachedtothe
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scaenafronsortheprosceniumwallandhavebeenconsideredspread"about"theactingarea.InNovember1660,whentheCockpitwasagainrefurbished,"twentyfairegilltBrancheswththreeSockettsineachforCandlesandSixSconcesforthePassagesthataredarke"wereordered.
37IftheseRestorationfixturesresembledpre-Commonwealthones,wecouldestimatethatthetensmallbranchesheldthirtycandlesandthatthetwogreateronesheldperhapsanotherthirty,withthreemorebrancheslightingotherpartsofthetheater.Perhapstheselastthreebrancheslittheauditorium,butthefirstwespecificallyhearoflightsneartheaudienceisinthe163435Revelsaccounts,whichcallfortwelverelativelyinexpensive"greatwallersforyegalleryatyeCockpitt"aswellas"24PlattsmadeforyeCockpittforwaxlights.''Thepositioningoflargelightsinthegallerysuggeststhatitwaspoorlylitbylightsnearthestageandbythefourwindowspiercingthegallerywalls(seefig.33).
IftwogalleriesencircledtheCockpitauditorium,oneisinclinedtoputsixwallersineachgallery,although,becauseeachgallerywasdividedintoonlyfivebays,theplacementofsixfixtureswouldhavebeenarithmeticallyinconvenient.Perhapsthebayfortheking'sstatehadspeciallightingutensils;elsewhereintheaccountsforthatyearwehearoftwo"CandlesticksforyeState,"althoughtheyarenotrelatedspecificallytotheCockpit.Ontheotherhand,ifmostoftheambientlightinthetheatercamefromchandeliersoverhead,thelowergallerywouldlieindeepershadowsthantheuppergalleryandwouldrequiremorefixtures.
ArticulationofLight
Severaldescriptionsofcourtlightingtellusthatthehall"asbrightas
day,"orwordstothateffect.Butintermsofmeasurableillumination,ahallcannotaccommodateenoughcandlestoequalthestrengthofaveragedaylight.Becausesubjectivebrightnessisafunctionofthecuberootofactualbrightness,thenumberofcandlesnecessaryforevensmallincreasesinperceivedbrightnessincreasesgeometrically.Todoubletheapparentbrightnessofanactor,oneneedstolighthimwitheighttimesasmanycandles(fromthesamedistance).38Thedifficultyinattemptingtoequalthestrengthofsunlightbymeansofcandlelightlies,therefore,inthephysicallimitationthatahallwouldneedtobeliterallyfilledwithcandles.Apartfromleaving
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littleroomfortheactorsoraudience,somanyburningcandleswouldquicklydepletetheoxygenandthecandleswouldgooutoftheirownaccordandleavetheaudiencegasping.Whatthesimilemeans,ofcourse,isthatcomparedtotheartificiallightcommontomostseventeenth-centuryrooms,thelightonthetheatricalsceneatcourtwasmuchbrighter.
Aswesawintheconsiderationofartificiallightintheamphitheaters,differencesintheperceptionofbrightnessarefunctionsoftheaverageleveloflighttowhichonehasadapted.Unlikemodernlightbulbs,candlesflickerandyieldvaryingamountsoflight.Thesevariationsoccasionallydistractourattention,but,moreimportant,theymakeitdifficultforthepupiloftheeyetoadjusttoonecomfortableandefficientaperture.Theeyecanadapttothebrightestextremeofavariablelightsourcewithinseconds,butitcannotadapttothelowestextremeunlessvariationsareeliminatedandalowleveloflightissustainedformanyminutes.Influctuatinglight,then,theeyewilladapttothegreatestandnottheleastamountoflight.Inconsequence,aflickeringsourceoflightwillappeardimmerthanitsaveragestrengthwouldsuggest,especiallywhenthenumberofcandlesissmallandthefluctuationsaregreater.Themorecandlesthereare,thelesspronouncedthevariationandthebettertheeyecanadapttoitsmostefficientlight-gatheringcapability.Conversely,whencandlesarelitinaroomwheresunlightisplentiful,thepupiloftheeyewillnotdilatesoastoperceivethecandlelightefficientlybutwillclosedowntoanapertureatwhichitmaycomfortablyviewthebrightersunlight.Thisiswhycandlesseemsomuchdimmerduringtheday.Anassertionthatcandlelightisasbrightasdaylightcanonlybemadeatnight,therefore,whenthereisnodaylighttoreducethesizeofthepupil.
Intheprivateplayhouseswehavebeeninvestigating,daylightwasmorepowerfulthancandlelightexceptaftersunset.Ifweassumethat
thirty-twocandleshunginchandelierstenfeetabovetheJonesplayhouse,thentheratioofstagelightfromartificialandnaturalsourcesonatypicalovercastafternoonat3P.M.inautumnisaroundonetotwenty.Thatistosay,thewindowlightwas,onaverage,twentytimesstrongerthanthecandlelightintermsofmeasurablebrightness.Thecontributionsofeachtotheoverallilluminationmaybeimaginedbyreplacingthecandleswiththemorefamiliarlightbulb.Comparisonsbetweencandlesandelectricfilamentlampsarenotespeciallyproductiveunlessthecandlesarerelativelyclosetogetherandthelightbulbsaresmall.Onesixty-wattlightbulbwillproducealightflux
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nearlyequaltothatofonehundredcandles.Butwhilethelightnearanelectriclampwillbebrilliant,tenfeetawaythelightwillbeonlyone-hundredthasstrong.Thesameprincipleholdstrueforcandles,ofcourse,butthelargenumberofcandlesrequiredtoequalasinglebulbcanbespreadoveranareaofsomesize,producingalowbutevenlydistributedarticulationoflight.Shakespeareneedednolightmetertoappreciatethisphenomenon.ThebrightnessofJuliet'scheek,hesaysduringthebalconyscene,wouldshamethemostbeautifulstarsjust"[a]sdaylightdothalampe"(RomeoandJuliet,Q2D2).Tohim,evenmoonlightcanoutshineacandle.NerissainTheMerchantofVeniceremembers"whenthemooneshonewedidnotseethecandle,"fromwhichinstancePortiageneralizeswithherlawyer'sgiftfortautology,"Sodooththegreaterglorydimthelesse''(Q213).AndwhileWither'splayhouse"lamps"wereprobablynottruelamps,henonethelessmakesclearthattheycouldaddnoluster
TowhatTitangauebefore,NeitherdoththeirprettybeamingsHinderoughthisgreatergleamings.
39
Theadaptationthatpermitstheeyetobecomeaccustomedtoawiderangeofbrightnessalsocontrolsourabilitytodetectdifferencesinbrightnessoncetheeyehasadaptedtoaparticularlevelofillumination.Inbrightdaylight,thisabilitytoperceivecontrastsisgreat:theeyecanseedifferencesinbrightnessamountingtolessthan1percentoftheaveragebrightnesstowhichithasadapted.Butinthelessbrilliantlightoftheprivateplayhouses,theeyeperceivesdifferencesinbrightnessonlywhentheyaregreaterthan10percentoftheaveragelevelofillumination.Thus,whiletheeyecanreadilyadapttothedarknessindoors,itcannotseedetailsasefficiently.Astheaveragelevelofbrightnessdecreasesarithmetically,one'sability
toseecontrastsandtodifferentiatebrightnessesdecreasesgeometrically,andobjectsofvariouscolors,shapes,andreflectancestendtomergetogetherinamonotonouslyundifferentiatedgraypicture.Indarkness,asJohnHeywoodretoldtheoldsaw,
Thefaireandthefoule,bydarkearelykestore.Whenallcandelsbeout,allcatsbegrey.Allthyngsarethenofonecolour,aswhosay.40
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Inthehallplayhouseswheretheamountofdaylightwasatbestonly10percentoftheamountattheamphitheaters,theflamesofthecandlesreplacedthehighlightsthattheeyecouldnotnormallyfindindoors.Thecandlesaffordedrelieffromthemonotonyoftheinterior,justas"accentlights"lendrefreshingcontraststocontemporaryroomswithoutraisingthegenerallevelofillumination.Thecandlesintheprivateplayhousesservednotsomuchtoduplicateastoimitatethemorevariedlightoutdoors.
InexperimentsconductedinvariousTudorhalls,Ifoundthatonehourbeforedusk,theamountofnaturallightonafour-foot-highstageplacednearoneendofalargehallwaslessthantenfootcandles.Atsunset,theaveragelevelofilluminationonstagewaslessthanonefootcandle.Insuchdimlight,actorsonastagecouldclearlybemadeout;butasthelightwaned,theirfaceslostdefinitionandquickmovementsbecameblurred.Indeed,itwasrelativelyeasytolettheeyewanderawayfromtheactors,andatestaudiencereportedthattheysometimesfoundthemselveslookingelsewhereorattendingonlytothewords.
Anhourbeforesunset,severaldozencandlesburningoverheaddidnotaddappreciablytotheperceivedamountofbrightnessonstage,buttheyneverthelesscreatedawarmer,morepleasingatmosphereandhelpedtofocusthegazeofthespectatortowardthestage,wherethecandlesburningoverheadservedto"frame"theplayingspaceandinvitespectatorstofocustheirattentiontowardtheactors.Somethingverysimilartothiseffectalsooccurredattheamphitheaters,where,asIhavenoted,apleasingorangeglowoftensurroundedtheheavensatdusk.Inthewaningnaturallightinthehallplayhouses,artificiallightfromabovehelpedtodefinetheoutlineofeachactor,especiallybyarticulatingtheshapeoftheplayers'heads,hats,andshoulders.TheimportancethatAndrewGurrhasrecentlyattachedtoShakespeareanhatsasameansofconveyingvitalinformationtotheaudiencewas
underscoredbytheseexperiments,whichshowedhowmucheachhat,whenlitfromabove,coulddefineacharacter'sphysicalpresenceonstageevenindimlight.
41
Neartheconclusionsofmanyperformancesinthedepthofwinter,thecandlelightinevitablytookonalargerburdenoftheillumination,andinmyexperimentsIattemptedtoduplicatevariousconfigurationsofartificiallightatthehallplayhousesaftersunset.Thevariableswerethenumberandplace-
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mentofthecandles,thesizeofthehall,andthereflectivityoftheinteriorwallsandceiling.Inaverysmallhall(thirtybyfortyfeet)withlight-coloredwallsandwiththreedozencandlesarrangednearthefrontofthestage,anentirelyadequate,evenbeautiful,illuminationprevailed.Butinalargerhallwithhigh,stained-timberceilingsandwithonlytwodozencandlesburningtenfeetabovethestage,measurablebrightnessdecreasedtofractionsofonefootcandleaftersunset.Onlylarge,slowgesturescouldbeclearlyreadfromtheauditorium.Ahalf-hourpastsunset,theactorsonthestageappearedtomoderneyesassomanypresencesratherthanpersons.
Apartfromthenumberofcandles,thereflectanceoftheceilingabovethestageanditsdistancefromthecandlesweremostcrucial.Alight-coloredrooforclothstretchedabovethestagebutstillfairlyclosetothecandlescouldincreasetheamountoflightontheactorsbyasmuchas10to20percent.Apartfromanyiconographicfunctions,clothsandceilingscouldservetoreflectcandlelightandalleviateglare,especiallyintheatersandbanquetinghousesintendedlargelyfornighttimepresentations.
Thehigherthebrancheswerehung,thelessglarebutalsothelesslightontheactorsindeed,thelesslightbytheinversesquareoftheincreaseddistance.Wedonotknowhowhighthebrancheswerehungintheprofessionalplayhouses,butthewiresthatwerestretchedacrossthehallatHamptonCourtmusthavebeeneighteenornineteenfeetabovetheflooriftheywereattachedtothecornicesrunningalongthesidewalls.Assumingthatthecandleshungafewfeetbelowthesewiresandthatthestagewasfourorfivefeethigh,thenthemaximumheightofthecandlesabovethestagefloorwaselevenortwelvefeet.Corroborationofthisestimatecameinmyexperiments,wheretheoptimumheightofthecandlesalsofeelwithinthisnarrowrange.Becauseraisingthebranchesfromtenfeettotwelvefeet,say,reducedtheamountoflightontheactorsbynearly30percentbut
reducedglareforspectatorsbylessthan10percent,itbecameclearthatitwasinefficienttohangthebranchesmuchhigherthantwelvefeetabovethestagefloor.
42Withthebrancheslowerthanninefeet,glarereducedvisibilitybyupwardsof50percent.
Oneofthemostinterestingresultsoftheseexperimentsconcernedtheplacementofthecandlesanditsrelationshiptothemovementoftheactors.Toachievethebestvisibility,onemighthavethoughtthatthecandlesshouldbepositionedascloseaspossibletotheactors,directlyoverthemiddleor
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fronthalfofthestage.Butitwasclearthatabetterlocationforthebrancheswasayardortwoforwardofthefrontedgeofthestage,justasinthemoderntheater,wheretheprincipallightemanatesfrominstrumentshangingabovetheaudienceandprojectingdownataforty-five-tosixty-degreeangletothestage.
Inoneexperimentwiththirty-twocandlesburninginfourchandeliersplacedtenfeetabovethefrontofthestage(andsupplyingtheonlylightinthehall),itwasfoundthattheactors'faceswerebestseenwhentheystoodapproximatelytwoyardsupstageofthehangingbranches.Whentheystooddirectlyunderneaththebranches,whereonewouldhaveexpectedthebestlight,onlythetopsoftheirheadsandshoulderswereclearlyseenwhiletheirfacesandthefrontsoftheirbodieslayinshadows.Thispoorilluminationdirectlyunderneaththebrancheswasduenotonlytotheperpendicularangleofthelightbutalsototheexcessiveamountoflightthatwasobstructedbythebranches,thebodiesofthecandlesthemselves,andthedrippansbeneaththem.Thus,narrowconesofshadow,withtheirapicesateachflame,descendedperpendicularlydownfromthecandles,makingtheareadirectlybelowthebranchesoneoftheworstlocationstostandifonewantedtobewellilluminated.
Movingayardortwoupstagebroughtanactoroutofthisshadowandretainedenoughtoplighttodefinehissilhouette.Butasactorsmovedstillfarthertotherearofthestage,theybegantodisappearindarkness.Atonlythreeyardsupstageofthelights,measurablebrightnessontheactorsdecreasedbyhalfandperceivedbrightnessbymorethantwo-thirds,becausethesteadyglareofthecandlesmadethemseemdimmerbycontrast.Whencandlelightservedastheonlymodeofillumination,therefore,certainlimitationsintherangeoftheactors'movementsimposedthemselves.Whereasinthemixednaturalandartificiallightbeforesunset,theactorswereadequatelylitwherevertheymovedonstage,theeliminationofgeneralnaturallight
obligedtheactorstoremainrelativelyclose(butnottooclose)toahangingchandelierinordertobeseen.Evenaddingchandeliersfartherupstagedidnotappreciablyalleviatethisproblem,becausetheseinstrumentsonlyaddedbacklightandproducedyetmoreglare.
Thislimitationonanactor'smobilitycouldbetemporarilyalleviatedbyhiscarryingahand-heldlightilluminatinghisface,anditmaybethatearlymodernactorsemployedthistricktowardtheendoftheirnighttimeper-
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formances,aswhen,forexample,thesleepwalkingLadyMacbethcarriedacandleduringanighttimeperformanceofMacbeththatwaslikelygivenatHamptonCourton7August1606.Atthedaytimeplayhouses,ontheotherhand,theactorplayingLadyMacbethwasfreetomovewhereverhewished.Thus,theartificiallightingandtimeofperformanceaffectednotjusttheatmosphereoftheplayhousebutalsothemovementsand,inacertainsense,theactingstyleoftheplayers.
Giventhewidelyacceptedprogressionfromwhatisusuallydescribedasanolder,presentationalstyleofactingtomodernrealism,wetendtoassumethatseventeenth-centuryactingwaslikelypresentational.Thismaywellbetrue,atleastincomparisontotheactingweknow,butthegeneral,overalllightingthatprevailedinmostseventeenth-centuryplayhousesmaygiveindirectevidenceofamorenaturalstylethanissometimesthought.Thegradualdelayinperformancetimebytheearlyeighteenthcenturyandtheresultingeliminationofalldaylightinthetheatersnecessitatedadifferentplayingstylenearthechandeliersand(eventually)footlightsthanhadbeentrueintheearlyseventeenthcentury,whenamorewidelydiffusedlightallowedactorstobeseennomatterwheretheystoodonstage.WhenDenisDiderotaskedMadameRiccobonioftheParisThéâtreItalienin1758whyactorscouldnotmovealloverthestageinthebourgeoissettingsheadvocated,sherepliedthatthefacesoftheactorswerenotvisiblethreefeetfromthelamps.
43Butbytheendoftheeighteenthcentury,theintroductionofmoreandmorelightsaboutandoverthestageallowedtheactorsonceagaintomoveawayfromthefootlights.OneofthereasonsMrs.Siddons'sfamousinnovationwithLadyMacbeth'staperwaspossiblewasthat,by1785,DruryLaneboastedseventy-twofootlightsanddozensofcandlesilluminatingthestage,bothfromaboveandfromtheside
wings.Intheearlyeighteenthcentury,Mrs.PritchardhadbeenobligedtocarryLadyMacbeth'staperwithherwhileshesleepwalkedthegloomyrecessesofthestage.Butcitingthe"impracticability"ofwashingoutadamnedspotwhilejugglingacandlestick,Mrs.Siddonscausedanuproarbyputtingthecandledownbusinessmadepossible,inpart,bytheincreasedvisibilitysheenjoyedwherevershewalked,particularateithersideofthestage.44Theevenlydistributedilluminationattheendoftheeighteenthcenturywas,ineffect,areturntothediffusedilluminationatboththepublicandprivateplayhousesintheearlyseventeenthcentury.
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Intheabsenceofwindowlight,however,themovementsofJacobeanandCarolineactorswould,inonerespect,haveappearedmoreartificialtousthanforlateractors.Iftheonlylightshiningontheactorscamefrombranchesabovethem,thentheactorswouldbeobligedtoholdtheirheadshighinordertobeseen.Inmyexperiments,asactorsmovedclosertothehangingbranches,theyhadtotilttheirheadsbacklesttheirfacesdisappearinshadows,creatinganeffect(atleastforus)oftheatricalposturing.Laterseventeenth-centurytheatersattemptedtosolvethisproblembytheintroductionoffootlightsand,intheeighteenthcenturywhennighttimeperformancesbecametherule,bylightemanatingfromthesidewings.Boththesemethodsofintroducingartificialsidelightweresimplyawayofreplacingthegentlyangledwindowlightofpre-Interregnumafternoonperformances.
Althoughthestagewouldbenominallybrighterthattherestoftheplayhouseaftersunset,wemustnotthinkofthestageasamodernshowcasewheretheaudience'sattentionwasdrawntowardbeautifulpicturesbehindaprosceniumframe.Exceptforsomecostumesandproperties,theenvironmentmorenearlyapproximatedthatofalectureroomtoday,whereoverheadartificiallightnormallysupplementsthewindowlight.Incomparinghallplayhouselightingwithourowntheatricalillumination,wemustrememberthatourpsychologicalassociationswithcandleswerenotsharedbyRenaissanceLondoners.Therewasnothingquaint,old-fashioned,orromanticaboutcandlestothem.Forus,theflickeringsubtletyofcandlesmaycallupfeelingsofpoignantsophisticationornaturalwarmthorexquisiteloneliness.Buttothespectatorsattheprivateplayhouses,theeffectwasratherthereverse.Insofarasthecandleswerefewinnumber,theaudiencefounditselfinthedreary,dulllighttheysaweverydayintheirhomes,businesses,andinns.Butinsofarasthecandlesatcourt,say,weremanyandprovidedbright,overall
illumination,earlymodernspectatorscouldbedeeplyimpressed.Butevenatcourt,therewasnothingexoticaboutthebrilliance.Atmost,itstruckthespectatorsasrichandextravagant,sometimesgorgeous,butneverpreciousortheatrical.Inmoderntheaterswherestagelightisproducedbyinstrumentsespeciallydesignedforthepurpose,privateplayhouseilluminationcannotbeduplicatedbyplacingspotlightsorevenchandeliersinplainviewoftheaudience.TheselightshavedifferentconnotationsforusthantheydidforShakespeare'spublic.
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ComparingHallandAmphitheaterIllumination
Inimaginingtheeffectoftheilluminationsystemsindoorsandoutdoors,wemaytend,perhaps,tomakemoreofadistinctionbetweenthemthanisborneoutbytheevidence.Infact,thetwolightingsystemssharedmanysimilarities.Daylightenteredeachkindoftheaterfromapproximatelythesameanglesanddirections.Justasaspectatorstandingintheyardatapublicplayhousewouldperceiveabrightglowoflightabovetheheavens,soalsowouldaspectatorattheprivateplayhousesperceivebrightlightemanatingfromthebrancheshangingabovetheactors.Thetopandbacklightingshiningintoanamphitheatertowardsunsetwasthusduplicatedinthehallplayhousebyeitherthehall'sendwindowabovethescreenorbychandeliersglaringoverthestage.
Inconsequence,IdonotseethatwemustattributeanyshiftindramaticstylesolelytoindoorlightingwhentheKing'smenbegantakingupwinterresidenceatBlackfriarsin1609.TheKing'smenhadbeenaccustomedtoperformingindoorslongbeforethat.From1594to1608,infact,whenwethinkofthecompanyasplayingoutdoors,wehaverecordsofninety-threeindoorperformancesandatleasttwenty-eightmoreprobableindoorperformancesintheprovinces.Incontrast,weknowofonlythirteenrecordedperformancesoutdoorsthreeattheGlobeandtenatNewingtonButts.
45AlthoughAndrewGurrhasdefinedsomeintriguingdifferencesintherepertoires,rhetoric,anduseofswordplaytypicalofthetwokindsofplayhouses,thereislittletoindicatethatthesedifferenceswerecausedbydistinctmodesofillumination.46Norcanwenecessarilylayanyincreaseinsubtletyorrefinementintheactingtothechargeofthecandlelight.Thestrengthoflightindoorswasonaveragelessthanthatattheamphitheaters,andtheflickeringshadowsinthehallplayhousescanhardlyhavemadeiteasierfortheaudiencetocatch
subtlegesturesthaninthesunlightoutdoors.Iftherewasanydifferenceintheactingstyles,itmaybeattributedtothesmallersizeoftheauditoriums,notthekindoflightingthere.
Butwhilewecannotargueanysimplecause-and-effectrelationshipbetweencandlelightandthestyleofthechildren'sandlateradults'indoorplays,wecanthinkofsuchlightasoccasionallyansweringtheneedsofthedrama.Especiallyattheconclusionsofsomeindoorplays,onefeelsthatthecandlelightmayhavecomplementedthelessprofoundlytragicorcomicres-
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olutionsthatbegintotakeholdasthedramamovedintothelateJacobeanandCarolineperiods.Intheearlyoutdoorplays,thewaningsunlightcansometimesbeconstruedasunderscoringthefinalityofthehero'sdestructionintragedyandtheculminationanddissipationoftheday'sintrigueincomedy.ThesunliterallysetsonthelivesofFaustusandLearandonthelovers'quarrelsinTheComedyofErrorsandFriarBaconandFriarBungay.Butastragedymovesindoors,thereis,perhaps,alessprofoundfeelingoflossorofthevictoryofthepowersofnatureoverman.Wemaydoubtthataprevalenceofartificiallightcausedsuchshiftsintone,butwemustconsiderthedegreetowhichartificiallightmayhavecontributedtothatnewtoneonceithadbeenestablished.Asforindoorcomedy,wemightsaythatthecomingofnightinmanyplayssignalsnotsomuchtheconsummationofthelovers'desiresasthesatiricandself-consciousvictoryofthewitsovertheirdupes,ofartificeovernature.Ofcourse,anynewstylesinplaywritingwereundoubtedlytheresultofsocial,intellectual,andpoliticalfashionsratherthanofparticulartheatricalambiences,butitiseasytoimaginesuchnewplaysmakingtheirpointsparticularlywellbycandlelight.
Butevenifsuchgeneralizationsapplytomorethanafewnewplayswrittenforthehalltheaters,theoldoutdoorplayswerefrequentlyrevivedindoors.Thus,thelightingsystemswereobligedtofitawiderangeofplays,andwewouldexpectthatthetechnicalcapabilitiesanddramaticconventionsofthetwolightingsystemswerenotsoverydifferentfromeachother,exceptthatindoorilluminationwastheoreticallysusceptibletomorecontrolthanoutdoorillumination.A1638woodcutfromNicolaSabbattini'sPraticadifabricarsceneemachinene'teatrishowstwotincylinderssupportedbycordsandpulleysthatcanberaisedandloweredoverstagecandles"[w]henitisdesiredtodarkenthewholestageinamoment"(seefig.34),butIhavebeenunabletofindanyevidenceconfirmingtheuseofsuch
equipmentinEngland,evenatcourt.
47Noplaytextsindicatethatcandlesweredimmedorextinguishedtogivetheimpressionofdarknessornight,nor,conversely,thatadditionallightswerelittopresentbrightness.Aswehaveseen,changesinbrightnessatcourtwereeffectedbytheopeningandclosingofshutters,notbylightingandputtingoutcandles.
Althoughcandlescouldhavebeenextinguishedentirelyintheindoorplayhouses,therewereseveralobstaclestotheregularuseofsuchamethodforobtainingdarkness.First,theputting-outoflightswouldnothavepro-
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Fig.34.Branchedchandelierandadevicefordimmingcandles.Printsof
illustrationsfromNicolaSabbattini,Praticadefabricarsceneemachinene'teatri(Ravenna,1638).UniversityofIllinoisTheatricalPrintCollection.
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ducedasignificantdifferenceintheamountoflightuntilnearsunsetorunlesswindowshutterswerealsoclosed.Sunlightshiningthroughthewindowswouldhaveobliteratedtheeffect.Second,atiremanwouldhavehadtocomeoutofthetiring-houseandthenlowerandextinguishthecandleswhiletheplaywasinprogress.Andwhenthe"dark"scenewasfinished,hewouldhavehadtoenteronceagainandrelightthem.Ifthenightsceneslastedforentireacts,theextinctionandrelightingofthecandlescouldbeperformedduringtheactbreaks.ButCarolinenightscenesbeginandendinthemiddleofactsorspilloverintothenextjustasoftenastheycoincidewithactbreaks.Moreover,nostagedirectionorprompter'smarkinginanytext,printedormanuscript,evenhintsthatthecandlesinthebrancheswereputoutorlitduringthecourseoftheplay'sactionoritsactbreaks.TheearliestEnglishallusiontotheextinctionoflightsforthesakeofaplay'smoodcomesaftertheRestorationwhentheProloguetoDryden'sTheRivalQueens(1664)tellstheaudiencethat"reformingPoetsofourAge...blowoutCandlestogiveLighttoth'Plot,"anindicationthatthepracticewasnewandnotcarriedoverfromtheCarolinetheaters.
48
Stillanotherobjectiontotheextinctionofcandlesisthatthewickssmolderforseveralminutesaftertheyhavebeenputout.Thehotwickscontinue"frying"thetallow,asSirFoplingFlutterputsit,creatingadisagreeableodorandnotalittlesmoke.IassumecandlescouldbemorepleasantlyextinguishedaftertheRestorationbecausewaxwasbythentheprincipalfuelabovethestage.BeforetheRestoration,nightscenesweresuggestedbypropertiesassociatedwithnightandbypantomimemethodsthatworkedaswellindoorsasout.Thus,whileThomasHeywoodhadtheGreeksclimboutoftheTrojanhorse"asifgropinginthedarke"attheRedBullaround1612,
RichardBromecouldlikewisedirectaboyactorattheCockpitinDruryLanein1639totailafteranothercharacter''asinthedarke."49Thereisahandfulofstagedirectionscallingfordimmerlightinplaysperformedattheprofessionaltheaters,buttheseareassociatedwithpropertylightsandnotwiththegeneralillumination.Jonson'sCatiline(1611),forinstance,containstherubric,"Adarknessecomesouertheplace."ThinkingofperformancesatboththeGlobeandBlackfriars,W.J.LawrenceguessesthatdarknesswaseffectedbyemittingsmokethroughastagetrapontheauthorityofanarrativedescriptionintheargumenttothethirdactofJonson'sunfinishedTheSadShepherd:"Therearisethamistsodainely...darkningalltheplace."50
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Unfortunately,thereisnoevidencethatTheSadShepherdwasperformedanywhere,andthereisnoconfirmingstagedirectioninthetext,whichissorepletewithstagedirectionsthatonewouldexpectit.TherubricinCatilinesoundslikeamasqueeffect,anditcorrespondsindatetothemasquesceneintheKing'smen'sTheMaid'sTragedy,performedatBlackfriars,wherethefigureof"Nightrisesinmists."
51Butwhilemistsmighthaveaccompaniedafewnightscenes,theyperhapsrepresentednightmorebysymbolismthanillusionism.MistsmightnothaveindicatednightwithoutacharacternamedNighttopointouttheidentification.ThedarknessinCatilinewasalsolikelysuggestedratherthanrealized,becauseJonsonprovidesaconvenientsignalofdarknesswhen,atthemomenttheargumentcallsfordarkness,thetextindicatesthata"vestallflame"goes"out."52Amodernlightingdesignerwouldlowertheamountoflightonstageatthesametimethevestalflamegoesout,butthenextchapterwillshowthatthegeneralilluminationofthetheatersandtheilluminationemittedbypropertylightssometimesworkedquiteindependentlyofeachother.
Thearticulationoflightinthehalltheaters,then,couldeasilyapproximatethatattheamphitheaters.Asteady,diffusedlightwithoutstrongshadowsemanatedfromhighabovethestageatnearlythesameanglesasitdidoutdoors.Despitetheadditionofafewdozencandlesoverthestageandperhapsafewinthedarkestcornersoftheauditorium,themajorcomponentoftheilluminationwasnaturaland,therefore,largelyungovernable.Artificiallightmayhavelentasenseofrefinementtosomeproductions,butnotnecessarilyso.Candleslitthegraciousentertainmentsatcourt,tobesure,butasfrequentlytheylitbarroomrevelsintavernsandsurreptitious"private"performancesbysomeofthepoorestcompaniesoftheperiod.Theuseofcandles
wasneithersomethingnewinthehistoryoftheatricalproductionnoratechnicalimprovementthatenlargedthepaletteofartisticchoicesopentotheactorsandplaywrights.Artificiallightservedtoattenuatetheextremesofthefluctuatingdaylight,butitmadepossiblenomajoreffectthatcouldnotbeachievedbydaylightalone.Instead,thecandlelightrepresentedacontinuationandexploitationoflong-standingtheatricaltraditionsaswellasacannyadaptationtothemutablefashionsofearlymodernEnglishplaygoing.
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9PropertyLightsandSpecialEffectsBesidesthegeneralilluminationoftheplayhouses,variouskindsoflightingutensilsandfireworkswereusedaspracticalstagepropertiesandinspecialeffects.Stagedirectionscallforfamiliarcandles,tapers,lanterns,andtorchesaswellassuchcuriositiesassuns,moons,blazingstars,strokesoflightning,andburningcities.ManyofthesehavebeendescribedbyW.J.Lawrence,LeeMitchell,andothers,togetherwithassessmentsoftheirfunctionsasstageimages.
1Itisnotmypurposetogooverthesamegroundagain.Rather,Iwishtofocusontherelationshipbetweenpropertylightsandtheoverallilluminationintheplayhouse.Further,Ishouldliketoexaminewhetherplaywrightsusedpropertylightsdifferentlyinthepublicandintheprivateplayhouses.Forunlikemanystageproperties,handheldlightsandspeciallightingdevicesweremoreorlessdependentuponthegeneraltheatricalenvironmentfortheireffect,andadramatist'sexpertiseinusingsuchpropertylightscannotbemeasuredwithoutreferencetotheambientlightonstage.
Intakingupsuchquestions,difficultiesarisethatmakedefinitiveconclusionselusive.Themosttroublingproblemisthatwedonotalwaysknowwhichplaysmaybeconsideredpublicandwhichprivate.Theassuranceonatitlepagethataplaywasactedindoorsoroutdoorscannotbeignored,ofcourse,butatthesametime,itisnotproofthataprintedstagedirectioncallingforapropertylightdoesnotderivefromapromptbookpreparedforadifferentvenue.Forexample,W.A.ArmstronghastakenthestagedirectioninHenryChettle'sTheTragedyofHoffman,"Enterasmanyasmaybe
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spar'd,withlights,"toimplythatthegeneralilluminationwasnotstrongattheindoorCockpitinDruryLane,wherethetitlepageofthefirsteditionsaysitwasacted.
2Butwhowrotethisstagedirection,andtowhattimeandplacedoesitrefer?Thetentativephrase"asmaybe"suggestsitwaswrittenbytheauthorandnotbywhoeverpreparedtheauthorialtextforproduction.WeknowfromHenslowe'sdiarythattheAdmiral'smenpaidChettlefortheplayasearlyas1602.3Inthiscase,thestagedirectionmayreflectproductionattheoutdoorFortunetheater,thatis,ifChettlewasthinkingofacertaintheaterinthefirstplace.4Ontheotherhand,theplaybearsevidenceofrevision,nodoubtforitsrevivalindoorsattheCockpitaround1630.Didthereviserwritethisstagedirection,takingpoorindoorlightintoaccount?Oneisinclinedtodoubtit,becausehepresumablywouldknowtheresourcesavailableandnothavebeensovague.Andinanyevent,thestagedirectiondoesnotnecessarilypointtoadesireformoreillumination.Theselightsarebroughtonforaformalsceneofmourningatnight,onlyforty-twolineslong,neartheendoftheplay.The"asmanyasmaybespar'd"maysignalonlyawishforceremonyandspectaclewhilethelightsthemselvesrepresentanattempttoindicatepretendeddarknessonadaylitstage.
AbetterexampleforArmstrongcomesfromMarston'sWhatYouWill,almostcertainlywrittenforthePaul'sboysaround1601andpublishedin1607.Inthelastact,astagedirectionreads,"EnterasmanyPageswithTorchesasyoucan."5Butagain,thetheatricalsituationrevealsthatMarstonwasprimarilyemployingtorchesassignalsforthecomingofnightandforthepreparationsprecedingtheplay-within-a-playabouttobeperformed.Theselightsarebroughtononlysome150linesbeforetheendoftheplay.Onewouldthinkthatifthe
playhouseilluminationwasconsistentlysodarkastowarrantextrastagelights,theywouldhavebeenintroducedsooner.Thesetorchesmayhavecompensatedforwaningdaylight,butonesearchesinvainforapatternofchildren'splaysthatbroughtonlightsattheend.Hadlocutionslike"somanyasmaybe"regularlyreferredonlytotorchbearers,onemightviewtheirpurposedifferently.Butsuchphrasesoftenoccurwithoutanymentionoflights.AstagedirectionforaweddingprocessioninRobertArmin'sTheHistoryoftheTwoMaidsofMore-clack,"Enter...someotherwomenforshewe,"givesasimplerreasonfortheemploymentofthelargestcastpossible.6
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FunctionsofPropertyLights
Thus,weencounteranotherproblemindealingwithpropertylightsnamely,wecannotalwaystellwhattheirfunctionsweresupposedtobe.Didtheauthorofthesestagedirectionswantmorelightonstage,ordidhemerelywantmorecharactersandparaphernaliathere?Wasitthetorchlightthatproducedthesenseofceremony,oronlythelargenumberofattendantsholdinglightingutensils?IdoubtthatMarston,Chettle,orChettle'srevisersawanyneedtodifferentiatethesefunctions,butforourpurposes,wemaydistinguishamongthreerolesthatpropertylightsplayedinrelationtothegeneralilluminationrolesthatIshallcallillusionistic,realistic,andemblematic.
Byillusionistic,Irefertostagelightthatattemptedtoduplicatelightingintherealworld:darkfornight,brightforday,artificiallightforindoors,naturallightforout-of-doors.Thecriterionhereiswhethertheplaywrightattemptedtoapproximateimagestheaudiencewouldrecognize.Byrealistic,Irefernottoverisimilitudeoftheilluminationbuttotheuseofpropertylightinginstrumentsasrealisticdetail.Inthissecondrole,torchesortapersdidnotaccomplishtheirtheatricalpurposebymeansoflightbutbytheirappropriatenesstothesceneandtheauthenticitywithwhichtheactorsusedthem.WhetherornotLadyMacbeth'staperaccuratelyreproducedthelightingofacastleatDunsinane,forexample,itnevertheless"realistically"signaledsuchinformationasthetimeofthesleepwalkingscene(night),theplace(indoors,sincetaperswererarelyusedoutside),andeventhecircumstancethatherwalkwasunplanned,sincesheisnotaccompaniedbytheusualretinueofattendantslightingherway.Byemblematic,Irefertousesofpropertylightsnotstrictlyverisimilarbutfigurative.ExtensionsofthiscategorywouldincludevariousiconographicassociationsLadyMacbeth'staperconstruedasatoken
ofherloneliness,forexamplebutmainlyIhaveinmindtheuseofsuchlightsassuns,moons,stars,andcometsassignsofnightandday,orderanddisorder,andthelike.
Sometimespropertylightsservetheatricalpurposesintwoorthreeofthesemodesatonce.Inscenesofpomp,forinstance,theintroductionofmanyrichlygarnishedlightscouldthrowenoughartificiallightonthescenetocreatetheillusionoftheartificiallightatanobleentertainmentinahall.
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Thelightinginstrumentsthemselvescouldcontributetotherealisticdecorationofthescene.Andonemightarguethat,insomecases,theglitteringtorchesemblematizedtheartificeandunnaturalnessofthecourts,forexample,duringsuchironicmasquesasthoseinWomenBewareWomen(5.2),TheMaid'sTragedy(1.2),andeventheMousetrapplayinHamlet(3.2).Inthesescenes,illusion,realism,andemblemsworktogethertoproduceaconcertofvisualmeaning.Whentorchbearersentered"somanyasmaybe,"theplaywrightswantedbothbrillianceandacrowdedstage,aswellassomeofthesophisticationassociatedwithtorchlight.
7
Butinthemoreprevalentuseofstagelightsasameansofevokingdarkness,thethreemodescanworkagainsteachother.Lightemittedbytheinstrumentsbroughtonstagetoaddrealisticdetailobviouslypreventedtheillusionisticdepictionofnight.Althoughthisconventionhadbeenadumbratedinthedaylittheatersofantiquity,8theremarkableaspectoftheuseofpropertylightsinboththeamphitheatersandhallplayhousesisthatindicationsofdarknesswereeffectedbytheintroductionofmore,ratherthanless,lightontothestage.Lightparadoxicallyrepresenteddarknessandassuchmustbeaccountednotillusionistic.Butinanothersense,thedeploymentofpropertylightswasveryrealistic,becauserealpeopledolightcandlesandtorcheswhenitgetsdark.Inotherwords,theactiononstagewasrealenough,eveniftheilluminationonstagewasnot.Whentorchesandtaperswerecarriedonstagetoindicatethatascenewassupposedtotakeplaceatnight,thetheatricalstatementwasthataninstrumentoflighthadbeencalledintouse.Itwastheinstrument,orrathertheimaginaryneedfortheinstrument,andnotthelightitproducedthatrepresentedthedarkness.Perhapstheactorssometimescarriedunlitutensils,becausethelighttheymightproducewouldaddlittleto,
indeedwouldworkagainst,theevocationofdarkness.AnexperimentatthenewGlobeplayhouseshowedthatwhiletheflameofacandlewasvisibleindaylight,itslightfluxwasnot.Onwindydaysespecially,theactorsmightevenhavehaddifficultyinkeepingopen-flamedcandleslit.Evenagood,moderncandleblewoutmorethanonceasIwalkedacrossthenewGlobestage.
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ConventionsofIndoorandOutdoorIllumination
Yetinthehallplayhouses,onewouldthinkthattheilluminationprovidedbystagelightswassometimesillusionistic,becauseitwasthesamelightthatilluminatedallhallsatnight.W.J.Lawrence,forone,wasconvincedthatthe"rearstage"wasinsuchanobscurepositionthattheaudience's"inconvenience...almostinvariablydemandedthebringinginoflightsatthecommencementofallinner[stage]scenes."Later,Lawrencechangedhismindandadmittedthatlightswerebroughtonjustasfrequentlyforwhathecalls"outer"scenes.Buthecontinuedtoarguethattheinnerstageandtiring-housewallmadetheartificialilluminationemanatingfromthesebrought-onlightslookmorereal.
9Similarly,HarleyGranville-BarkerthoughtthatImogen'staperinthebedroomsceneofCymbelinewasdoublyeffectivebecauseitnotonlyhelpedtosymbolizeherchastitybutalsojoinedwiththecandlelightalreadypresenttoproducetheillusionoftheintimateartificiallightinherbedroom.10
Butthegeneralilluminationofanyplayhousehadtoshineonbothindoorandoutdoorscenes.IfwefollowLawrence'sandGranville-Barker'stheorytoitslogicalconclusion,thenweshouldhaveasituationwhereindoorsceneswereplayedillusionisticallyatBlackfriarsandconventionallyattheGlobe,whileoutdoorsceneswereplayedillusionisticallyattheGlobeandconventionallyatBlackfriars.Thereisamarginalincreaseofindoorscenesinchildren'stheaterdramabutnoinklingofareversalintheconventionsoflightingastheactorsperformedindoors.DistinctionsinlocationwereeffectedbywhatIamcallingrealism,notbyillusion.Whenascenewassupposedtotakeplaceindoors,lightsdesignedforindoorusewerebroughton.Byfarthemostcommonlightsintroducedinto
scenesLawrencecalls"inner"weretapers,whichweretypicallyusedasnight-lightsinbedroomsandtents.LikeImogenandLadyMacbeth,Evadne(TheMaid'sTragedy,5.1),Clarinda(Lovers'Progress,3.1),andMerione(TheQueenofCorinth,3.2)havetapersbytheirbeds.WhenCassiusmeetsBrutusinhistent,theysitnearataperthat,afterBrutusretiresandCaesar'sghostappears,growsdim"HowillthisTaperburnes"(F2288).11Whenthescenesshifttooutdoors,torchesandlanternsreplacetapers.InthefirsttwoscenesofOthello,wegetnolessthanthreecallsfortorchesasthecharactershurrytothecouncilchamber;onceinside,theactionisaccompaniedonlyby"lights."Attheend
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oftheplay,asAlanDessenpointsout,Iagocarriesatorchinact5,scene1,indicatinganoutdoorscene,whereasOthellocarriesacandleintoDesdemona'schamberinact5,scene2.
12Whethertheaudiencewastothinkofthesceneasindoorsoroutdoorswasdeterminedbythetypeoflightingutensil,notbyitslight.Inusingtheshapeoftheutensilsratherthanthequalityorquantityofthelighttheyproducedtohelpsetthescene,theactorswereconsequentlyfreetousethesamestaginginwhatevergenerallighttheyfoundthemselves.
Dependingonhowitwasdescribed,alightingutensilcouldsignalmultiplelocations,anddramatistscouldemphasizetheatmosphereoffirstoneandthenanotherlocation.Forexample,Dessenhasalsonotedtheinconsistencythat,althoughthemonumentsceneofMuchAdoaboutNothing(5.3)beginswithanentranceof"threeorfourwithtapers,"indicatinganindoormonument,later,whendaybreaks,DonPedroorders,"putyourtorchesout"(Q12v),indicatinganoutdoorlocation.13ButhereShakespeareisemployingasecondaryassociationoftaperstheirconnectionwithreligiouslocationsandceremonies.Thus,identicallightinginstrumentsarecalledtaperswhenShakespeareemphasizestheirsacredcharacterbutarecalledtorcheswhenthemoodturnsromantic.Similarly,inact3,scene1,ofAntonio'sRevenge(1600,Paul's),tapersaccompanyAndrugio'shearsetochurch;butoncehissonAntonioplotsrevenge,pagesreenterwithtorchesinsteadoftapers.TheoneShakespeareanexampleoftapersusedinasimpleoutdoorsceneoccursin2HenryVI,whenthebarefootEleanorcarriesaburningtaperin"openpenance"(2.4),butherethetaper'sassociationwithreligiousceremonytakesprecedenceoveritsmoretypicaluseasasignalofplace.
Inthehallplayhouses,then,whereonemighthaveexpectedthatlightscarriedonstagewereusedtoamplifytheexistinglight,thesamepracticeofindicatingdarknessbytheoccasionalintroductionofpropertylightstookhold.BlackfriarsplayssuchasTheElderBrother(4.3),Love'sPilgrimage(1.2),TheFairMaidoftheInn(1.1),TheMaidintheMill(1.3;4.3),andTheKnightofMalta(4.2),aswellasahostofprobableBlackfriarsplayslikeAlphonsusofGermany("EnterAlphonsustheEmperourinhisnight-gown,andhisshirt,andatorchinhishand"),14usestagelightstoindicatedarkness,nottoincreasethesenseofbrightnessintheplayorthetheater.Sotoo,Cockpitplays
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likeShirley'sTheMaid'sRevenge(3.6),TheWittyFairOne(4.4),TheWedding(4.4),andTheLadyofPleasure(3.1)employstagelightsexactlyastheyareusedintheoutdoortheaterstorepresentdarkness.Theinterestingcorollarytothisconclusion,moreover,isthatdespitetheattempttosuggestdarkness,therehadtobeenoughlightonstagefortheaudiencetoseewhatkindoflightingutensilwasbroughtonaswellastoseeotherimportantsignalsoftime,place,andcharacterthathadnothingtodowithlight.
CorroborationthattheevocationofdarknesswasnotillusionisticcomesfromShakespeare'ssatireofthemechanicals'naiverepresentationalexpectationsinact3,scene1,ofAMidsummerNight'sDream.Inpreparingfortheirplay,Quincepointstothemajorobstacleforanillusionisticpresentation:"thatis,tobringtheMoonelightintoachamber:foryouknow,PiramusandThisbymeetebyMoonelight."Snug,Bottom,andtheothersareliteralists;theyinsistonconsultinganalmanactolearnwhetherthemoonwillbeshiningonthenightoftheirplay.Whentheydiscoverthatthemoonwillindeedbeout,Bottomfindsthesolutiontotheproblemsimple:"Whythenmayyouleaueacasementofthegreatchamberwindow(whereweplay)open,andtheMoonemayshineinatthecasement."Bottomcontendsthatmoonlightmaybestberepresentedbytherealthing,butQuince,whohashadmoreexperienceinthesematters,believesthattheemblematicapproachisbetter.Hesuggests,"[O]nemustcomeinwithabushofthornsandalanthorne,andsayhecomestodisfigure,ortopresentthepersonofMoonshine"(F85872).
ThejokerestsinpartonthefactthatnoonechampionsthemethodofrepresentingnightthatElizabethanplaywrightsusedmostoftentherealisticmode.Noonesuggeststhatafewtokenpropertiesassociatedwithnightbebroughtonstage.Bottomproposesanillusionistictechniquethatispatentlyabsurd.ButalthoughwemayfindQuince'semblematicsolutionjustasludicrous,thereisreasontobelievethat
theElizabethansfounditlessso,oratanyrateconsideredamanholdingalanternonlyalittlelesssophisticatedthanotheremblemsfornightrepresentationsofmoonsandstars,forexample.
15
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MoonsandStars
Suchemblemsasmoonsandstarsweremostpopularbeforetheturnofthecentury,buttheycontinuedthroughouttheperiod.AmongtheAdmiral'smen'sproperties,inventoriedin1598,forexample,was"theclotheoftheSone&Mone."
16Whatthiswasisnotclear:itmayhaveresembledthecostumesthatdressedPhoebusandPersephoneinThomasHeywood'sAgesplaysforQueenAnne'smen,17oritmayhavebeensomesortofpaintedemblemofdayandnightalongthelinesoftheAdmiral'smen'sown"sittieofRome."Inthelastactof1TroublesomeReignofJohn,PhiliptheBastardcastshiseyesup"toheauen"andsees"FiueMoonesreflecting,asyouseethemnow.''Werethesemoonsonlyimaginary?Tomakeitexplicit,wegetthestagedirection,"TherethefiueMoonesappeare."18Theplayisearly,ChambersassigningittotheArmadaperiodof1588,butwecannotsaydefinitelythatitwasperformedindoorsoroutdoors.19WhenShakespearewrotethesamesceneforoutdoorproductioninhisKingJohn,however,thesephysicalmoonswereeliminatedandtheirappearanceonlynarrated.
Weareleftwondering,though,whatthesemoonslookedlike.Therewereutensilscalled"Moons"inearlymodernEngland;accordingtotheantiquarianThomasWright,theywereglobe-shapedlanterns.20GeorgeKernodleispositivetheeffectin1TroublesomeReignofJohnwasproducedby"amachinewhichmadeonemoonwhirlabouttheothers,tosymbolizeEnglandandherscornofpopishlands,"ontheauthorityofsuchmachinesinContinentaltableauxvivants.21Ofthesepossibilities,neithertheAdmiral'smen'sclothnorKernodle'smachinecanbethoughtofaslightingeffectsassuch,becausetheyemblematizenightinpictorialratherthaninluminaryterms.Wright'smoonlanternandQuince'slanternaretruelightingutensils,butunless
theywereemployedindarkenedhalls,theytoomightachievetheireffectlessbylightthanbysymbolism.Likerealisticpropertylights,totheextentthatsuccessfulemblemsofnightdidnotdependonlightalone,theyaffordedaflexiblemeansofindicatingnight,whichworkedaswelloutdoorsasindoors.
Otherimportantemblemsassociatedwithnightwerethestarandblazingstarorcomet.Thesemaybetracedbacktothenativitystarsinmedievalreligiousdrama,manyofwhichproducedtheireffectinbroaddaylight.But
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starswerealsofeaturedintheChesterCathedralinliturgicalplays.Latechurchwardens'accountstherelistseveralpaymentsforstars,including"apullytothestarr&settingitvp4d"in1558.
22TheLondonCordwainershadthree"greattstars"fortheirBethlehempageant"withiijreglassesandacordforthesamesteris."23SimilarstarsoncordswereusedatYarmouthinNorfolkfrom1462to1512.Churchwardens'accountsthereinclude"leadingthestar''and"anewbalklinetothestarandryving[pulling]thesamestar."24WiththeReformation,nativitystarswentoutoffashion,butIdoubtthatstarsonlinesandpulleysdid.Someofthesestarsmayhavebeenpaintedeffectsratherthanburninglights.Wereadnothingoftalloworwaxforthem,andonewouldthinkitdangeroustopullburninglightsalonglinessuspendedabovetheparishioners.TheCordwainers'starswith"glasses"mightbesomesortoflamp,but"glass"morelikelyreferstoamirrororcrystal.Probablypiecesofglassglitteredonthestars,reflectingbacktheexistinglight.
Mostofthestagedirectionscallingforstarsintheprofessionaltheateroccurearlyintheperiodandwould,therefore,oftenrefertoopen-airproductions.InadumbshowinTheBattleofAlcazar,performedaround1589bytheAdmiral'smen,thereisthunderandlightningasIrisdescendsfromtheheavens.Thencomesthestagedirection,"HeeretheblazingStarre."ThePresenterofthedumbshowelaborates:"Nowfiriestarresandstreamingcometsblaze,"afterwhichanotherstagedirectioncallsfor"Fireworkes,"andthePresentercontinues,"Fire,fireabouttheaxiltreeofheauen,/Whoorlesround."25TheBirthofMerlin,ascribedtoShakespeareandRowleyonitstitlepage,givesasimilardescriptionofablazingstar.Again,thunderandlightningprecedetheclimacticmomentwhenthe
"BlazingStarappears,"andafire-breathingdragonappearsoutofa"flamingring"fromwhichalsoemanatesevensmaller"blazingstreams."26Rowleyseemstohavewrittenorrevisedtheplayin1608whilehewasworkingforQueenAnne'smenattheRedBull,buteventhoughtheRedBullwasfamousforitsspecialeffects,onewonderswhetherallthefireRowleydescribeswasreal,painted,orimaginary.27
Becauseblazingstarsaresooftenassociatedwithpyrotechnics,oneexplanationofthemisthattheywereakindoffireworksrepresentingcomets.Unfortunately,noRenaissancehandbookorlistoffireworksmentionsblazingstars.JohnBate'sTheMysteriesofNatureandArthasashortchapterex-
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plaining"HowtomakeStarres,"butthese,welearn,weremerelysmall,roundfirecrackers.Fromtheiringredients,moreover,itisclearthatBate'sstarswouldnotcreatemuchlight,despitetheirname,butonlyaloudreport.
28Batealsodescribesa"flyingDragon"adragon'sbodyattachedtoarocketthatranalongalinewhichmightexplainthedragon'sheadinTheBirthofMerlin,whilethatplay'sflamingringmaybeagirandolewhirlingabouttheblazingstar.BecauseblazingstarsweresopopularattheRose,itisdisappointingthatHenslowe'sinventorydoesnotincludeone,althoughhislistisbynomeanscomplete.Thetroublewithfireworksisthattheyaredangerousandcauseunpleasantodors.Theseproblemsmayhaveraisedlittleconcernattheoutdoortheaters,butindoorsitwasotherwise.TheProloguetoShirley'sTheDoubtfulHeirproclaimsthat,astheplaywasintendedforBlackfriars,therewouldbenosquibsinit.InNorthwardHo!,aPaul'splayof1605,improvidentgallantsarecomparedto"squibsthatrunvponlynes."29AsimilarmetaphorinMarston'sParasitaster,aBlackfriarsplayofthesameyear,alsorefersto"squibsrunningvponlines''that"Stink."30
Ifblazingstarswerefireworks,wemighttentativelyconcludethattheycouldbeusedonlyoutdoors.SuchistheopinionofInga-StinaEwbank,who,inthecontinuingcontroversyovertheauthorshipofTheRevenger'sTragedy,offerstheblazingstarinact5,scene3,asevidencethattheplaywaswrittenforoutdoorproductionattheGlobeand,hence,cannothavebeenwrittenbyMiddletonforthechildrenatBlackfriars.31HerargumentforattributiontoTourneurturnsonChambers'sremarkthatincomparisontotheRedBullanditselaboratefireworks,"TheGlobe,withitstraditional'blazingstar,'isleftfarbehind."32ShetakesChamberstomeanthatblazingstarsweremorecharacteristicoftheGlobethananywhereelse.ButEwbankhas
misunderstoodChambers.By"traditional,"hemeantonlythatblazingstarswereolddevicesandthatinthecompetitionfornewspectacle,theGlobehadnotkeptpace.HedoesnotmeanthatblazingstarswereuniquetotheGlobe;indeed,Ihavebeenunabletofindoneplay,otherthanTheRevenger'sTragedy,thatcontainsablazingstarandisassociatedwithGlobeproduction.33
AlthoughmostblazingstarsareassociatedwiththeRoseandRedBull,wecannotentirelydiscounttheiruseindoors.BoththemanuscriptandquartoversionsofThomasGoffe'sTheCourageousTurkcallforblazingstars,andthemanuscriptstatesthattheplaywasacted21September1618bystudents
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ofChristChurch,Oxford,presumablyindoors.
34ThestagehistoryofIfYouKnowNotMe,YouKnowNobodyisconfused,butthereisastrongpossibilitythatthesecondpart(orsectionsofit)wasperformedattheCockpitinDruryLanearound1630.35Quartospublishedbeforeandafterthisrevivalincludestagedirectionscallingforblazingstars.AttheGlobeon23May1633,SirHumphreyMildmaysawFletcher'sRollo,DukeofNormandy,whosetextdescribesadescending"brightstarre"thatmayormaynothavebeenactuallyshown.Butthetextof1636canaseasilyreflectcourtperformancesin1630,1631,or1637.36AccordingtotheHistoriaHistrionica,aperformanceofRollowasinprogressattheCockpitinDruryLanewhenthatplayhousewasraidedin1648.37Itmaybethatsomehalltheatersresortedtolesscombustiblemethodsofshowingstars:asaglosstothequestion"Howmanystarres...?,"astagedirectionintheundatedmanuscriptplayTimoncallsfor"thesigneofthe7starr[es]."38Wedonotknowforwhomthisplaywaswritten,butitsfrequentquotationofGreekproverbsandotherpedantriesimplyastudentperformanceindoors.Onthewhole,wemaysaythatblazingstarsmayhavebeenpresentedlesselaboratelyandlessoftenindoors,butanydeclineintheirpopularitymayaseasilybetracedtotheJacobeandistasteforthenaiveemblemsoftheElizabethansastoaJacobeanfondnessforindoortheaters.
Inregardtothegeneralillumination,itisinterestingtonotethatmostblazingstarsoccurlateintheactionoftheplays.Igivetheirpositionsinredactedactsandscenes:BattleofAlcazar,5;CaptainThomasStukeley,5;TheBirthofMerlin,4.5;TheRevenger'sTragedy,5.3;2IfYouKnowNotMe,3;Rollo,5;TheCourageousTurk,5.Coulditbethatblazingstarsweremeanttolookmorerealinthegatheringdarknessattheendoftheplay?Orweretheysimplydelayedsothat
theriseindramatictensionwasparalleledbyanincreaseinspectacle?Anappearanceofthreesunsearly(2.1)inthebadquartoof3HenryVI(TheTrueTragedyofRichardDukeofYork)mightarguelikewisethatsunswouldlookmorenaturalinthebrightafternoonlight.Inthefirstfolioversion,Edwardexclaims,"Dazlemineeyes,ordoeIseethreeSunnes?"whileRichardgivesalongdescriptionof"ThreegloriousSunnes"comingtogethertobecome"butoneLampe,oneLight,oneSunne"(F67883).Butinthequarto,Richard'snarrationistrimmed,andastagedirectionisadded:"Threesunnesappeareintheaire"(QB3v).Whatthesesunslookedlikeisevenmoredifficulttoimaginethanwhatmoonslooked
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like.ItseemsunlikelythattheEnglishhadanylightsattheirdisposalthatcouldhaveproducedconvincingsunsout-of-doors.
39PerhapssomethingontheorderoftheAdmiral'smen's"clotheoftheSone"wasemployed,atechniqueeffectiveinnearlyanytheatricalenvironment.
OtherFireworks
Outdoors,andperhapsindoors,fireworkswereoftenemployedfortheirownsakewithoutregardtoassociationswithnightandday.DoctorFaustus,performedattheRoseandFortune,isfamiliarevidence.Notmanyseriousplaysnowadaysemployfireworks,andweperhapsneedtorethinktheirappropriatenesstocertainkindsofdramathatwereneverintendedtobetakenrealistically.Forexample,thesoberacademiciansofVicenzausedfireworksextensivelyattheTeatroOlimpicoin1585fortheirrevivalofKingOedipus.40Amoderntheatergoer,usedtoscenicillusionism,mightspeculateuneasilyaboutwhichmomentsoftheplayweredeemedmostappropriateforfireworks.
Buteveniffireworksdidnotsupporttheimaginarytimeorplaceoftheplay,onestillwondershoweffectivefireworkswereinthedaytime,whetherindoorsoroutdoors.Fireworksareclearlybetteratnight.Theconjecturethatcertainplaysmayhavebeenperformedlateinthedaybecausetheyincludedfireworkssuggestsitselfbutwithoutconclusiveevidence.WedoknowthatattheBeargardeninSouthwark(c.1584),fireworksconcludedtheday'sgames.41AndalookatDoctorFaustusshowssixusesoffireandfireworkswithadistinctprogressionofmoreandmoreelaboratespectacletowardtheend.Forthisplay,perhaps,Marlowemayhavebeenawarethatitmightbewisetodelaythebiglightingeffectsuntilthesunwasbeginningto
sink.Thus,throughthefirstfouractsofthe1616Btext(Greg'sdivisions),fireworksareusedonlytofrightenpeoplethePope,hisCardinals,andthesoldiers.Thisfrightcanbeaccomplishedbythenoiseofthefireworksalone,forweshouldrememberthatElizabethanfireworksdidnotproducethelong-lasting,brilliantlycoloreddisplaysweenjoy.InTheBrokenHeart,Fordmakesthepointthatfireworksproducedtheireffectmostlybynoise,notbylight:
Sosquibsandcrackersflyeintotheayre,Thenonelybreakingwithanoyse,theyvanishInstenchandsmoke.42
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ButinthefinalsceneofDoctorFaustuswhen"Hellisdiscouered"(apparentlythe"Hellmought"includedintheAdmiral'smen's1598inventory),weknowthatsomethingmorethannoisewasresortedto.
43ProbablytheaudiencesawnoneofwhattheBadAngeldescribes(anever-burningchair,damnedsoulsbeingtossedonforks,bodiesbroilinginlead)exceptintheirmind'seye,buttheAdmiral'smendidnotleaveeverythingtotheimagination,either.Wearefortunatetohavetwocontemporaryaccountsoftheplay'scatastrophe.InAstrologaster,JohnMeltontellsofaperformanceattheFortunebefore1620:"amanmaybeholdshagge-hayr'dDeuillsrunneroaringouertheStagewithSquibsintheirmouthes,whileDrummersmakeThunderintheTyring-house,andthetwelue-pennyHirelingsmakeartificiallLightningintheirHeauens."44Andinasatireonwarfare,WorkeforArmorours,ThomasDekkermentionsthatinonebattle,"wildefireflewfromone[army]toanother,likesquibswhenDoctorFaustusgoestothediuell."45Muchoralloftheeffectoftheburninginhellmighthavebeenrepresentedbyfireworksorsmoke(medievaldevilsarefrequentlypicturedwithbellows),althoughneitherMeltonnorDekkermentionssmoke.
Artificiallightningfromtheheavenscouldhavebeenproducedbyanumberofmethods.Bothflamesandstrokesoflightningweresometimesproducedbypowderedrosinthrownorblownpastaburningtorch.Thistechniquewaspopularearlyintheperiodbut,liketheblazingstar,fellintosomedisreputelater,eventhoughitwascitedasthecorrectmethodformakinglightninginthe1611EnglisheditionofSebastianoSerlio'sArchitettura.46In1599,theKing'smen'sAWarningforFairWomendisdainfullyrecalledthecrowd-pleasingentrancesofvengefulghostswhen"alittleRosenflashethforth,/LikesmokeoutofaTabaccopipe,oraboyessquib."47Aslateas1636,
RichardLovelaceintheepiloguetoTheScholars,aWhitefriarsplay,wasstillcomplainingaboutsomeoftheaudience'sloveforrosinlightningflashes.48Lovelaceisnotquiteclearonthematter;evidentlyrosinflashescouldalsobeusedindoorsatWhitefriars,althoughhecertainlydisapprovedofthem.Similardisapprovalwasvoicedregardinglightningproducedbysquibsrunningonlines.Insomequarters,atleast,boththeseeffectswereconsideredlessrefinedandlesssafethanvariousContinentaltechniquesforrepresentinglightning,whichneverthelessdidnotbecomepopularinEngland.49
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FireEffects
Mostfireswererepresentedsimplybysmoke.Literarystagedirectionsofdescentsintohellmentionfieryexhalationsandthelike,butitwouldhavebeendangeroustohaverealflamesemanatefrombeneathwoodenstages.InRobertWilson'scomedyTheCobler'sProphecy,writtenbefore1594,thePriesttellsus,"TheCabbinofContemptdothburnewithfire,"butweknowfromthestagedirectionthattheeffectwasactuallymoremodest.Inaplayhousestagedirection,thetiremanwasordered,"[F]romonepartletasmokearise."
50OneoftherareplayhousedistinctionsbetweensmokeandfireismadebystagedirectionsinJohnFletcher'sBonduca.Inact3,scene1,wewitnessaDruidsacrificeduringwhichceremoniesareperformedatanaltar.Astagedirectioncallsfor"[a]smoakfromtheAltar,"andBonducadulynotesthat"[t]hefiretakes."Buthissisterisupsetthat"noflamerises.''Moreprayersareoffered,astagedirectionreads,"Aflamearises,"andBonducahappilyannouncesthat"[i]tflamesout."51BibliographicalanalysisofthetextshowsthatthesestagedirectionsoriginatedintheplayhouseandnotsimplywithFletcher,whomightonlyhaveimaginedthatthedifferencebetweensmokeandflamescouldbedemonstratedonstage.Fromthecastlistappendedtotheplay,Chamberscandateittoeitherthe160810or161314seasonwhentheKing'smenwereperformingatbothBlackfriarsandtheGlobe.52ProbablyasimilartrickaltarwasusedataboutthesametimefortheKing'smen'sBlackfriarsplayTheTwoNobleKinsmen,inwhichEmiliaputsahinduponanaltarandsetsfiretoit,whereuponthehinddisappearsandinitsplacearosetreeascends(5.1).Oragain,aplayperformed"ninedaystogetherattheGlobe,"Middleton'sAGameatChess,requiresanaltarfromwhich"flamesaspire,"tapers"setthemseluesafire,"andstatuesmoveinadance.53Clearly,theuse
ofsuchaltarsbothindoorsandoutdoorssuggeststhatplaywrightscouldrelyontheaudience'sreadilyunderstandingthesamelightingconventionsinavarietyoflightingenvironments.
Luckily,wehaveanexampleofhowsuchaltarscouldwork.TheEnglishmagusRobertFludddescribedatrickaltarinhisTechnicalHistoryoftheMacrocosm(Oppenheim,1618).Itworkedbyemittingsmokeandfirethroughaholeinthetopofthealtarthatcouldbeopenedandclosedbyaslidingplate(seefig.35)Fluddexplainstheapparatusthisway:
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Housescanbeburned,sacrificialaltarscanburstintoflames,trailingandbeardedcometsmadetoappear,brimstoneeffected,andmanyotherspecialeffectsofthiskindbytheuseofatriggeringmechanism...ifacandlestickwithalitcandleissetinthehollowofanaltaroutofview,insuchawaythattheburningflametouchesasheetofcoppercoveringasortofopeninginthetopsurfaceofthealtar.Bythemovementofaleadweightorofwateratacertaintime,thesheetwillbesecretlyremoved,andtheflame,issuingthroughtheopening,willkindlewhateveritfindsoverthealtarthatiscombustible.
54
Fig.35.Atrickaltar.IllustrationfromRobertFludd,Utriusquecosmimaiorisscilicet
etminorismetaphysica,physicaatqvetechnicahistoria,TomusPrimus,TractatusSecundus:Denaturaesimiaseutechnicamacrocosmihistoria(Oppenheim,1618).
UniversityofIllinoisatUrbana-ChampaignLibrary.
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Fludddoesnotassociatethisapparatuswiththetheater,butburningaltarscenesarefrequentenoughtobelievethatthistrickandsuchscenesmayhavesharedtechniquesor,atleast,acommonorigin.Fludd'smethodofcreatingaconflagrationmightevenhavebeenappropriateforsucheffectsas"theTowneburning"inthebackgroundduringZenocrate'sfuneralin2Tamburlaine(2.2):
55
Ifthen,apalaceconstructedinpaperorwoodorsomeperfumedcombustibleisplacedthere[ontopofthealtar],everythingwillburn.ThusforthedestructionofTroy,theburningofNero'sRome,thetorchingofSardanalausanditspalace,andotherdisplaysofthiskind,thisdevicewillbeespeciallyuseful.56
Anothermeansofproducingsucheffectsreliedonalcohol.Thereisevidencefortheuseofalcoholinburningpropertiesindoorsasearlyas1553whentheRevelsOfficebought"onepottleofaqauviteforthepageauntofma[r]ceandtoburneinotherproperties."57Theblueflameofalcoholisnotverybright,however,andmaynothavebeensuitableintheamphitheaters.Toproducefireeffectsforhisindoorintermezzi,Sabbattiniadvisedplacingalcohol-soakedclothsonperiaktoiandthenlightingthecloths;but,hejudiciouslywarns,thistechniqueshouldbe"avoidedasmuchaspossibleonaccountofthedangersometimesattendantonit."58
AlthoughfewerfireandlightningeffectswerecalledforinJacobeanandCarolinetexts,thedecreasecannotbeexplainedsolelybyariseinthenumberofhalltheaters.Earlyindoorplaysespeciallythosewritteninthe1560sand1570scontainnumerousfireeffects,anindicationthatthepopularityofsuchconflagrationsceneswasdeterminedbyfashionasmuchasbytheproductionvenue.In1572,forinstance,awaxchandlermadeanexpensive"deviceincounterfetingThunder&
Lightning"foraplaybytheChildrenoftheChapelatcourt.59Sinceachandlerandnotapainterwasresponsible,wemustassumethatsomekindofburninglightwasusedindoorstorepresentlightning.Butotherindoorentertainmentsemployedveryconventionalizedmethodsofrepresentingfires.In1566,QueenElizabethsawaplayatOxfordatnightinwhichacharacterascendedfromhellwith"flaminghead,feet,arms."60Similarclothing''sprinkledwithbloud&flames"isfoundinthedumbshowbeforeact4ofGorboduc,performedattheInnerTemplein1561.61Perhapscostumeswereflame-coloredordecoratedwith
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stripsofcloththatresembledflameswhentheactormoved.SuchappearstobethemethodusedincostumingInigoJones'sfieryspiritsforJacobeanmasques.
62InthelatemoralityplayAllforMoney,bothDamnationandJudashavegarments"paintedwithflamesoffire,"atechniquethatclearlyaffordedthetroupeaflexiblemeansofstagingthatwouldbeappropriateinnearlyanyvenue.63
Insum,theevidencewehaveindicatesnosubstantiallydifferentuseofpropertylightsindoorsoroutdoors.ThecontrastsofdarknessandlightontheEnglishRenaissancestagewerefirstandforemostfunctionsoftheimageryinthespokenwordsand,hence,workedtheireffectsmostprominentlyintheimaginationsofthespectators.Someofthelightsbroughtonstagemayneverhavebeenlitormayhaveproducedtheireffectbyconventionalsymbolism.Itisalltooeasytooverestimatetheallusivepoweroflightusedonstagebymeansofselectivecitations.OnlyhalfofShakespeare'splaysuseanylightsatall,andofthosethatdo,themajorityuselightssimplyasrealisticdetail.64Propertylightswereimportanttechnicalconsiderations,butlessbecauseofthelighttheyproducedthanbecauseofthescenestheyhelpedtoset.Lightscarriedbytheactorshadtheabilitytoparticipateintheconcertofaction,language,andtheatricalenvironmentbycreatingmoodsand,attimes,byhelpingtoshowwhat,when,andevenwhowassupposedtobeonstage.Andfinally,theuseofsuchpropertylightsandspecialeffectssuggeststhatthestageconditionsatthepublicandprivatetheaterscouldnothavebeeninsuchoppositionastoobligedramatistsoractorstorewriteplaystofitdifferentlightingsystems.
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10IlluminatingtheScene:TheDuchessofMalfiattheGlobeandBlackfriarsRecentscholarship,inparticulartheRecordsofEarlyEnglishDramaproject,andthediscoveriesofthefoundationsoftheRoseandGlobeplayhouseshaveprovideduswithamorecomplexviewofearlymodernEnglishtheatersandstagingthanwastrueonlysomefiftyyearsago,whenitwascommontospeakof"theElizabethantheater."FollowingtheleadofG.F.Reynoldsinthe1940s,scholarshavetakencarenottocreateageneralizedreconstructionofa"typical"playhouseandhaveinsteadsoughttorecognizedifferencesamongtheearlyplayhousesthatShakespeareandhiscontemporariesknew.Allthesame,wedowelltorecallthatevenatoneplayhouse,verydifferentkindsofsceneswereperformedunderitslightandthatsomeofthesescenesmaybesaidtohavetakenadvantageoftheprevailingillumination,sometodisregardit,andotherstocallattentiontoadisparitybetweenthepretendedlightofthesceneandthereallightinthetheater.Inshort,thereisasenseinwhichvariousactionsonstagemayhaveinvitedtheaudiencetoconstruetheprevailingilluminationdifferently.UnaEllis-FermormakesthecharmingobservationthatthedecadenttoneofmanyJacobeandramasmusthavebeenwellservedbyasunsetreflectedintheskyabovetheoutdooramphitheaters,butinmidsummer,thoseJacobeantragedieswouldhavebeenaccompaniedmoreoftenbyglaringsunshine.
1
Asoftenasnot,therefore,thenaturallightcontributedlittleornothingtoanysenseofillusion,evenifitcouldoccasionallyhelptoclarify
thestagingofcertainmomentsintheplay.Duringnighttimescenes,forexample,the
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daylightintheplayhousemeantthattheaudiencecouldclearlyseeactionsthatweresupposedtobeobscuretothecharactersonstage.Ashasbeennoted,theimaginarydarknessofsuchplaysasAMidsummerNight'sDreamandOthelloconfusesthecharactersonstage,whileweknowpreciselywhatishappeningtothem.Macbethisoneofthedarkestplaysoftheperiod;sceneafterscenetakesplaceatnightorinthedarkestcornersofthepalace.DespiteitsoriginalproductionatthesunlitGlobe,itisonlyattheveryendoftheplay,whenthesunbreaksoverBirnamForest,colorsareunfurled,andMacbethtakesuparms,thatthenightmarecometoanend.Farfromattemptingillusion,Shakespearefashionsthedramasothatthestagelightcontrastsironicallywiththeaction.J.L.StyannotesthatwhenRosscommentsonthegloomyomensintheskyafterDuncan'smurder
ThouseesttheHeauens,astroubledwithmansAct,ThreatenshisbloodyStage:byth'Clock'tisDay,AndyetdarkeNightstranglesthetrauailingLampe:Is'tNightspredominance,ortheDayesshame,ThatDarknessedoesthefaceofEarthintombe,WhenliuingLightshouldkisseit?(F93035)
Shakespearegoesoutofhiswaytopointoutthedaylightconventionthatpermittednighttimescenesonasunlitstage.
2
Still,Shakespearegoesfurtherthansimplycallingattentiontoadiscrepancybetweenthereallightintheplayhouseandthepretendedlightinthescene.Evenatthebeginningoftheplay,Macbethisawareofwhathisvillainymustlooklikeinthelight.WhileplottingthemurderofDuncan,hevainlyprays,"LetnotLightseemyblackanddeepedesires"(F339).Toanamphitheateraudience,the"seelingnight"thatMacbethhopeswillveilmurderand"Cancel"hisdutydid
notexist.Macbethwould"SkarfevpthetenderEyeofpittifullDay"(F1206),butasRossremindsus,livinglightdidindeedkissthestage.Asmembersoftheaudience,weseeMacbeth'sdesiresplayedoutinbroaddaylight.SimonFormansawMacbethattheGlobeinApril1611,butwhentheplaywasperformedatcourt(probablyatHamptonCourtinAugust1606),onedoubtsRoss'smovinglineswerecutbecauseofdifferentlightingarrangements.Shakespearedidnotdependonthesunfortheeffectanymorethanhedependedonnaturetoproviderealthunderandlightningforthewitches.
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Comparedtomodernpractice,earlystagelightingenjoyedamorecasualrelationshipwiththedrama.Itwasfreetoenhanceaestheticattitudesornot.Therewasnoinsistencethatthelightfitthemoodoftheplayateveryturnandnomoreexpectationoflogicalconsistencyintheilluminationthaninthecostumingorscenery.Whenthecharacteroftheilluminationparalleledthescenicdesign,theactorsmightormightnotpointthecorrespondencesout.Butwhentheplayhouselightandthesceniclightweredissimilar,theactorswerealsofreetoexploitthediscrepancyifthatseemedprofitable.
Thismultifariousexploitationoflightnotwithstanding,severalscholarshaveattemptedtoassignplaystospecifictheatersonthebasisoftheluminaryatmosphereoftheplaysthemselves.InhisadmirableRevelsPlayseditionofTheDuchessofMalfi,JohnRussellBrownarguesthatthescenewiththe"deadman'shand"(4.1)canhavebeeneffectiveonlyinadarkenedtheaterandthattheplaymustthereforehavebeenwrittenwiththeKing'smen'sindoorBlackfriarsplayhouseinmind.
3Butthetitlepageofthe1623firsteditionstatesclearlythattheplaywas"[p]resentedprivatly,attheBlack-Friers;andpubliquelyattheGlobe."BecauseBrowntakesthelightingofthisextraordinaryscenetobecriticaltoaproperunderstandingofitsoriginalstagingandeffect,Ishouldliketoexaminethesceneinrelationtowhatweknowoftheilluminationatboththeatersandinthehopethatacloselookatthelightshiningonaspecificscenewillservetobalancethediagrammaticsketchoflightingwehavebeenobligedtodraw.AlthoughIhappentothinkhisinterpretationofthefactsisnotthemostplausibleone,Brownneverthelesscallsattentiontoanimportant,perhapsevencrucial,pointofcomparisonbetweentheamphitheatersandhallplayhousesnamely,theirlighting.InassigningTheDuchessofMalfitoBlackfriarsonthebasisofitsstagelight,
Brownatleastreferstoanaspectofproductionthatdependsontheessentialformoftheplayhouse.
Foranexampleoftheinfluencethatstagelightingcouldexertonanaudience'sresponsetoaplay,weneedlooknofurtherthanWebster'sothergreattragedy,TheWhiteDevil,performedonlyayearorsobeforeTheDuchessofMalfi.WhenTheWhiteDevilwasproducedatanopen-airplayhouse(almostcertainlytheRedBull)earlyin1612,theplayfailed,notbecausethedramatistoractorswereinept,butbecausetheplayhousewasdarkanddrearyorsowehaveheardWebsterclaim.Theplaywasacted"insodullatimeofWinter,"hecomplains,"insoopenandblackeaTheater,that
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itwanted(thatwhichistheonelygraceandsettingoutofTragedy)afullandunderstandingAuditory."
4ThosewhoknowLondoninthewintertimecansympathizewithWebster,althoughitshouldbeaddedthatmanyplaysdidsucceedinthewinterdespiteoutdoorperformance.Still,Webstermayhimselfhavelivedtoseetheplayandhisexcusesforitsfailureatanopen-airplayhousevindicated.Accordingtothetitlepageofthe1631secondedition,TheWhiteDevilwaslaterrevivedandperformed"diuerstimes"attheindoorCockpitinDruryLane,whoseroofandartificiallightspresumablyaffordedtheplayanditsspectatorsmorehospitableaccommodations.
Noonewilldoubtthatplayhouseconditionshaveasubstantial,ifnotalwayssodetermining,effectontheaudience'sperceptionofaplay.Insofarastheatmosphereinaplayhousemaybesaidtoinfluenceaspectator'sresponse,onenaturallysupposesthatplaysperformedintheindoorandoutdoorplayhousesevokedresponsesthat,allotherthingsbeingequal,differedinproportionasthetwotheatricalenvironmentsdiffered.Inassessingthedistinctivecontributionsoftheindoorandoutdoorplayhouses,however,itisdifficulttokeepotherthingsequal.ThesuccessofTheWhiteDevilinthe1630smayhavebeendueasmuchtochangingliteraryfashionsastodifferencesbetweentheplayhousestructuresandtheirlightingsystems.Ortheactorsandstagingmaysimplyhavebeenbetter.Withsomanyunknownquantities,atheatricalequationisnotreadilysolved;onecanneverbesurewhetherWebster'sgloomypictureofTheWhiteDevil'spremiererepresentsanaccurateexplanationofitsfailureoristheexaggerationofadisgruntledplaywright.ButinthecaseofTheDuchessofMalfi,severaloftheseindeterminatequantitiesareconvenientlyeliminatedfromconsideration.Forinexaminingthe
stagingofthedead-man's-handsceneattheGlobeandatBlackfriars,weareconcernedwiththesamesceneperformedataboutthesametimebythesameactingcompany.
Inact4,scene1,ofTheDuchessofMalfi,theDuchess'sbrotherFerdinandbeginshislong-delayedpunishmentofherforremarrying.Atthebeginningofthescene,weseeFerdinandshortlybeforeheistovisittheimprisonedDuchess.Welearnthathehasarequesttomakeofherasaconditionfortheirmeeting,whichhebidsBosolaconveytoher.Ferdinandretires,theDuchessenters,andBosolainformsheroftheunusualrequest:itisthat"neitherTorch,norTaperShineinyourChamber"duringtheinterviewbecauseFerdinandonce"rashlymadeasolemnevoweNeuertoseeyou
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more."
5TheDuchessagreestotheconditionandorders,"Takehencethelights."Ferdinandreenters,andthedarknessisestablishedinanabruptlyrealistictouchwhenheisobligedtoasktheDuchess,"Whereareyou?"Ferdinandthenremarks,"Thisdarkenessuitesyouwell,"andwithironicandsinisterundertonescontinues:
Ithadbinwell,Couldyouhaueliu'dthusalwayes:forindeedYouweretoomuchi'th'light.(I-Iv)
Bythishealludesnotonlytothetrickheisabouttoplaybutalsotoseveralcloselyinterwovenconnotationsof"light"herwantonness,herhavingbeentoofreelyexposedtoothermen,andeventheefficacyofdarknesstohidehisownincestuousinclinations.TherefollowsFerdinand'sofferofreconciliation;"here'sahand,"hesays,whileinanapparentlyauthorialstagedirection,wereadthathe"givesheradeadmanshand"ashisown.TheDuchessdutifullykissesit,butwhenherlipsfeelhowcoldthehandis,shecriesout,"Hah?lights:ohhorrible";whereuponFerdinand,inoneofWebster'smostbrutallines,orders,''Letherhauelightsenough."
BrownbelievesthatthescenemustbeplayedindarknesssothattheaudiencewillexperiencethesameshocktheDuchessdoeswhenlightsarebroughtbackonandsheseestheseveredhand.Heargues,rightly,thatanaudiencemightwelllaughtoseetheDuchessholdingapropertyhandwhileFerdinandpromisesthathewill"leauethisRingwithyou,foraLoue-token:/Andthehand,assureasthering.""Whatwouldbedifficult,clumsy,andgrotesqueattheGlobe,"Brownconcludes,"couldbethrillingandsensitiveinthedarkenedauditoriumoftheBlackfriars."6
Butevenifweagreethatshockingtheaudienceisadesideratum,arewepositivethatactualdarknesscouldbeachievedattheBlackfriarsor,ifitcould,thatdarknesswasthemostlikelymeansbywhichsuchashockwasproduced?Whenhereenters,Ferdinandpresumablycarriesthehandinhiscloaksleevetopretenditishis.DarknesswouldnotberequiredtoavoidgivingthetrickawaytoeithertheDuchessortheaudience.Andwhenhe"gives"herhishand,needweimaginethathepassesittoher,thatis,actuallyhandsittoher?Itseemsmoreprobablethatwhensheofferstokisshishand,hesimplyextendshissleeveforward.Shemightthencrosstohim,kneel,takethehandinhers,andkissitwhilehecontinuestoholdtheprop-
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ertyhandthroughhissleeveasthoughitwerehisown.Whenshenoticesitscoldness,hecouldthenreleaseit,lettingherholditasecondortwoinastonishmentuntilinaparoxysmofhorrorsheletsitfalltotheground.RichardBurbage,whocreatedtheroleofFerdinand,mustcertainlyhavepossessedthetalentstoperformthisliteralsleightofhandintheGlobedaylight.Indeed,asseeninbrightlight,themomentwhenBurbageletthehandgowouldhavebeensubstantiallyasshockingandagreatdealmoresuddenandjarringthanthecorrespondingreintroductionoflightontheBlackfriarsstage.Ifanythingwereclumsy(nottomentiondistracting),itwouldhavebeentherushinginofservantscarryingtorchesandcandlesfromthetiring-houseatatimewhenourattentionshouldbefocusedontheDuchess.Ievenwonderifthesuddenbringingoftorchesintoadarkenedauditoriumwouldnothavetemporarilyblindedtheaudienceattheverymomenttheyneededmosttoseetheseveredhand.Asitis,thestolidtoneofFerdinand's"Letherhauelightsenough"hardlysuggestslightswerebroughtbackoninenoughofahurrytostartletheaudience.
Surelythehorrorderivedasmuchfromtheactors'reactionstothehandasfromthehanditselfjustasitdoesinsuchanalogouspublictheaterscenesasBenvolio'scuttingoffFaustus'sheadorLavinia'senteringtoherbrotherswithherhandscutoffinTitusAndronicus.Toinsistthattheeffectresidedmoreinablood-drenchedstagepropertythanintheactors'horrifiedresponses(and,justasimportantinshockinganaudience,inpreparingtheaudiencenottoanticipatethoseresponses)istounderestimatethesophisticationoftheaudienceandtooverestimatetheskillsoftheJacobeanpropertymakers.ItistostartoncemoredownthequaintpaththatleadsfinallytolittlegreenlightstwinklingontheGhost'shelmetinHamletwhilethestartledfacesofHoratioandthewatchareinvisibleonadarkenedstage.
7ThedeadhandproduceditsgruesomeeffectprimarilybythewordsandactionsoftheDuchessbothbeforeandaftershekissedit,justastheGhostinHamletfrighteneditsoriginalaudiencebecauseitwasseentofrightenthepreviouslycalmandunsuspectingHoratioandHamlet.Toproducethedead-handsceneillusionisticallyindarknessmeansthattheaudiencecanseeneithertheDuchess'sinitialshocknorhercontrastingself-possessionatthebeginningofthescene;alittlewaxhandismadetocarryalmosttheentireburdenofthisstrikingeffect.Ifthiskindofillusioninthelightingwereactuallyrequired,onecouldargueaseasilythattheshadowFerdinandthrows
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intheoutdoorgalleryscene(5.2)requiredoutdoorperformanceforaneffectivepresentation.
Inanycase,thedead-man's-handsceneasoriginallystagedin1613or1614neednothavebeenblazinglylitattheGlobe.
8Asshowninchapter5,nostrongsunlightcouldhaveilluminatedtheactorsatanytime.Thestagewassowellprotectedfromtheelements,infact,thatiftenwindowslitthehallatBlackfriars,then,dependingonthetimeofperformanceandtheseasonoftheyear,itmayoccasionallyhavebeenpossibletoilluminatetheBlackfriarsstagewithnearlyasmuchnaturallightasthesecondGlobestageitself.Moreover,thelatenessofthescene(act4)inthislongplay(itsfirstquartoreachesto104pages,nearlytwicethenormallength)wouldhaveputanopen-airperformanceoftheeffectclosetotwilightinspringandautumn,assumingtheKing'smenfollowedthepracticeofLadyElizabeth'smeninApril1614attheHopeofbeginningplaysat3P.M.9
Forthatmatter,Blackfriarshardlyneededthespecialindoor"lightingdevice"Brownhypothesizes,eithertoproducedarknessortoinspireWebstertowritethescene.Blackfriarsplaysweregiveninthewinter,andawintertimeperformanceofact4,scene1,wouldnecessarilybeplayedintwilightbecauseBlackfriarsplaysapparentlybegannoearlierthan2or3P.M.WedonotknowthedatesonwhichTheDuchessofMalfiwasfirstplayed,butOrazioBusino,inareportdated7February1618(28January,Englishstyle),discussesTheDuchessofMalfiasthoughithadrecentlybeenonthestage.10InadvancingthetheorythatWebsterfashionedtheplaywithBlackfriarsinmind,Brownhingeshisargumentonthepresumedfactthatthe"auditoriumcouldbedarkenedbycoveringitswindows."Butevenwiththewindowswideopen,littlenaturallightcouldhaveilluminatedthe
dead-handeffectatBlackfriars.Hadtheperformancebegunevenasearlyas2P.M.,Idonotseehowtheeffectcouldhavetakenplacemuchbefore4P.M.justthetimeofLondon'swintersunset.ThediminutionoflightwasuniqueneithertoBlackfriarsinparticularnortotheindoortheatersingeneral.Theearlywintersunsetmanagedtheeffectallbyitself.Farfrombeingdarkened,theartificiallylitBlackfriarsstagewouldhaveappearedbrighterinrelationtotherestoftheauditoriumattheendoftheplaythanwhendaylightfloodedthroughthewindowsatthebeginning.Asthedaylightwaned,theapparentbrightnessonstagewouldhaveincreasedbecausethestagecandleswouldhavecontributedagreatershareofthetotalillumination.Ifonewantedtoarguethat
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TheDuchessofMalfiwaswrittenespeciallyforBlackfriars,onemightaswellpointtothesuitabilityofartificiallighttotheincreasingly"artificial"showsbywhichFerdinandentertainstheDuchessthedeadman'shand,thewaxfiguresofAntonioandherchildren,andthemasqueofthemadmen.
11Notdarkness,butartificiallightsuitstheplaytowarditsconclusion.
BrowncitesnoevidenceforhisassertionthatthewindowsatBlackfriarscouldbecovered.Apparently,hehasinferreditfromDekker'sreferenceto"claptdowne"windowsinTheSevenDeadlieSinnsofLondon.Certainly,itwouldhavebeenpossibletoclapdownwindowshutters,butDekkermakesitclearthatwhenthiswasdone,thewindowswerecoveredwhentheplayswere"presentlytobeacted,"thatis,beforethebeginningoftheperformance.Inthatcase,itwouldhavebeendifficulttoproducerealdarknessaspropertylightswerecarriedoffstageorasthetimeoftheplaywassupposedtochangefromdaytonight,becausesometenapprenticeswouldneedtoopenandclosetheshuttersoncueinwell-rehearsedunisonfortheeffecttoproducetheresponseBrownposits.Atanyrate,itisunlikelythatsuchamethodofchangingtheamountoflightwouldhavebeenavailabletotheKing'smenwhentheyrevivedTheDuchessofMalfion26December1630inthenewlyremodeledCockpit-in-Court,whereperformanceswereroutinelygivenatnight.12EvenwiththeauditoriumwindowsatBlackfriarscovered,thestagewouldstillhavebeenlitbytheplayhousecandles.Theselightsmighthavebeenextinguishedtodarkenthesceneaswell;butthenthetiremanwouldhavehadtolowerandextinguishlightswhilethescenewasinprogressandrelightandraisethemsometimelater.Itispossiblethatthewholeofact4wasperformedindarkness,but,aswehaveseen,
noextantpre-Restorationplaybookevenhintsthatwindowswerecoveredorcandlesextinguishedduringtheactbreaks.
Theonlyconvenientwaytodecreaselight(ortosuggestthatitwasdecreased)wastoremovestage-propertylights,andthisisthemethodthatWebster'sdialoguetellsuswasused.Toproduceasignificantchangeinlight,however,wouldhaverequiredalargenumberofsuchpropertylights.ForifsometwoorthreedozencandlesburnedovertheBlackfriarsstage,thenatleastanotherdozenorsohand-heldcandleswouldhavebeenrequiredtoproduceadiscerniblefallorriseinthelevelofilluminationastheywereremovedorbroughtbackonstage.BrownaddsastagedirectiontohistextindicatingthatBosolaremovesthelights,butonedoubtshecouldhave
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removedandthenquicklybroughtbackonthelargenumberoflightsneededtoshocktheaudience.
ItismoreprobablethattwoorthreelightswerebroughtonstagewhentheDuchessenteredandthatdarknesswasindicatedsymbolicallybytheirremoval.Althoughdarknesswasusuallysuggestedbythebringinginoflightsratherthanbytheirremoval,propertylightsheldclosetotheactorsmayhavebeenabletoindicatedarknessmoreillusionisticallybybeingextinguished,atleasttowardtheendsofplayswhenthedaylighthadbeguntofade.WhenParisentersthegraveyardinthelastsceneofRomeoandJuliet,forexample,hispage'storchisaconventionalindicationthatthesceneispresumedtotakeplaceatnight.Butimmediatelyafterward,Paristellshispage,"[P]utitout,forIwouldnotbeseene"(Q2L2).
13IftheboyhadheldthetorchclosetoPariswhentheyfirstentered,thenitsextinctionsoonafterwardmighthaveeliminatedsomeofthehighlightsonParis,atleastincontrasttotheenteringRomeoandBalthasaralsocarryingatorchtowhomShakespearewantstheaudience'sattentiondirected.Similarly,ifafewlightswerebroughtonquicklyinTheDuchessofMalfiandheldclosetothedeadman'shand,thenasmallincreaseinlightonitispossibletoimaginenotenoughtojolttheaudience,certainly,butenoughtosuggestthatthepreviousdialoguewaspresumedtotakeplaceindarkness.
Whateverthecase,thepointisthatbothParisandtheDuchessneedtobeseenwhiletheyaresupposedtobestandinginthedark.Farfrombeinggrotesqueinthelight,oneofthescene'smostprovocativemomentswouldbeobscurediftheaudiencecouldnotseetheDuchesskissthehand"affectionately"(I1v).Ishouldnotbesurprisedif,insteadofconcealingthehandashisown,Burbagesignaledsomehowtotheaudiencethatthehandwasindeedadeadman'shand.Herkiss
wouldthenbeallthemoreironicanddegrading.Infact,theironypervadingFerdinand'sspeechessuggeststhatWebsterwaslessconcernedwithshockingtheaudiencethanwithcreatingdramaticsuspense,agrowinganxietyintheaudiencethatwhattheyfearmighthappenwillhappen.Whetherthepointwasshockorsuspense,whetherthedarknesswasonlysymbolicorwassuggestedbyaslightdiminutionoflightneartheactors,thesceneworksbestwhenplayedinenoughlighttoallowtheaudiencetoseewhatisgoingon.Assuch,thescenewasaseffectiveoutdoorsasindoors.
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IregrethavingtotakeissuewithProfessorBrownindiscussingthelightingofthisscene,notonlybecauseoftheexcellenceofhisedition,butalsobecauseheistheonlyeditoroftheplaytoventureaplayhouseascriptionbasedonspecifictechnicalevidence.OthershavebeenhappytorelegatetheplaytoBlackfriarsonthebasisofwhattheytaketobean"indoor"or"oppressive"atmospheresurroundingtheplay.
14Indeed,therehasbeenatendencytoassignbright,happyplaystothepublictheatersanddark,melancholyplaystotheprivatetheaterswhennoexternalevidenceisavailable.Suchassignmentsignoreallthecountervailingevidence(theGlobe'ssomberHamletandMacbeth,forexample,orthepopularityofsuchbrightcomediesasTwelfthNightandTheComedyofErrorsindoors)andusuallyarguecircularlythatthenatureofaplayhouse'silluminationmusthavebeenwhateverwouldcomplementthemoodoftheplaybeingassignedtoit.WhileBrowngivesTheDuchessofMalfitoBlackfriarsbecauseofits"partiallydarkenedstage,"forinstance,FrankKermodecallsBlackfriarsthe"naturalhome"ofTheTempestbecauseofthe''brightlylitstage"there.15TheirassessmentsarenotnecessarilycontradictorytheBlackfriarsstagecouldhavebeenbothbrightandcapableofbeingdarkened.Butitisclearthatneitherdescriptioncanbetakenasfactandthatbothscholarshaveselectedonlythepresumedcharacteristicsthatfittheirtheories.ExternalevidencefororiginalBlackfriarsproductionthinenoughforTheDuchessofMalfiandnonexistentforTheTempesthasbeenstretchedtofitless-than-definitiveinternalevidence.16
WhetherornotWebsterwroteTheDuchessofMalfispecificallyforBlackfriars,itiseasytoseehimofferingittotheKing'smenin1613aftertheliterallydismalfailureofTheWhiteDevilatthe"openand
blacke"RedBullin1612.BesidesbeingbetteractorsthantheQueen'smenandabletoattractmoresophisticatedaudiences,theKing'smenwouldnothavehadtoperformhisnewplayunderagloomywintersky.ButifBrownisrightandadarktheaterwasessentialforaconvincingpresentationofTheDuchessofMalfi,thenWebstermighthavedonebettertohavehaditproducedattheopenandblackRedBullinsteadofthesummertimeGlobeandartificiallylitBlackfriars.
Theliteraryhistorianmightinsistthatadramatist'screativefacultiesplayalargerpartinshapingascenethandothenecessitiesofphysicalproduc-
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tion.Thematterissometimesdifficulttosettle,turningasitdoesontheusuallyunknowableintentionsoftheplaywright.Still,inWebster'scase,similaritiesbetweenthedead-handsceneandasceneinTheWhiteDevilsuggestthatthedarknessimpliedinbothwasinspiredmorebyhispersonalvisionthanbyhistakingadvantageofspeciallightingequipment.
ForalthoughWebster(andapparentlyhisfriendThomasDekker)hadhopedthatthepremiereofTheWhiteDevilwouldtakeplaceunderfairskies,Websterextinguishesstage-propertylightsintheplayformanyofthesamereasonstheyareremovedinhissupposedlyindoorDuchessofMalfi.
17Inact1,scene2,ofTheWhiteDevil,BrachianoandVittoriacontrivetospendtheirfirstfurtivenighttogether.LikeBosola,Flamineofollowsordersandarrangesthatnolightsshineduringtheirtryst.Hetellstheservants,"[T]ishis[Brachiano's]pleasure/Youputoutallyourtorchesanddepart"(B2).WhenBrachianoenters,Vittoria(liketheDuchess)isimmediatelytoldthatdarknesssuitsheractions;shehears(againliketheDuchess)fromherownbrotherthatdarknesshideshersin:"Comesister,darkenessehidesyourblush"(B4v).Sheisremindedbyherownfamilymember(inthiscasebyhermother)thatshehasbeentoo"light,"thatis,wanton(C1v).Thenocturnal"witch-craft"thatdeceivestheDuchess(I1v)isthesame"witch-craft''thatluresVittoria(C1v).Andofcourse,darknessthroughoutunderscorestheillicitsexualityofthescene.
Inact4,scene1,ofTheDuchessofMalfi,Ferdinandgivesreasonsfortheremovaloflightsonsimilargrounds.Andwhilethesexualitythereisnotovertandiseasilyoveremphasized,itisnonethelessreal.18Whatismore,Websterhastakencaretolinkthedarknessofthedead-handscenewithFerdinand'sdeepinvolvementinhissister's
sexuality.ForitwaswhenFerdinandfirstdiscoveredhermarriagethathejealouslymadethevownevertoseeheragain,whichlaterprovidesthepretextforthedarknessinact4,scene1.Shehadremindedhimthenofheryouthandbeauty,buthermarriage,ashelateradmits,"drewastreameofgall,quitethroughmyheart"(K3v).ItwasFerdinand's"to[o]wilfull"andrashresponsetotheDuchess'sownsexuallongings(G)thatprecipitatesthedarknessofthedeadman'shand.Thus,whenFerdinandandtheDuchessmeetinherdarkbedroomatnight,andhewishesshecould"haueliu'dthusalwayes,"healludesnotonlytotherevengehecanexactindarknessbutalsotoincipientsexualfeelingshecanexpressonlyinthedarknessofaveritabletorturechamber.
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Tobesure,thesuitabilityofdarknesstoillicitlovewasacommonrhetoricalfigure.WhenShakespeare'sTarquinisabouttoravishLucrece,Tarquinputsouthistorch,"Forlightandlustaredeadlieenemies."
19Similarly,thebedtrickinMeasureforMeasuremustbe"ith'darke"towork(F1814);Annabellain'TisPityShe'saWhoreblushesafterspendingthenightwithherbrotheronlywhendaylightcomes(2.1);andArbacesinAKingandNoKingnearlyrepeatsFerdinand'swordswhenhetellswhohebelievestobehissisterthatifsheconsentstolovehim,''thydwellingmustbedarkeandclose/WhereImayneuerseethee."20
Butwhiletherhetoricalfigureishardlyunique,Webster'suseofitis,providingevidencethatthedarknessinthedead-handscenewasnotintroducedmerelytoseizeanopportunitythatthenewlyopenedBlackfriarsafforded.Forintwoseparateplays,Websteristheonlydramatistoftheperiodtoshowustheremovaloflightsforscenesinvolvingimproperlove.Websterhasturnedthefigure-in-wordsintoafigure-in-action,asH.T.PricedescribesWebster'spersistentpractice.21Inbothplays,thedarknessprotectingillicitloveissignaledbytheactualextinctionofpropertylights,anindication,Ithink,thattheeffectinTheDuchessofMalfiwasnotsimplyWebster'sexploitationofanewlyavailableindoorlightingdevicebutratheracharacteristicstageimagethatheknewwouldworkaswellattheRedBullandGlobe.Aglanceatthetwoplaysshowsthatthenetworkoflightimageryinthemisofapiece.Apervasivegloomstranglestheheroine'slightandcynicallyquestionswhetherthatlightwasnotillusoryallthewhile.Vittorialikensherselftoaglitteringjewel"ThroughdarkenesseDiamondsspredtheirritchestlight"(F2v)towhichFlamineolaterrejoins,"Glories,likeglowe-wormes,a
farreoffshinebright/Butlookttoneare,haueneitherheatnorlight"(H4vi).Likewise,theDuchess"staines[thatis,eclipses]thetimepast:lightsthetimetocome"(B4),eventhoughBosolamustremindher,too,that"Glories(likeglowe-wormes)afarreoff,shinebright,/Butlook'dtoneere,haueneitherheate,norlight"(K).Theverytextureoftheimagerypointstowardasingleconceptionofthedramaticsignificanceoflightanddarknessandcallsintoseriousquestionanyefforttoseetheplaysaswrittenwithdifferentplayhouseatmospheresandlightingsystemsinmind.
WithnocompellinginternalevidencetosuggestthatTheDuchessofMalfiwascomposedwithaneyetowardBlackfriarsproduction,wereturnfinallytotheonlypertinentexternalevidence,thetitlepageofthe1623first
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edition.ItgiveshonorofplacetoBlackfriars,butitdoesnotfollowthattheKing'smenperformedtheplaythereasearlyas1614.King'smen'splayspublishedintheearly1620sfrequentlymentiontheBlackfriarsontheirtitlepages,eventhoughmanyoftheseplaysareotherwiseknownashavingpremieredattheGlobe.Thetitlepageofthe1619firsteditionofAKingandNoKingsaystheplaywasactedattheGlobe(probablyin1611),butasecondeditionin1625mentionsonlytheBlackfriars,implyingarevivaltheresometimebetween1619and1625.Philasterwaspublishedin1620asactedattheGlobe,eventhoughitisnowusuallydatedtoaround1609and,oninternalevidence,assignedtoBlackfriars.
22Thesecondquartoof1622mentionsboththeGlobeandBlackfriars,againsuggestinganindoorrevivalaround1621.Oragain,the1622firstquartoofOthellonamesboththeGlobeandBlackfriars,butweknowthatOthellowasperformedsomefouryearsbeforetheKing'smenevenbeganactingatBlackfriars.ThenameofBlackfriarsonaquartopublishedin1623,then,provesnothingaboutwhereTheDuchessofMalfiwasperformedtenyearsearlier.ItremainspossiblethatTheDuchessofMalfiwaspremiered"publiquelyattheGlobe"andonlyeightornineyearslaterrevived"privatly,attheBlack-Friers."
Itakeact4,scene1,ofTheDuchessofMalfitobeacrucialinstanceofhowwemayuseaknowledgeofstageconditionstounderstandtheperformanceandeffectofanElizabethandramacrucialnotonlybecauseoftheimportanceofthesceneintheplaybutalsobecausetheplayitselfstandsjustatthepresumedshiftfrom"publictheater"to"privatetheater"sensibility,fromexclusivelynaturaltomixednaturalandartificialillumination.Ishouldliketosuggest,moreover,thatanalysesofspecifictechnicalproblemslikelightingandacoustics
maymoreprofitablydistinguishbetweentherespectivecontributionsoftheamphitheatersandhallplayhousesthancanambiguouscomparisonsofstyleandthesocialcompositionoftheaudience.Thedangeristhatifwebeginbyassumingthatperformancesattheindoorandoutdoorplayhousesdifferedsignificantly,theneventhesmallestshredofevidencepointinginthatdirectionmaybegiventoomuchweight.WerewenotabletodateOthello,forexample,tobefore1605,anattempttoidentifyitsoriginalplayhousemightwellhaveyieldedthesameconclusionasBrown'sregardingTheDuchessofMalfi.ForinthelastactofOthello,thereisanimportanteffectthat,ifitwasintendedasalightingeffect,wouldhavebeendifficulttoseeattheGlobe.WhenOthelloentersDesdemona'sbed-
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room"withalight"andcomparesittoher"Putoutthelight,andthenputoutthelight"(QM)onecannotimaginethateitherthecandleoritsextinctioncouldhavemademuchofaneffectonthedaylitGlobestage.Mayweconclude,then,thatShakespeareintendedtheaudiencetoseealonelycandleburninginadarkenedhall,poignantlysignalingherchastityinanastyworld?Orarewetoseeitthrowingoutafeeblelightonabright,openairstage?WasthescenepresentedillusionisticallyatBlackfriarswithonlyOthello'sflickeringcandlelightingthescene?Inthatcase,theaudiencemighthavehaddifficultyseeingDesdemona'shorrifiedreactionstoOthello'saccusations.Orcanweratherbelieve,ontheauthorityofthedead-handscene,thatDesdemona'sdeathscenewasperformedinsufficientlightatbothplayhousesandthatthetheatricalpointresidedmoreinpoetryandactingthaninlighting?
WepossessnodescriptionoftheoriginallightingofTheDuchessofMalfi,butwedoknowthatwhentheKing'smenperformedOthellointheElizabethanbanquetinghallatWhitehallon1November1604,theRevelsOfficewenttosomeexpenseandtroubletoprovidealargenumberoflights.Theofficepaidthirtyshillings"formendingeofyeOldBrau[n]chesforAplayeonHallomasNight"andapparentlypurchasedsixnewbranchesfortheperformance,aswell.
23BecauseInigoJones'slightingeffectshadnotyetbeenintroducedatcourtandbecause,inanycase,Jonesisnotknowntohaveaidedintheproductionofprofessionalplaysatcourtuntil,perhaps,1616,24Ithinkwemayassumethatthenearlytwohundredcandlesshininginthebanquetinghallwerenotextinguishedandrelitastheplaymovedfromdaytonight.AndifareportoftheKing'smen'sperformanceofOthelloatOxfordinSeptember1610referstoanindoorvenue(asitislikelyto),thenwemaybelievethatsuchsceneswereplayedinmorethanadequatelight.WelearnthattheOxfordaudiencewas
deeplymovedbyDesdemona'sdeathsceneandespeciallybytheexpressiononherfaceasshelaydead:"cuminlectodecumbensspectantiummisericordiamipsovultuimploraret."25ThatDesdemonaarousedpityipsovultu,"byherfacealone,"meansthattheaudiencecouldseeeventhesmallestdetailsclearlyandthat,iftheplaywasindoors,darknesswasnotattemptedbyextinguishingthecandles.Theabilitytoseesuchdetailsinnighttimescenessuggests,infact,thattheactorswerenotregularlyobligedtoaltertheirmethodsofstagingastheymovedfromoneplayhousetoanother.Someofthesmallestindoorhallsmayhaveal-
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lowedtheaudiencetoenjoysubtleractingthanwaspossibleoutdoors,butHosley'sreconstructionofthesecondBlackfriarsshowsthatthemajorityofspectatorstherewerenearlyasfarfromthestageasthoseinthelargestamphitheaters,wheretheaudiencecouldsurroundtheactors.Hence,ifthegeneralilluminationweregood,audiencesatbothkindsofplayhousecoulddiscernaboutthesamedegreeofrefinementintheacting.ThelastactofOthello,likethedead-man's-handsceneinTheDuchessofMalfi,couldbeperformedoutdoorsandindoors,intheafternoonoratnight,bydaylightorcandlelight.
Inpointoffact,thesteady,overallilluminationoftheamphitheatersandhalls,farfromimposingarestrictionontheactorsandplaywrights,meantthateveninscenesofpretendeddarkness,theaudiencecouldseeandrespondtothevisualmediaoftheactors'craft.TheKing'smenatOxford,forinstance,"movedtheaudiencetotears,notonlybytheirspeech,butbytheirgesturesaswell."
26Thus,aswereadTheDuchessofMalfiandcomeacrossseveredhandsandwaxcorpses,wemustnotforgettheexpressionsandgesturesoftheactorsthatsodeeplymovedtheoriginalaudiences.Thelargelyungovernablestagelightingoftheeraunderscorestheimportantbutmissingevidenceoftheactingandconfirmsindirectlythatthestagingattheindoorandoutdoorplayhousesmaynothavebeensodifferentinregardtoanaspectofstageproductionthatonemighthaveassumedwoulddefinetheprincipaldifferencebetweenthem.
Whereasmodernlightingtendstobehighlydirectional,emanatingfromtwodistinctpositionstothefrontoftheactor,earlyEnglishlightingemanatedfromallaroundtheactor,surroundinghimwithsoft,indirectlight.Therewasnoimpressionoflightfocusingontheactor,nosenseofthelightexposinghimtoourvieworthe
interpretiveschemeofthelightingdesigner.TheactorsmovedinthesamelightallLondonersmovedineveryday.Therewasnothingtheatricalortwo-dimensionalaboutit,nothingtosuggestthattheplaycreateditsownspeciallight.Sincethelateeighteenthcentury,wehavebeenpleasedtocallouractors"stars"inhonorofthebrilliantlighttheyseemtoradiateinourdarkenedtheaters;Shakespearecalledactors"shadows."Puckwonders"[i]fweshadoweshaueoffended"(AMidsummerNight'sDream,Q1O3v),andtoMacbeththepoorplayerthatstrutsandfretshishouruponthestageis"butawalkingShadow"(F2345).Picturingtheplayhousesheknew,itiseasytoimaginewhyShakespearefavoredthisimage.Theac-
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torsemanatednotheatricallightoftheirownbutratheractedintheshadowsoftheheavensortheindoorroof."Thebest,inthiskinde,arebutshadowes,"saysTheseusofthedrama(AMidsummerNight'sDream,Q1H1v),bywhichhemeansshadowsofrealityplaysbothonceremovedfromtherealworldandatthesametimeilluminatedandmadeunderstandablebyit.
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Notes
1LightonthePlay
1.C.H.HerfordandP.andE.Simpson,eds.,BenJonson,11vols.(Oxford,1925-52),7:514.
2.StephenGreenblatt,RenaissanceSelf-Fashioning(Chicago,1980),4.
3.AllShakespearecitationsarefromCharltonHinman,ed.,TheFirstFolioofShakespeare:TheNortonFacsimile(NewYork,1968)or,exceptwherenoted,theappropriatequartosinMichaelJ.B.AllenandKennethMuir,eds.,Shakespeare'sPlaysinQuarto(Berkeley,1981).Folioreferences(F)areto"throughlinenumbers,"quartoreferences(Q)tosignatures.OnallusionstotheheavensoverthestageinKingLear,seeWilliamR.Elton,KingLearandtheGods(SanMarino,1968),161-63.
4.Othellowasperformedunderthisceiling1November1604;seetheOfficeofWorksaccountsinMaloneSocietyCollections10(1975[1977]):20.SubsequentreferencestotheMaloneSocietyCollectionsserieswillbecitedasMSC.
5.AndrewGurr,PlaygoinginShakespeare'sLondon(Cambridge,1987),205-51.
6.G.E.Bentley,ShakespeareSurvey1(1948):38-50,andrecastwithadditionalmaterialinShakespeareandHisTheatre(Lincoln,Neb.,1964),65-128.
7.AnnJennalieCook,ThePrivilegedPlaygoersofShakespeare'sLondon(Princeton,1981);Gurr,Playgoing,167.
8.T.J.King,ShakespeareanStaging:1599-1642(Cambridge,Mass.,1971),2.
9.CliffordLeech,"TheDramatists'Independence,"ResearchOpportunitiesinRenaissanceDrama10(1967):17-23;J.A.Lavin,"ShakespeareandtheSecondBlackfriars,"TheElizabethanTheatre3(1973):68-81.
10.JohnMarston,TheMalcontent(London,1604;fac.rpt.Menston,1970),A4.
11.JamesShirley,PoemsEtc.(London,1646),154-55.ShirleyhadoriginallywrittentheplayfortheindoorWerburghStreettheater,Dublin,whichapparentlywassimilartotheBlackfriars.Shirley'sTheCourtSecret(London,1653)was"preparedfortheSceneatBlack-Friers"butneveracted,accordingtothetitlepage.TheprinterofI.C.'sTheTwoMerryMilkmaids(London,1620;fac.rpt.London,1914)assertedthateveryplaywright"mustgovernhisPenneaccordingtotheCapacitieoftheStagehewritestoo,bothintheActorandtheAuditor"(A1v).
12.RichardHosley,"ElizabethanTheatresandAudiences,"ResearchOpportunitiesinRenaissanceDrama10(1967):13-14;andseeAndrewGurr,"PlayinginAmphitheatres
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andPlayinginHallTheatres,"TheElizabethanTheatre13(1994):47-62,forthelimitationsthatthesmallerstagesinthehallplayhousesmayhaveimposedonscenesofbattleandspectacle.
13.PriortotheuncoveringoftheRose,thebestreconstructionofamphitheaterlightingwasJohnOrrell's"SunlightattheGlobe,"TheatreNotebook38(1984):69-76,rpt.withadditionalmaterialinTheHumanStage(Cambridge,1988),88-102.
2TudorandEarlyStuartLightingEquipment
1.GeneralbackgroundonlampsisfoundinF.W.Robins,TheStoryoftheLamp(andtheCandle)(London,1939).EarlylightinginstrumentsarebestseeninRupertGentleandRachelFeild,DomesticMetalwork,1640-1820,rev.B.Gentle(Woodbridge,1994),114-218;GabrielHenriot,EncyclopédieduLuminare(Paris,1870),1;andLadislausvonBenesch,DasBeleuchtungswesen(Vienna,1905),rpt.asOldLampsofCentralEurope(Rutland,Vt.,1962).
2.NicolaSabbattini,Praticadifabricarsceneemachinene'teatri(Ravenna,1638;rpt.Rome,1955),bk.1,chap.39,p.55,trans.inA.M.Nagler,ASourceBookinTheatricalHistory(NewYork,1952),88.Sabbattini'schaptersontheatricallightingwerefirstprintedin1636.
3.Rushesweresometimesdippedinsaladoiltomakethemburn,atleastamongthewealthy:privy-purseexpensesofHenryVIIIfor1529listabottle"ofsaletoyleandforRusshestobrennewt.thesaidoyle";seeR.Goodwin-Smith,EnglishDomesticMetalwork(1937;abridgeded.Leigh-on-Sea,1973),31.
4.ArthurLaing,Lighting(London,1982),43;ArthurH.Hayward,ColonialLighting(1923;rpt.NewYork,1962),19.
5.JohnStow,SurveyofLondon(London,1598),H6v.
6.StanleyWells,PeriodLighting(London,1975),84;JamesRogers,AHistoryofAgricultureandPricesinEngland,7vols.(London,1886-1902),6:652-53.
7.CarolineSpurgeon,Shakespeare'sImageryandWhatItTellsUs(Cambridge,1935),113.
8.RobertGreene,FriarBaconandFriarBungay(London,1594),G1v.AlthoughthereisnolampinGreene'sAlphonsus,KingofAragon(London,1599;fac.rpt.London,1926),italsofeaturesabrazenhead"setinthemiddleoftheplacebehindtheStage,outofwhich"theElizabethanequivalentofstagehandsaredirectedto"castflamesoffire"(F1v).
9.Laing,Lighting,36.
10.ThomasMiddleton,AChasteMaidinCheapside(London,1630;rpt.Menston,1969),E1-E1v.
11.G.GlenGould,PeriodLightingFixtures(NewYork,1928),180-81.
12.Marston,TheMalcontent,E1v.
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13.WilliamO'Dea,TheSocialHistoryofLighting(NewYork,1958),3.
14.GöstaM.Bergman,LightingintheTheatre(Stockholm,1977),54.
15.WalterMountfort,TheLaunchingoftheMary(MS,fac.printingOxford,1933),fol.319b.
16.RandallMonier-Williams,TheTallowChandlersofLondon(London,1970),1:43.Theword"stinkinge"isinterlinedanddeleted.
17.MSC13(1986):10.
18.JohnDummelow,TheWaxChandlersofLondon(London,1973),12.
19.MSC13:141.
20.MSC13:10,32,51,57,andpassim.
21.Rogers,AHistoryofAgricultureandPrices,5:398-400,6:652.In1588,astatuteregulatingLondonvictuals-pricessetapoundof"TalloweCandlesmadeofwicke"atthreehalfpennies;in1599,thepricewasincreasedtofourpence.SeeABookeConteiningAllSuchProclamationsaswerePublishedDuringtheReignofQ.Elizabeth(London,1618),folios343-44.
22.ThomasDekkerandJohnWebster,WestwardHo!(London,1607;fac.rpt.London,1911),D.
23.JohnWebster,TheWhiteDevil(London,1612;fac.rpt.London,1970),E3v.
24.AlbertFeuillerat,ed.,DocumentsRelatingtotheOfficeoftheRevelsintheTimeofQueenElizabeth,MaterialenzurKundedesälterenenglischenDramas21(Louvain,1908):296.
25.Stow,SurveyofLondon,H6v;ThomasBlount,Glossographia(London,1656;rpt.London,1670),s.v."cresset":"anoldwordforaLanthornorburningbeacon."
26.StephenSpector,ed.,TheN-TownPlay,EarlyEnglishTextSociety(Oxford,1991),1:289;R.W.Ingram,"'Tofindtheplayer,'"TheElizabethanTheatre5(1975):35-36.
27.MSC11(1980[1981]):119-32.
28.JohnWebster,TheDuchessofMalfi(London,1623),E2,N1.
29.T.D.,TheBloodyBanquet(London,1639;rpt.London,1962),F1v-F2.Aneighteenth-centuryEnglishdarklanternispicturedinHayward,ColonialLighting,pl.43.ThesinisterconnotationsofdarklanternscontinuedwellintothetwentiethcenturywhenwriterslikeConanDoyleandDorothySayersmadeuseofthem.
30.GeorgeChapman,BussyD'Ambois(London,1607),14-14v.Onthetaperasemblem,seeDieterMehl,"EmblemsinEnglishRenaissanceDrama,"RenaissanceDrama2(1969):52.
31.Webster,TheWhiteDevil,K2-K2v.
32.GeorgeCavendish,TheLifeandDeathofCardinalWolsey(MSc.1558;printedLondon,1959),69.
33.AlanH.Nelson,EarlyCambridgeTheatres(Cambridge,1994),112.
34.R.A.FoakesandR.T.Rickert,eds.,Henslowe'sDiary(Cambridge,1961),319.
35.SebastianSerly,TheFirstBookeofArchitecture(London,1611),bk.2,chap.3,fol.26v.
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36.IllustrationsanddescriptionsoftheseglobesarefoundinFrankL.Horton,"NewThoughtsonEighteenth-CenturyLighting,"Antiques67.1(1955):56-57.
37.N.D.Shergold,AHistoryoftheSpanishStage(Oxford,1967),204.
3EarlyLightingSystems
1.GlynneWickham,EarlyEnglishStages,3vols.(NewYork,1959-81),2,pt.1:153-275.
2.AlexandraJohnston,"'AlltheWorldWasaStage':RecordsofEarlyEnglishDrama,"inTheTheatreofMedievalEurope,ed.E.Simon(Cambridge,1991),124.
3.OscarBrownstein,"WhyDidn'tBurbageLeasetheBeargarden?AConjectureinComparativeArchitecture,"inTheFirstPublicPlayhouse:TheTheatreinShoreditch1576-1598,ed.H.Berry(Montreal,1979),81-96;Orrell,TheHumanStage,14-20.
4.HerbertBerry,TheBoar'sHeadPlayhouse(Washington,1986),111.
5.Johnston,"'AlltheWorldWasaStage,'"124.TheQueen'smenplayedin"theColledgeChurcheyarde"inGloucesterin1589-90;seeRecordsofEarlyEnglishDrama:Cumberland,Westmorland,Gloucestershire,ed.A.DouglasandP.Greenfield(Toronto,1986),311.
6.RecordsofEarlyEnglishDrama:Devon,ed.J.Wasson(Toronto,1987),320.
7.RichardHosley,"TheOriginsoftheShakespeareanPlayhouse,"inShakespeare400,ed.J.C.McManaway(NewYork,1964),29-39;
RichardSouthern,TheStagingofPlaysBeforeShakespeare(London,1973),257-535.AlthoughHosleyandSouthernoveremphasizedhallscreensasforerunnersoftiring-housefacades(manyhallstageswerenotplacedagainstscreens),theywereamongthefirsttostressindoorhallperformancesbyprofessionalactors;seeAlanH.Nelson,"HallScreensandElizabethanPlayhouses,"inTheDevelopmentofShakespeare'sTheater,ed.J.Astington(NewYork,1992),57-76.
8.FrancisA.Yates,TheTheatreoftheWorld(London,1969);RichardC.Kohler,"TheFortuneContractandVitruvianSymmetry,"ShakespeareStudies6(1970):311;"ExcavatingHenslowe'sRose,"ShakespeareQuarterly40(1989):475-82;and"VitruvianProportionsinTheaterDesignintheSixteenthandEarlySeventeenthCenturiesinItalyandEngland,"ShakespeareStudies16(1983):265-325.SeealsoJohnOrrell,"TheArchitectureoftheFortunePlayhouse,"ShakespeareSurvey47(1994):16.SkepticismregardinghowthoroughlyamphitheatersfollowedVitruviusisvoicedbyS.P.Cerasano,"RaisingaPlayhousefromtheDust,''ShakespeareQuarterly40(1989):483-90.
9.A.C.Pickard-Cambridge,TheDramaticFestivalsofAthens,2nded.(Oxford,1968),64,67;W.Beare,"Rome,"inTheOxfordCompaniontotheTheatre,ed.P.Hartnoll(London,1967).CliffordAshby,"DidtheGreeksReallyGettotheTheatrebeforeDawn--ThreeDaysRunning?"TheatreResearchInternational17(1992):2-7,emphasizesthepaucityofevidenceregardingperformancetimesinGreektheaters.
10.MargareteBieber,TheHistoryoftheGreekandRomanTheaters(Princeton,1961),115,119,169,171;CliffordAshby,"TheSitingofGreekTheatres,"TheatreResearchInternational16(1991):181-201.
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11.Bieber,GreekandRomanTheaters,135,147,180.
12.AllardyceNicoll,TheDevelopmentoftheTheatre,5thed.(London,1966),41,43;JamesT.Allen,StageAntiquitiesoftheGreeksandRomans(1927;rpt.NewYork,1963),91.GeorgeC.Izenour,RoofedTheatersofClassicalAntiquity(NewHaven,1992),reconstructsseveralsmall,completelyroofedauditoriums,lit,heconjectures,bywindowsandlanternsprojectingabovetheroofs.
13.Lucretius,TheNatureofThings,trans.F.Copley(NewYork,1977),84-85.
14.Bieber,GreekandRomanTheaters,179.
15.T.F.Ordish,EarlyLondonTheatres(London,1899),15-24;Wickham,EarlyEnglishStages,2,pt.1:161-72.
16.KathleenKenyon,TheRomanTheatreofVerulamium(n.p.,1963).
17.JaneA.Bakere,TheCornishOrdinalia:ACriticalStudy(Cardiff,1980),155-56.TheplaysoftheOrdinaliaseemtodatefromaround1375.
18.Bakere,TheCornishOrdinalia,12-13.
19.Vitruvius,TheTenBooksonArchitecture,trans.M.H.Morgan(1914;rpt.NewYork,1960),138,148.
20.MaryH.Marshall,"TheatreintheMiddleAges:EvidencefromDictionariesandGlosses,"Symposium4(1950):9,21,24-25.
21.RichardSouthern,TheMedievalTheatreintheRound,2nded.(London,1975),56-58.
22.Southern,TheMedievalTheatreintheRound,117-20.ThekinshipbetweenearlyEnglishandFrenchstaginginsummarizedbyHardinCraig,EnglishReligiousDrama(Oxford,1955),138.
23.TenBooksonArchitecturebyLeoneBaptistaAlberti,trans.CosimoBartoliandJamesLeoni(1755;fac.rpt.London,1955),178.Onneoclassicaltheaterarchitecture,seeMichaelAnderson,"TheChangingScene:PlaysandPlayhousesintheItalianRenaissance,"inTheatreoftheEnglishandItalianRenaissance,ed.J.R.MulryneandM.Shewring(NewYork,1991),3-20.
24.QuotedbyRobertSarlos,"DevelopmentandOperationoftheFirstBlackfriars,"inStudiesintheElizabethanTheatre,ed.C.Prouty(Hamden,Conn.,1961),167.
25.Yates,TheTheatreoftheWorld,27-35.
26.RoyStrong,SplendoratCourt(London,1973),70;Herford,Simpson,andSimpson,BenJonson,11:599.
27.TranslatedinD.F.Rowan,"'TheSwan'Revisited,"ResearchOpportunitiesinRenaissanceDrama10(1967):34.
28.ThomasHeywood,AnApologyforActors(London,1612),D2-D3.
29.FoakesandRickert,Henslowe'sDiary,320.
30.Kohler,"TheFortuneContractandVitruvianSymmetry,"311.
31.L.B.Campbell,ScenesandMachinesontheEnglishStageDuringtheRenaissance(Cambridge,1923),20;Nicoll,TheDevelopmentoftheTheatre,74-75.
32.T.E.Lawrenson,TheFrenchStageintheXVIIthCentury(Manchester,1957),12-13.
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33.GeorgeR.Kernodle,FromArttoTheatre(Chicago,1944),72-98.
34.Wickham,EarlyEnglishStages,1:70.
35.Wickham,EarlyEnglishStages,1:89.
36.Kernodle,FromArttoTheatre,94.
37.RaphaelHolinshed,Chronicles(London,1587),3:932.
38.RobertWithington,EnglishPageantry(1918;rpt.NewYork,1963),1:186.
39.SeeAlanH.Nelson,TheMedievalEnglishStage(Chicago,1974),78,93,114,136,148,159.
40.Forasummary,seeStanleyJ.Kahrl,"TheStagingofMedievalEnglishPlays,"inTheTheatreofMedievalEurope,138-39.
41.W.W.Greg,ed.,ChesterPlayStudies(London,1935),166.Rogersdiedin1595.
42.NormanDavis,ed.,Non-CyclePlaysandFragments(London,1970),xxxv.
43.HardinCraig,ed.,TwoCoventryCorpusChristiPlays(London,1957),89,99.
44.Wickham,EarlyEnglishStages,1:170;F.M.Salter,MediaevalDramainChester(Toronto,1955),68-70.
45.A.C.Cawley,ed.,TheWakefieldPageants(Manchester,1958),xxv.
46.Craig,TwoCoventryCorpusChristiPlays,74.
47.R[obert]W[ilmot],etal.,GismondofSalerne(MSc.1568;fac.printingLondon,1912),fol.9.Intheprintedversionof1592,whichthetitlepagesayshadbeen"[n]ewlyreuiuedandpolishedaccording
tothedecorumofthesedaies,"Cupidonly"commethoutoftheheauens"(A2v).Perhapstheplaywasrevivedinavenuewithoutdescentmachinery;or,asthereisnorecordoflaterperformance,"reuiued"maymeanthatWilmotandhisfriendsreturnedtoworkingonthetextaftersomekindofhiatus.
48.Feuillerat,Elizabeth,296.
49.Greene,Alphonsus,KingofAragon,A3,I3.
50.FoakesandRickert,Henslowe'sDiary,7.
51.AndrewGurr,introductiontoPhilaster,byFrancisBeaumontandJohnFletcher(London,1969),xxxvii.
52.Orrell,TheHumanStage,30-60.
53.SeeBonnerMitchell,"CircumstanceandSettingintheEarliestItalianProductionsofComedy,"RenaissanceDrama4(1971):190.
54.SydneyAnglo,Spectacle,Pageantry,andEarlyTudorPolicy(Oxford,1969),159-61.IfollowAnglo'stranscriptionsandtranslationsofthe1520sourcesthroughout.ForareconstructionoftheCalaistheater,seeRichardHosley,"TheTheatreandtheTraditionofPlayhouseDesign,"inTheFirstPublicPlayhouse,60-74.
55.Anglo,Spectacle,217.
56.CalvetedeEstrella,ElfelícimoviajedelmuypríncipedonFelipe(Antwerp,1552;rpt.Madrid,1930),2:68.Thefollowingdescriptionisparaphrasedfrom67-69.
57.ThomasHeywood,TheSilverAge(London,1613),I4v.PresumablytheplaywasproducedattheRedBull.
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58.E.K.Chambers,TheElizabethanStage,4vols.(1923;corr.ed.Oxford,1951),3:78.
59.BernardBeckerman,ShakespeareattheGlobe(NewYork,1962),106;JohnAstington,"DescentMachineryinthePlayhouses,"MedievalandRenaissanceDramainEngland2(1985):119-33.
60.FrancisGrose,ed.,TheAntiquarianRepertory(London,1807),1:313.
61.Anglo,Spectacle,161.
62.ThefollowingdescriptionisbasedonBuildingandRevelsOfficeaccountsofMay1527,printedinWickham,EarlyEnglishStages,2,pt.2:212-20.
63.RecordsofEarlyEnglishDrama:Cambridge,ed.AlanH.Nelson(Toronto,1989),1:234.
64.QuotedbyWickham,EarlyEnglishStages,1:356.
65.W.Y.Durand,"PalamonandArcyte,Progne,MarcusGeminus,andtheTheatreinwhichTheyWereActed,asDescribedbyJohnBereblock(1566),"PMLA20(1905):505.
66.FelixSchelling,ElizabethanDrama(BostonandNewYork,1908),1:107;W.J.Lawrence,TheElizabethanPlayhouse(Stratford,1913),2:13;andO'Dea,TheSocialHistoryofLighting,155.
67.Wickham,EarlyEnglishStages,1:359.
68.Nelson,EarlyCambridgeTheatres,111-13.
69.RecordsofEarlyEnglishDrama:Cambridge,1:166.
70.RecordsofEarlyEnglishDrama:Cambridge,1:152.
71.RoyalCommissiononHistoricalMonuments,AnInventoryofthe
HistoricalMonumentsintheCityofCambridge(London,1959),2:209andmaps.
72.RecordsofEarlyEnglishDrama:Cambridge,1:208.
73.RecordsofEarlyEnglishDrama:Cambridge,1:357.
74.RoyalCommission,AnInventoryoftheHistoricalMonumentsintheCityofCambridge,1,facingp.84,andmaps.
75.RecordsofEarlyEnglishDrama:Cambridge,1:212.
76.G.C.MooreSmith,CollegePlaysPerformedintheUniversityofCambridge(Cambridge,1923),33.
77.G.E.Bentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,7vols.(Oxford,1941-68),4:529-30.
78.Bentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,5:1263-64.
79.JohnM.Wasson,"TheEnglishChurchasTheatricalSpace,"inANewHistoryofEarlyEnglishDrama,ed.J.CoxandD.Kastan(NewYork,1997),26.
80.MSC8(1974):91-92.
81.E.K.Chambers,TheMediaevalStage(Oxford,1903),2:382.
82.RecordsofEarlyEnglishDrama:Norwich,1540-1642,ed.D.Galloway(Toronto,1984),52.
83.D.F.Rowan,"ThePlayersandPlayingPlacesofNorwich,"inTheDevelopmentofShakespeare'sTheater,90.
Page244
84.T.W.Craik,TheTudorInterlude(Leicester,1958);Southern,TheStagingofPlaysBeforeShakespeare.Nelson,EarlyCambridgeTheatres,passim,demonstratesthatCambridgestageswerenotalwayssetagainsthallscreens,asassumedbyHosleyandSouthern.
85.JohnHeywood,JohanJohan(London,1533;fac.rpt.London,1972),A2v,B4v;HenryMedwall,Nature(n.d.;fac.rpt.London,1908),G1.
86.JohnHeywood,ThePlayoftheWeather(London,1533;fac.rpt.London,1914),A3.
87.RecordsofEarlyEnglishDrama:Cumberland,Westmorland,Gloucestershire,299.AndrewGurr,TheShakespearianPlayingCompanies(Oxford,1996),181,194,listsonlyafewpaymentsbycivicauthoritiesforcandlesandtorchesforprofessionalplayers.
88.JohnT.Murray,EnglishDramaticCompanies(London,1910),2:214.
89.RecordsofEarlyEnglishDrama:York,ed.A.JohnstonandM.Rogerson(Toronto,1979),449.
90.SybilRosenfeld,"DramaticCompaniesintheProvincesinthe16thandEarly17thCenturies,"TheatreNotebook8(1953):58;AndrewGurr,"TheLossofRecordsforTravellingCompaniesinStuartTimes,"RecordsofEarlyEnglishDrama19.2(1994):11.
91.RecordsofEarlyEnglishDrama:Norwich,1540-1642,71.
92.Murray,EnglishDramaticCompanies,2:233.
93.RecordsofEarlyEnglishDrama:Norwich,1540-1642,113.A"not"inthisentryhasbeencanceled,butMurray,EnglishDramaticCompanies,2:338,retainsit,whichthesenseseemstorequire.
94.RecordsofEarlyEnglishDrama:Chester,ed.L.Clopper
(Toronto,1979),292-93.
95.Bentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,1:276.
96.Rosenfeld,"DramaticCompanies,"57.
97.Bentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,1:312.
98.Chambers,TheElizabethanStage,4:267.
99.MSC2,pt.3(1931):310.
100.GervaseBabington,AveryfruitfulExpositionoftheCommaundementsbywayofQuestionsandAnsweres(London,1583),317-18.
101.Chambers,TheElizabethanStage,4:340.
102.ThomasNash,NashesLentonStuffe(London,1599),A3.
103.MSC5(1960):21-22.
104.ThomasMiddleton,YourFiveGallants(London,[1608]),C2.
105.TheLettersofJohnChamberlain,ed.N.E.McClure(Philadelphia,1939),2:159.
106.TheDiaryofSamuelPepys,ed.RobertLathamandW.Matthews,11vols.(Berkeley,1970-83),1:61.
107.StephenOrgelandRoyStrong,eds.,InigoJones:TheTheatreoftheStuartCourt(London,1973),1:282.
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4AfternoonPerformancesattheOutdoorPlayhouses
1.PointedoutbyGeorgeR.Kernodle,"TheOpenStage:ElizabethanorExistentialist?"ShakespeareSurvey12(1959):1.BernardBeckerman,"UseandManagementoftheElizabethanStage,"inTheThirdGlobe,ed.C.WHodges,S.Schoenbaum,andL.Leone(Detroit,1981),163,arguesthat
actorslitbyartificiallight,whenplayingagainstacolorfulfaçadethatiseitherlitdirectlyorthatreceivesconsiderablespilllight,tendtogetlost....Incomparison,innaturallightthebackgroundcolorissofteranddoesnotinterferewithaclearperceptionoftheactor.
2.EdmondMalone,"AnHistoricalAccountoftheRiseandProgressoftheEnglishStage"(1790),rpt.inThePlaysandPoemsofWilliamShakespeare(ThirdVariorum),ed.JamesBoswell(London,1821),3:109.
3.QuotedinBentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,2:694.
4.ThebestsummaryofperformancetimesisinGurr,TheShakespearianPlayingCompanies,78-81.
5.C.W.Dugmore,"CanonicalHours,"inADictionaryofLiturgyandWorship,ed.J.Davies(NewYork,1972).GeneralbackgroundisinHortonDavies,WorshipandTheologyinEnglandfromCranmertoHooker(Princeton,1970),178,204,andM.E.Cornford,"EcclesiasticalHistory:1547-1563,"inTheVictoriaHistoryofLondon,ed.W.Page(London,1909),1:295.
6.DavidKnowles,TheMonasticOrderinEngland(Cambridge,1963),715.
7.CharlesPendrill,OldParishLifeinLondon(London,1937),36.
8.Cornford,"EcclesiasticalHistory,"1:295,318.From1582onward,lectureswerereadinSt.Margaret'sChurchinNewFishStreetaftereveningprayerfrom5to6P.M.onMondaysandafter1591onSundaysaswell.Presumably,theeveningprayerservicetherebeganat3or4P.M.
9.ReavleyGair,TheChildrenofPaul's(Cambridge,1982),53.
10.WalterH.Frere,ed.,VisitationArticlesandInjunctionsofthePeriodoftheReformation(London,1910),3:303.
11.RonaldBayne,"Religion,"inShakespeare'sEngland,ed.S.LeeandC.T.Onions(Oxford,1916),1:62;Chambers,TheElizabethanStage,1:313.
12.Chambers,TheElizabethanStage,4:268.
13.Chambers,TheElizabethanStage,4:269.
14.SunsettimesaredrawnfromThomasBuckminster,AnAlmanackeandPrognostication,fortheyeereofChristesincarnationMD.XC.VIII(London,1598).ThesetimescheckcloselywithmodernfiguresinWhitaker'sAlmanac(London,1994),takingintoaccountthedifferencesbetweenold-andnew-stylecalendars.EnglanddidnotadoptthepresentGregoriancalendaruntil1752.Asaresult,theequinoxesandsolsticesbeforethatweretendaysearlierthanthedatesonwhichtheynowfall.SeeW.W.Greg,"OldStyle--NewStyle,"inJosephQuincyAdamsMemorialStudies,ed.J.McManawayetal.(Washington,1948),563-569.
Page246
15.Gurr,"TheLossofRecords,"11.
16.RichardDutton,MasteringtheRevels:TheRegulationandCensorshipofEnglishRenaissanceDrama(IowaCity,1991).ForrelationsamongthePrivyCouncil,theCorporationoftheCityofLondon,andtheactors,seeCarolChillingtonRutter'sintroductiontoDocumentsoftheRosePlayhouse(Manchester,1984),9-18,andChambers,TheElizabethanStage,1:269-307.
17.VirginiaC.Gildersleeve,GovernmentRegulationoftheElizabethanDrama(NewYork,1908),158.
18.MSC1,pt.1(1907[1908]):53.
19.Chambers,TheElizabethanStage,4:369.
20.Chambers,TheElizabethanStage,4:285.
21.MSC1,pt.1:54.
22.MSC1,pt.1:63-64.
23.RaphaelHolinshed,Chronicles,revisedbyJohnHooker(London,1577),3:Kkkkkk6v.
24.JohnStow,TheAnnalesofEngland(London,1592),Iiiiv.
25.MSC1,pt.2(1908):164.
26.Gildersleeve,GovernmentRegulation,169-70.Also,theplaguewaswidespreadin1583,perhapsforcingtheplayersoutsidecityregulation.
27.MSC1,pt.2:169-70.
28.MSC1,pt.2:172.
29.MSC1,pt.2:174.
30.MSC1,pt.2:187-88.Chambers,TheElizabethanStage,1:314,confusesthedateandlocationoftheriot.
31.W.W.Greg,ed.,Henslowe'sDiary(London,1904-8),1:220,2:51.
32.FoakesandRickert,Henslowe'sDiary,19.
33.FoakesandRickert,Henslowe'sDiary,19.ThedatesgiveninHenslowe'sdiaryraiseseveralproblems;GregdistrustsmanySundaydates.Althoughafewaredemonstrablywrong,wecannotdisregardsuchimportantevidenceasthediarycontains.Forasummaryofthedifficulties,seeFoakesandRickert,Henslowe'sDiary,xxvi-xxviii.
34.Gildersleeve,GovernmentRegulation,181.
35.Chambers,TheElizabethanStage,4:312-13.
36.SeeWickham,EarlyEnglishStages,2,pt.1:194;Chambers,TheElizabethanStage,4:268;andMSC,2,pt.3:310.
37.MSC1,pt.1:74.
38.Wickham,EarlyEnglishStages,2,pt.2:95-101;seealsoT.S.Graves,TheCourtandtheLondonTheatres(1913;rpt.NewYork,1967),32.O.L.Brownstein,"ARecordofLondonInnPlayhousesfromc.1565-1590,"ShakespeareQuarterly22(1971):22,assumestheactorsoccupiedlargeroomsintheCrossKeysandBull,butChambers,TheElizabethanStage,2:527,doubtstheinnshadanyindoorroomslargeenoughforplays.
39.RecordsofEarlyEnglishDrama:Norwich,1540-1642,71,andseeDavidGalloway,
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"RecordsofEarlyEnglishDramaintheProvinces,"TheElizabethanTheatre7(1980):97-98.
40.Berry,TheBoar'sHeadPlayhouse,16-17.BerrycautionsthattheBoar'sHeadinvolvedinthe1557accountmightpossiblybeadifferentinnfromtheoneconvertedtoamorepermanenttheaterin1597.
41.Chambers,TheElizabethanStage,4:369.BecauserecordsofElizabethanfencingmatchesdonotincludetheCrossKeysortheBull,Brownstein,"ARecordofLondonInnPlayhouses,"23,suggeststhattheseinnsmayhavehadonlyindoorperformancevenues.
42.L[eslie]S[tephens],"Flecknoe,Richard,"DNB(1963-64).
43.Murray,EnglishDramaticCompanies,1:30;E.K.Chambers,WilliamShakespeare:AStudyofFactsandProblems(Oxford,1930),2:323;Chambers,TheElizabethanStage,2:412,413,442;AndrewGurr,TheShakespeareanStage,3rded.(Cambridge,1992),42;Bentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,1:163,2:677,7:37,100.
44.Webster,TheWhiteDevil,A2;BenJonson,Poetaster(London,1602),F3V.
45.Brownstein,"ARecordofLondonInnPlayhouses,"21-22.
46.PrintedinThePlaysandPoemsofWilliamShakespeare,21:414.
47.Chambers,TheElizabethanStage,2:543;ThomasPlatter,BeschreibungderReisen,ed.R.Keiser(Basel,1968),2:791.Laterinthediary,Platteromitsthe"etwann,"sayingthatplayswereactedeveryday"umb2uhrennachemittag"(792).
48.BecausePlatterwenttothetheaterdirectlyfromlunch,thefactthatittookagallantinSirJohnDavies'sEpigrammesandElegies(Middleborough,[1590]),D1,onehourtogofromtheplayhouseto
suppermayindicatemorethanjustaquicktripforPlatter.
49.SeeBentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,4:875,6:33.
50.Malone,"AnHistoricalAccount,"inThePlaysandPoemsofWilliamShakespeare,3:144.
51.I[ohn]D[avies],EpigrammesandElegies,D1.
52.J.P.Collier,AnnalsoftheStage(1831;rpt.London,1879),3:180.
53.Histriomastix,orThePlayerWhipt(London,1610;fac.rpt.London,1912),B4V-Cl.
54.ThomasCranley,Amanda,orTheReformedWhore(London,1635),F3.
55.ThomasDekker,TheGulsHorne-booke(London,1609),D3V.
56.Bentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,4:875.
57.Gurr,TheShakespearianPlayingCompanies,79.
58.See,e.g.,T[homas?]G[offe?],TheCarelessShepherdess(London,1656),B4V.
59.FoakesandRickert,Henslowe'sDiary,86.
60.T.S.Graves,"NightScenesintheElizabethanTheatre,"EnglischeStudien47(1913):67.Gravesdoesnotmentionthatin1617,OrazioBusinorecordsthatatrickwasplayedonhiminthe"evening"ataplayhousethathasregularlybeenidentifiedastheFortune,althoughBentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,6:151-52,showsthatthisisanunverifiednineteenth-centuryidentification.
61.FoakesandRickert,Henslowe'sDiary,88.
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62.Gurr,"TheLossofRecords,"2-18,showsthatbefore1603,Elizabeth's1559proclamationgenerallyallottedtouringcompaniesthelargestroomintown;after1603,whentheproclamationwasnotrenewed,provincialcitiesincreasinglydisallowedperformancesorrelegatedtheactorstolocalinns.
63.MarvinRosenberg,"PublicNightPerformancesinShakespeare'sTime,"TheatreNotebook8(1953):44-45.
64.MSC4(1956):60;Chambers,TheElizabethanStage,4:320.
65.Gurr,"TheLossofRecords,"12-15.
66.AlbertCohn,ShakespeareinGermany(London,1865),pl.2.
67.AlfredHart,"TheTimeAllottedforRepresentationofElizabethanandJacobeanPlays,"ReviewofEnglishStudies8(1932):402.
68.DavidKlein,"TimeAllottedforanElizabethanPerformance,"ShakespeareQuarterly18(1967):434-38.
69.Chambers,TheElizabethanStage,2:345.
70.Gurr,TheShakespearianPlayingCompanies,82.
71.Herford,Simpson,andSimpson,BenJonson,5:15.
72.H.A.Rennert,TheSpanishStageintheTimeofLopedeVega(1909;rpt.NewYork,1963),111.However,fineswereleviedagainstperformancesextendingpastdusk(which,formostoftheyear,islaterinMadridthaninLondon);seeE.WilsonandD.Moir,ALiteraryHistoryofSpain:TheGoldenAgeDrama(London,1971),34-35.
73.J.H.Brazell,LondonWeather,MeteorologicalOfficePublication783(London,1968),172.
74.SeeH.H.Lamb,TheChangingClimate(1966;rpt.London,1972),5-12;andBrazell,LondonWeather,appendix1.
75.C.WalterHodges,Shakespeare'sTheatre(London,1964),64.
76.Bentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,6:136.
77.Dekker,TheGulsHorne-booke,E4V.Dekker'schapteronplayhousesisacompositedescriptionofbothpublicandprivateplayhouseswiththesceneshiftingvaguelybackandforth.Atthepointinquestion,Dekkerseemstobediscussingamphitheaters.
78.N.C.Bawcutt,ed.TheControlandCensorshipofCarolineDrama:TheRecordsofSirHenryHerbert,MasteroftheRevels1623-73(Oxford,1996),166.
5IlluminationoftheOutdoorPlayhouses
1.RichardHosley,"ThePlayhouses,"inTheRevelsHistoryofDramainEnglish,ed.T.W.Craiketal.(London,1975),3:136-74.
2.JanetLeongard,"AnElizabethanLawsuit:JohnBrayne,hisCarpenter,andtheBuildingoftheRedLionTheatre,"ShakespeareQuarterly34(1983):309.
3.RichardHosley,"ThePlayhouseandtheStage,"inANewCompaniontoShakespeareStudies,ed.K.MuirandS.Schoenbaum(Cambridge,1971),30.
4.DetailsoftheRose'sremainsareconvenientlysummarizedbyJulianM.C.Bow-
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sherandSimonBlatherwick,"TheStructureoftheRose,"inNewIssuesintheReconstructionofShakespeare'sTheatre,ed.F.Hildy(NewYork,1990),55-78.
5.Berry,TheBoar'sHeadPlayhouse,139,164.
6.Orrell,TheHumanStage,81-87.ButAndrewGurr,"TheBareIsland,"ShakespeareSurvey47(1994):37,pointsoutthatrainwaterfallingoffaroofwhosegableendfacedtheyardwouldnotproducethevisibleerosionlineparalleltothefrontoftheRosestage.
7.Bentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,6:183.
8.RichardHosley,"StageSuperstructuresoftheFirstGlobeandtheSwan,"inTheDevelopmentofShakespeare'sTheater,128-137.HosleyissupportedbyStuartE.Baker,"TurretsandTiringHousesontheElizabethanPublicStage,"TheatreNotebook49(1995):134-51,whoarguesthat"integrated"stagecovers(i.e.,withtherearoftheroofconnectedtothegalleriesandthefrontoftheroofsupportedbypillars)wouldbemechanicallyunstable.
9.RichardHosley,"AReconstructionoftheFortunePlayhouse,Part1,"TheElizabethanTheatre6(1978):1-20.
10.W.W.Greg,HenslowePapers(London,1907),26.
11.Hosley'sassumptionsalsoforcehimtopositanunmentionedthirddoorgivingaccesstothetiring-houseandlords'rooms,eventhoughThomasPlatterimpliesthatspectatorswhoultimatelyarrivedintheyard,galleries,andlords'roomsallinitiallyenteredatthesamedoor.
12.AlanYoung,"TheOrientationoftheElizabethanStage,"TheatreNotebook33(1979):80-85.
13.Vitruvius,TheTenBooksonArchitecture,138.
14.SeeWickham,EarlyEnglishStages,1:37.
15.Dekker,TheGulsHorne-booke,E2V.
16.JohnOrrell,"BeyondtheRose:DesignProblemsfortheGlobeReconstruction,"inNewIssuesintheReconstructionofShakespeare'sTheatre,110.
17.C.WalterHodges,"ReconstructingtheRose,"inNewIssuesintheReconstructionofShakespeare'sTheatre,79-94.
18.GlynneWickham,"Heavens,'Machinery,andPillarsintheTheatreandOtherEarlyPlayhouses,"inTheFirstPublicPlayhouse,ed.H.Berry(Montreal,1979),1-15.
19.Berry,TheBoar'sHeadPlayhouse,108,127.
20.BowsherandBlatherwick,"TheStructureoftheRose,"inNewIssuesintheReconstructionofShakespeare'sTheatre,71.
21.Berry,TheBoar'sHeadPlayhouse,109,111.
22.Greg,HenslowePapers,5.
23.A.M.Nagler,Shakespeare'sStage,trans.R.Manheim(NewHaven,1958),24-25.
24.Chambers,TheElizabethanStage,2:466-67.
25.C.WalterHodges,Shakespeare'sSecondGlobe:TheMissingMonument(London,1973),61-73.
26.Hodges,Shakespeare'sSecondGlobe,73-76.
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27.Bentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,6:273.
28.RichardHosley,''TheSecondGlobe,"TheatreNotebook29(1975):141-42.
29.Hodges,Shakespeare'sSecondGlobe,75;RichardSouthern,"OnReconstructingaPracticableElizabethanPlayhouse,"ShakespeareSurvey12(1959):30.Southern'sestimateofthepurposeofthesewindowsisconfirmedbythesimilarslotwindowsintheJonesplayhouse(seefig.29).
30.Greg,HenslowePapers,5.
31.Baker,"TurretsandTiringHouses,"143.
32.RichardH.Palmer,TheLightingArt(EnglewoodCliffs,1985),15.
33.FoakesandRickert,Henslowe'sDiary,6-7.JohnRonayne,"TotusMundusagitHistrionum,"inShakespeare'sGlobeRebuilt,ed.J.MulryneandM.Shewring(Cambridge,1997),122-43,arguesthatElizabethandecorativestyleimpliesbrightlypaintedplayhouseinteriors.
34.FoakesandRickert,Henslowe'sDiary,309-10.
35.EstimatesarebasedonfiguresderivedfromtheDepartmentofScientificandIndustrialResearchTechnicalPaperNo.17,SeasonalVariationsofDaylightIllumination(London,1935),3-7,andR.G.Hopkinson,ArchitecturalPhysics:Lighting(London,1963),50-88.
36.AWarningforFairWomen(London,1599;fac.rpt.London,1912),A3.ChamberscitesotherreferencestoblackhangingsinTheElizabethanStage,3:79.
37.ThefollowingdiscussionoftheperceptionoflightisbasedonC.A.PadghamandJ.E.Saunders,ThePerceptionofLightandColour
(NewYork,1975),37-60,andMatthewLuckieshandFrankMoss,TheScienceofSeeing(NewYork,1937).
38.IusephotographstakeninAugust1995,whennoartificiallightswereused;thestagecoverwastemporaryandlackedthegablenowinplace,whichfurtherreducesfranksunshineintheyard.
39.Thatis,sinceStanleyMcCandless'sinfluentialAMethodofLightingtheStage(NewYork,1932).
40.LuckieshandMoss,TheScienceofSeeing,335.
41.Forexample,BertoltBrecht,SchriftenzumTheater(Frankfurt,1957),260-61;AntoninArtaud,TheTheatreandItsDouble,trans.M.C.Richards(NewYork,1958),96;andJerzyGrotowski,TowardsaPoorTheatre(NewYork,1968),20,callfortheilluminationoftheentiretheaterlargelyontheauthorityofElizabethanstagepractice.
42.J.L.Styan,Shakespeare'sStagecraft(Cambridge,1967),42-44.
43.CyrilTourneur,TheAtheist'sTragedy(London,1611),I2V.
44.WilliamHaughton,EnglishmenforMyMoney(London,1616;fac.rpt.London,1912),G1-G1V.
45.Styan,Shakespeare'sStagecraft,42.
46.Mostpraiseforacting,forexample,wasbasedontruthtonature;seeDanielSeltzer,"TheActorsandStaging,"inANewCompaniontoShakespeareStudies,36,andGurr,TheShakespeareanStage,100.
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47.See"TheDialoguesofLeonediSomi,"qtd.inNicoll,TheDevelopmentoftheTheatre,275,andM.St.ClaireByrne,"StageLighting,"inTheOxfordCompaniontotheTheatre,567.DiSomialsocalledforsomeofthefirst"mood"lightingonrecord.Hepreferredbrilliantlightonthesceneuntil"thefirstunhappyincidentoccurred,"whenheextinguishedmostofthelightnearthestage(274).
48.Chambers,TheElizabethanStage,2:543.Hart,"TimeAllotted,"410;T.S.Graves,"NotesonElizabethanTheatres,"StudiesinPhilology103(1916):112;WilliamPoelqtd.inRobertSpeaight,WilliamPoelandtheElizabethanRevival(London,1954),132;andLawrence,TheElizabethanPlayhouse,2:13,concurandproposethattorches,candles,orcressetswereusedoutdoors.MichaelHattaway,ElizabethanPopularTheatre(London,1982),56,isevenmoreemphatic:"Lightingwasnecessary,"hestates,"andmayhavebeenusedfortheatricaleffectsinthepublicplayhouses."
49.Herford,Simpson,andSimpson,BenJonson,7:88.
50.MSC2,pt.2(1923):153-54.
51.SeeI.vonRoeder-BaumbachandH.G.Evers,VersieringenbijBlijdeInkomsten(Antwerp,1949).InSpainitself,largetorchesroutinelygraceddaytimeperformancesofoutdoorautos;seeNagler,ASourceBookinTheatricalHistory,67.
52.Kernodle,FromArttoTheatre,116-29;W.M.H.Hummelen,"TypesandMethodsoftheDutchRhetoricians'Theatre,"inTheThirdGlobe,164-80.
53.W.J.Lawrence,"NightPerformancesintheElizabethanTheatres,"EnglischeStudien48(1915):219.IquotefromCollier,Annals,1:144.
54.Greg,HenslowePapers,84.
55.Berry,TheBoar'sHeadPlayhouse,173.Here,Mago's"cressettlights"refersnottothesturdyironutensilsbuttothewovenfralesplacedinthem.
56.Stow,SurveyofLondon,H6v.
57.SeeGurr,Playgoing,20.
58.Bentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,6:106.
59.KeithBrown,"Morelight,morelight,"EssaysinCriticism34(1984):1-13.Inreply,AndrewGurr,"'Lights,Ho!'(I),"EssaysinCriticism34(1984):271-77,pointedoutBrown'slackofevidenceandsuggestedthatifpoorlightwasaproblem,thecompanies'responsewastomoveindoors;whileJohnOrrell,"'Lights,Ho!'(II),"EssaysinCriticism34(1984):278-82,agreedthatcressetswouldhavebeenregularlyrequiredinwinter.
60.LuckieshandMoss,TheScienceofSeeing,86,387-93.
61.LuckieshandMoss,TheScienceofSeeing,336.
62.PadghamandSaunders,ThePerceptionofLightandColour,41.
63.Wickham,EarlyEnglishStages2,pt.1:194.
64.WilfredT.Jewkes,ActDivisioninElizabethanandJacobeanPlays(Hamden,Conn.,1958),100-101;RichardHosley,"WasThereaMusic-RoominShakespeare'sGlobe?"ShakespeareSurvey13(1960):117.
65.Lawrence,"NightPerformances,"228,citingEdmundHowe'sadditionstoJohnStow'sAnnalesofEngland(London,1631),Iiiiv.
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66.Wemustquestion,therefore,whetherRobertFludd'sTheatrumOrbisisapictureofthesecondGlobe,asFrancisYatesclaimsinTheTheatreoftheWorld.Fluddshowsdirectsunlightcoveringthebackwallandmostofthe"stage"floor,animpossibilityatthesecondGlobejudgingbyHollar'sviewofthehut.Forsimilarreasons,wemaydiscountI.A.Shapiro'salternatesuggestionin"RobertFludd'sStage-Illustration,"ShakespeareStudies2(1966):192-209,thatitportraystheBlackfriars.
6DaylightintheIndoorPlayhouses
1.Bentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,2:694.
2.See,forexample,L.B.Wright,"TheBritainThatShakespeareKnew,"NationalGeographic125(1967):651,andIrwinSmith,Shakespeare'sBlackfriarsPlayhouse(NewYork,1964),259.
3.HaroldN.Hillebrand,TheChildActors(Urbana,Ill.,1926),123.
4.Gair,TheChildrenofPaul's,53.BecauseWestcottbequeathedtenshillingstothekeeperofthegate(presumablythegatestothechurchyard),Gairassumesthattheperformancessometimescontinuedafterdusk,whenthegateswerenormallyclosed(56),althougha1608sermonbythepuritandivineWilliamCrashawesuggeststhatplayswereextendedintheotherdirectionwhenhedescribingeveningprayersas"cutshortertomakeroome"forplays(166).
5.Chambers,TheElizabethanStage,4:320.
6.JohnDay,TheIsleofGulls(London,1606;fac.rpt.London,1936),A3.
7.MSC1,pt.1:91-92.
8.In1602,Germantouristsweredelightedbyaone-hourconcertbeforeaChildrenoftheChapelplayatBlackfriars(Bentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,6:33).
9.JohnEarle,Microcosmographie(London,1628),E7v.
10.Bawcutt,TheControlandCensorshipofCarolineDrama,182.Presumably,theKing'smenhadmovedfromtheGlobeby19and21October1633,thedatesofthecanceledperformances.
11.MildmaywenttoBlackfriarsbeforesupperon25April1632,25November1635,27October1638,and15May1640;"thisafterNoone"on28April1635;and"dined...&wentothefryersblacketoaplay"on3November1637(Bentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,2:677-78).
12.J.Q.Adams,ShakespeareanPlayhouses(Boston,1917),232-33;Bentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,6:34-36.Bawcutt,TheControlandCensorshipofCarolineDrama,174-75,188,addstwoinstancesofthequeen'svisitstoBlackfriarsunknowntoAdamsandBentley.
13.J.Q.Adams,ed.,TheDramaticRecordsofSirHenryHerbert(NewHaven,1912),76-77.OccasionalafternoonrehearsalsatcourtalsonecessitatedaBlackfriarscancellation.On16March1632,forexample,theKing'smenwerepaidfor"therehersallofone[play]attheCockpittbywhichmeanestheylosttheirafternooneattheHouse"(MSC2,pt.3:360).
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14.Althoughthequeen'sattendanceatBlackfriarsin1636and1638isnotedinextantKing'smen'sbills,herpresenceisnotconfirmedbyHerbert'scorrespondingaccounts,afactnotmentionedbyAdamsorBentley.Novenuesarecitedfor1636,andBlackfriarsisspecificallyexcludedfromthe1638warrantthatassignsallplaysthatseasontoHamptonCourt,Richmond,andWhitehall;seethewarrantsinMSC2,pt.3:382and388-89.Gurr,TheShakespearianPlayingCompanies,80,doubtsthatalltheseperformanceswereatnight.
15.T.S.Graves,"The'ActTime'inElizabethanTheatres,"StudiesinPhilology12(1915):110,andI.Smith,Shakespeare'sBlackfriarsPlayhouse,259,citereferencesto"night"invariousBlackfriarsplaysasproofofnighttimeperformances.
16.Chambers,TheElizabethanStage,2:369.However,thereisarecordofonesurreptitiousnightperformanceatWhitefriarsbysixteen"apprentices";seeD.F.McKenzie'sintroductiontoTheHogHathLostHisPearl(London,1972),vi-vii.WhentheWhitefriarsleaseexpiredin1615,PhilipRosseter,thelutanist,fittedupahallintheBlackfriarsdistrict,towhichpuritanneighborsobjectedonthegroundsthatitwasa"greevousDisturbauncetotheDevineserviceofGod"(MSC4:60).
17.Bentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,2:676-77.
18.G[offe?],TheCarelessShepherdess,B4v.Itisthoughtthepraeludiumwaswrittenforarevivalabout1638.
19.Bentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,6:106.
20.ThisestimateofthenumberofcandlesisbasedonpricesinRogers,AHistoryofAgricultureandPrices,5:398-400,6:652.
21.Bentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,6:97,100,104,112.Thereisalsoreasontobelievethattheoccupantsin1639,Queen
Henrietta'smen,didnotmakeregularsummertours;seeMurray,EnglishDramaticCompanies,1:269.
22.JohnAstington,"TheWitsIllustration,1662,"TheatreNotebook47(1993):122-40,arguesthattheillustrationisacollagedrawnfromvariousiconographicsources,someContinental,butnotbasedonaparticulartheater,howevermuchitmayreflecttheatricalpracticebeforethe1660s.
23.ThomasDekker,TheSevenDeadlieSinnsofLondon(London,1606),D2.
24.Bawcutt,TheControlandCensorshipofCarolineDrama,199.
25.ThedescriptionofthehallatHamptonCourtisbasedontheRoyalCommissiononHistoricalMonuments,AnInventoryoftheHistoricalMonumentsinMiddlesex(London,1937),34-35,exceptthatIusethedimensionsinAlvinKernan,Shakespeare,theKing'sPlaywright(NewHaven,1995),209.Thepresentwindowglassdatesfromthenineteenthcentury.
26.ThisdescriptionoftheMiddleTemplehallisbasedontheRoyalCommissiononHistoricalMonuments,AnInventoryoftheHistoricalMonumentsinLondon(London,1929),4:148.G.P.V.Akrigg,in"TwelfthNightattheMiddleTemple,"ShakespeareQuarterly9(1958):422-24,hassuggestedthatFeste'sindicationofmorethanonebaywindowinMalvolio's"mad"sceneimpliesthatTwelfthNighthaditspremiereattheMiddleTempleratherthanattheTudorhallinWhitehallwithitssingleorielwindow.Idoubtthat
Page254
wecanbesopreciseinthematter;whenhewrotetheplay,ShakespearesurelyknewthatitwouldalsobeperformedattheGlobe,whichhadnobaywindows.
27.Adams,ShakespeareanPlayhouses,95.
28.I.Smith,Shakespeare'sBlackfriarsPlayhouse,11-15,98-100.
29.MSC2,pt.1(1913[1914]):61.
30.Hillebrand,TheChildActors,183.
31.Hosley,"ThePlayhouses,"3:202.
32.Chambers,TheElizabethanStage,2:516.
33.ReproducedinAdams,ShakespeareanPlayhouses,313.
34.A.W.Clapham,"TheTopographyoftheCarmelitePrioryofLondon,"JournaloftheBritishArchologicalAssociation16(1910):15-16.
35.GeoffreyWebb,ArchitectureinBritain:TheMiddleAges(Harmondsworth,1956),65,212.
36.W.A.Hinnebusch,TheEarlyEnglishFriarsPreachers(Rome,1951),158-61.
37.FortheagreementbetweenEnglishandneoclassicalprecedentonsteeplyangledinteriorlight,seePerPalme,TheTriumphofPeace(Uppsala,1956),176-201.
38.ThomasFuller,TheHolyState(Cambridge,1642),Y4.TheonlydefinitetheatricalexceptiontoFuller'spreceptswastheTrinityHall,sporadicallyrentedbyactorsfrom1557to1568.Thishallwasonlythirty-fivebyfifteenfeet,withalarge,highwindowoppositethegallerybutnowindowsinthesidewalls.SeeC.T.Prouty,"AnEarlyElizabethanPlayhouse,"ShakespeareSurvey6(1953):64-75.
39.MSC10:19.
40.SeeD.F.Rowan's"TheCockpit-in-Court,"TheElizabethanTheatre1(1969):89-102;"ANeglectedJones/WebbTheatreProject,"TheElizabethanTheatre2(1970):60-73;and"TheEnglishPlayhouse:1595-1630,"RenaissanceDrama4(1971):37-51.
41.SeeJohnOrrell's"InigoJonesattheCockpit,"ShakespeareSurvey30(1977):157;TheTheatresofInigoJonesandJohnWebb(Cambridge,1985),39-77;andhisandAndrewGurr'sRebuildingShakespeare'sGlobe(London,1989),129-48.
42.Theverticalplacementofthegalleriesintheprivatetheatersisamatterofpureconjecture.MostinteresthasfocusedonthesecondBlackfriars.I.Smith,Shakespeare'sBlackfriarsPlayhouse,307,putsthegalleriesonthefloorofthehallwithnoneonthestage;D.F.Rowan,"TheTiring-HouseWallandtheGalleriesintheSecondBlackfriars,"TheatreNotebook26(1972):101-4,putsthemonthelevelofthestageallaroundthetheaterontheauthorityoftheJonesplayhousedrawings;RichardHosley,"AReconstructionoftheSecondBlackfriars,"TheElizabethanTheatre1(1969):74-78,compromisesandhasthegalleriestoeachsideofthestagerestonthestageplatformitselfwhilethegalleriesintheauditoriumrestonthefloorofthehall.BecauseOrrellpersuasivelyarguesthattheprivatetheaterauditoriumswereU-shapedandthattheirpitfloorsascendedinwedge-shapedsteps,gallerieswouldpresumablybepositionedatleastashighasthestage(TheHumanStage,193-203).
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43.SeeC.W.Wallace,TheEvolutionoftheEnglishDrama,SchriftenderDeutschenShakespeare-Gesellschaft(Berlin,1912),4:175,andHillebrand,TheChildActors,183.
44.MSC2,pt.2:223andpassim.Nelson,EarlyCambridgeTheatres,52,56-58,suggeststhat"haircloths"weresometimesplacedoverwindowstoprotecttheirglasslights.
45.Orrell,TheTheatresofInigoJonesandJohnWebb,95-100.
46.R.A.Foakes,IllustrationsoftheEnglishStage:1580-1642(Stanford,1985),70-71,identifiesthewallfacingthepond(andtheviewer)inDanckert'spaintingascorrespondingtothestage-rightwallinWebb'splan.
47.Pre-RestorationOfficeofWorksaccountsfortheCockpit-in-CourtarecitedfromBentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,6:272-73.
48.RestorationOfficeofWorkscitationsarefromEleanoreBoswell,TheRestorationCourtStage(1932;rpt.NewYork,1966),240-41.
49.JohnAstington,"TheWhitehallCockpit,"EnglishLiteraryRenaissance12(1982):312-13.
50.ReproducedinLondonCountyCouncil,SurveyofLondon,44vols.(London,1900-1994),14:pl.9.
51.Orrell,TheHumanStage,30-48.
52.Palme,TheTriumphofPeace,215.
53.Palme,TheTriumphofPeace,200-224.
54.SeeNathanielLloyd,AHistoryoftheEnglishHouse(NewYork,1931),117-19,327-32,forapictorialhistoryofEnglishwindows.
55.Palme,TheTriumphofPeace,207.
56.SeeHillebrand,TheChildActors,183.Terminologyisconfusing:shutterswereoftencalled"windows,"whilewoodenwindowframesinsertedinmasonrywereusuallycalled"casements";seeL.F.Salzman,BuildinginEnglandDownto1540(Oxford,1952),255-58.
57.Bentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,4:529,5:1263-64.
58.Herford,Simpson,andSimpson,BenJonson,8:407.Palme(TheTriumphofPeace,221)rehearsesalong,unconvincingchainofobscureassociationstoshowthat"slyding"means"sloping,"asinthetranslationofFenestrebastardeinRandleCotgrave'sDictionarie(London,1611):"aslopingwindow(asinsomeshops)yeeldingafalselight."Itaketheseslidingwindowstorefertoslidingwindowshuttersor,perhaps,totheslidingscenesthemselves,whichbytheRestorationwerecalledshutters.Similarly,"falseLights"mayrefertoboarded-upwindowpanes,butJonsonmaybeinveighingagainstartificiallightsnearthescenesortoawningsorcanopiesofsomekind,whichareequatedwithfalselightsinWomenBewareWomen(1653;rpt.Berkeley,1969),47.
59.W.J.Lawrence,"TheElizabethanNocturnal,"inPre-RestorationStageStudies(Cambridge,Mass.,1927),122-45.K.Brown,"Morelight,morelight,"1-13,correctlydismissesLawrence'stheories.
60.Bentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,6:294.
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61.ThomasDekker,WorkeforArmorours(London,1609),B1-B1v.
62.MSC6(1961[1962]):47.
63.GregorioLeti,IlCardinalismodiSantaChiesa;orTheHistoryoftheCardinalsoftheRomanChurch(London,1670),91.
64.ThecalculationofdaylightindoorsisexplainedbyHopkinson,ArchitecturalPhysics,50-88.
65.Hopkinson,ArchitecturalPhysics,19.
7TheatricalLightingatCourt
1.CitedinOrgelandStrong,InigoJones,1:284.
2.Chambers,TheElizabethanStage,1:225.
3.MSC2,pt.3:354-55;Bawcutt,TheControlandCensorshipofCarolineDrama,199.
4.Bawcutt,TheControlandCensorshipofCarolineDrama,135-217.
5.Othermultipleperformanceswereon22February1596,6January1601,14February1602,20February1604,and6February1634;seethecourtcalendarsinChambers,TheElizabethanStage,4:appendixA,andBentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,7:appendixC.
6.Kernan,Shakespeare,theKing'sPlaywright,xvii,assignsAMidsummerNight'sDreamtotheafternoon,butDudleyCarletonputsitatnight;seeChambers,WilliamShakespeare,2:329.
7.Orrell,TheHumanStage,107.
8.MSC10:xvii.
9.MSC10:36.
10.Feuillerat,Elizabeth,216,218.Feuilleratprintselevenaccountsandmiscellaneousrecordscovering1571to1588.JacobeanandCarolineaccountsareprintedinMSC13.Althoughtheauthenticityofthe1604-5and1611-12accountshasbeenquestioned,theyarenowgenerallyregardedasgenuine.
11.Feuillerat,Elizabeth,237,159,196;also295,353,and380.JacobeanandCarolineaccountsalsolistnumerousentriesforropesandrodstohangthebranches;seeMSC13:27,32,38,43,50.
12.Feuillerat,Elizabeth,159,237.
13.Feuillerat,Elizabeth,353,368.
14.Feuillerat,Elizabeth,309,327,338.
15.MSC13:50,57.
16.OrgelandStrong,InigoJones,1:282.
17.Feuillerat,Elizabeth,274;MSC13:51.
18.Feuillerat,Elizabeth,203,327.
19.Wickham,EarlyEnglishStages,2,pt.2:213.
20.MSC13:10,11,127.
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21.Feuillerat,Elizabeth,159.Foruseabovethespectators,Sabbattini(Praticadifabricar,bk.1,chap.38,p.54)recommendschandeliersthatsupportonlythreecandles.
22.MSC13:10.
23.MSC13:50.
24.MSC13:83.
25.Orrell,TheHumanStage,109.
26.Feuillerat,Elizabeth,176,202.
27.MSC13:10.
28.MSC13:51.
29.Bentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,6:286.
30.Feuillerat,Elizabeth,325.
31.Feuillerat,Elizabeth,237,228,202,216.
32.MortonPaterson,"TheStagecraftoftheRevelsOfficeduringtheReignofElizabeth,"inStudiesintheElizabethanTheatre,46,givesabriefaccountofcourtlightinginwhichthisinterpretationof"hats"playsthemajorpart.Hetakestheassociationofhatswithfunnelsandpipestoimplyaventilationsystemforlanterns;buttheusualelizabethantermforthetopofalanternwas"nozzle."In1560-61,forexample,TrinityCollege,Cambridge,purchaseda"greatenosellforthestagelanthorne."SeeNelson,EarlyCambridgeTheatres,112,whosuggeststhisnozzlewasasockettoholdacandle;butitmorelikelyreferstothefunnel-shapedlidofalargelanternwithmultiplecandles.
33.Feuillerat,Elizabeth,202,210,176;MSC13:50.
34.MSC13:98,122,58.
35.Feuillerat,Elizabeth,327.
36.Feuillerat,Elizabeth,176,202,237,327,353,300,368.
37.Feuillerat,Elizabeth,209,208,206.Themasquewascanceledbecauseofthe"tediousness"oftheplaythatnight.
38.MSC13:52,58,64,70,84,105,111,116,123,134,141.
39.OrgelandStrong,InigoJones,2:464.
40.MSC12(1983):45,63.
41.Bawcutt,TheControlandCensorshipofCarolineDrama,187.
42.SeeScottMcMillin,"Jonson'sEarlyEntertainments,"RenaissanceDrama1(1968):155.
43.E.Boswell,TheRestorationCourtStage,92.
44.J.R.ElliotandJ.Buttrey,"TheRoyalPlaysatChristChurch1636:ANewDocument,"TheatreResearchInternational10(1985):104.
45.SeeE.Boswell,TheRestorationCourtStage95.
46.Herford,Simpson,andSimpson,BenJonson,10:419;Bentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,5:1228;E.K.Chambers,AurelianTownshend'sPoemsandMasks(Oxford,1912),83.
47.Herford,Simpson,andSimpson,BenJonson,7:186,314.
Page258
48.JohnNichols,TheProgresses...ofJamestheFirst(London,1828),2:742.
49.Serly,TheFirstBookeofArchitecture,bk.2,chap.3,fol.25.Serlio'streatiseappearedinParisin1545andinaDutchedition,fromwhichtheEnglishtranslationwasmade.
50.Herford,Simpson,andSimpson,BenJonson,7:346.
51.Herford,Simpson,andSimpson,BenJonson,7:155.
52.OrgelandStrong,InigoJones,1:126-27.
53.AllardyceNicoll,StuartMasquesandtheRenaissanceStage(london,1938),129;C.F.Bell,"TheArtificialLightingoftheCourtStage,"inBenJonson,10:413-20.
54.Bell,"TheArtificialLightingoftheCourtStage,"10:420.
55.MSC13:114-15.
56.Feuillerat,Elizabeth,table2,l.36;Orrell,TheTheatresofInigoJonesandJohnWebb,24-25;Foakes,IllustrationsoftheEnglishStage,61.OfficeofWorksaccountssometimesmentionoil--inonecaseclearlyforplaysatSomersetHouse(MSC10:54)--butthisoilseemstobeintendedforlubrication.Somedescriptionsofcourtmasquesmentionburninglampsasproperties,forexample,forthe1561MasqueofWiseandFoolishVirgins(Chambers,TheElizabethanStage,1:159);Jonson'smasquesalsocallforoccasionalpropertylamps,buttheymaynotalwayshavebeenlit.
57.SeeE.Boswell,TheRestorationCourtStage,163,268.
58.Feuillerat,Elizabeth,table2.
59.FrancisBacon,TheEssaysorCovnsels,CivillandMorall:ofFrancisLo.Verdam(London,1639),224-25.
60.Nicoll,TheDevelopmentoftheTheatre,275.
61.Serly,TheFirstBookeofArchitecture,bk.2,chap.3,fol.26;DonaldMullin,"LightingontheEighteenth-CenturyLondonStage:AReconsideration,"TheatreNotebook34(1980):84.
62.Herford,Simpson,andSimpson,BenJonson,6:314.
63.Herford,Simpson,andSimpson,BenJonson,6:257-58.
64.Herford,Simpson,andSimpson,BenJonson,6:171.
65.GeorgeChapman,TheMemorableMaske(London,1613),A2.
66.BruceAllsopp,ed.,InigoJonesonPalladio(NewcastleonTyne,1970),1:1.Asearlyas1514,BaldassarePeruzzihadalsoplacedhislights"didentrocheservonoallaprospettiva"--thatis,withinorinsidetheperspectivescene;seeGiorgioVasari,LeVitede'piúeccellentipittoriscultoriearchitettori(1550;rpt.Milan,1963),4:266.
67.Herford,Simpson,andSimpson,BenJonson,6:425;Chambers,AurelianTownshend'sPoemsandMasks,83.
68.OrgelandStrong,InigoJones,1:194.
69.Nicoll,StuartMasques,73.
70.W.A.Armstrong,"BenJonsonandJacobeanStagecraft,"inJacobeanTheatre,ed.J.R.BrownandB.Harris(1960;rpt.NewYork,1967),51;Herford,Simpson,andSimpson,BenJonson,8:405.
71.Thisless-abstractmovementoflightcoincideswithJones'sgrowinginterestinlargeperspectivescenes,describedwellbyOrrell,TheHumanStage,225-52.
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72.SeeKennethRichards,"ChangeableSceneryforPlaysontheCarolineStage,"TheatreNotebook23(1968):20;JohnFreehafer,"PerspectiveSceneryandtheCarolinePlayhouses,"TheatreNotebook27(1973):102-4;andT.J.King,"HannibalandScipio(1637):How'ThePlacesSometimesChanged,'"TheatreNotebook29(1975):20-22.
73.Orrell,TheTheatresofInigoJonesandJohnWebb,11-12.
8ArtificialLightintheIndoorPlayhouses
1.FrancisBeaumontandJohnFletcher,ComediesandTragedies(London,1647),Bbbbbb3v.
2.Herford,Simpson,andSimpson,BenJonson,8:370-71.
3.AnagreementbetweenSamuelDanielandtheQueen'sRevelschildrenspecifiesthecompanywillperformonly"SixeMonethesineuerieyeare"(Hillebrand,TheChildActors,335).
4.J.Issacs,ProductionandStage-ManagementattheBlackfriarsTheatre(London,1933),4.
5.ThomasMiddleton,MichaelmasTerm(London,1607),A3.
6.Bentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,1:312.
7.Chambers,TheElizabethanStage,3:282.
8.JohnMarston,WhatYouWill(London,1607),A2-A3.
9.Bentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,4:629-30.Thetitlepageputsthepremierein1625,butthisdatewasapparentlyold-style,giventheplay'sallusionstoLentandthecoronationofCharlesI(27March1626).
10.Herford,Simpson,andSimpson,BenJonson,6:280.
11.OrgelandStrong,InigoJones,1:282.Stressingthatcandlesshouldbelitasquicklyaspossibletopreventthespectatorsfrombecomingrestless,Sabbattini(Praticadifabricar,bk.1,chap.41,p.56)alsorecommendedthatthecandlesnotbelituntiltheaudiencewasseatedandtheperformanceabouttobegin.
12.Theprovenanceoftheseplaysisunclear:theyarepre-RestorationinstylebutbeartracesofRestorationrevision.Thereisnorecordofthembeforetheirpublication,andadedicatoryepistletothepublisherintimatestheywereneverperformed.
13.FrancisLenton,TheYoungGallant'sWhirligig(London,1629),C4v.
14.GeorgeWither,Faire-Virtue(London,1622),F4v.
15.TheOverburianCharacters,ed.W.J.Paylor(Oxford,1936),60.
16.SeeHenryFitz-Geoffrey,"NotesfromBlackfriars"(1617),inwhichastagesitterseesarival"drop/outoftheTrying-house"(Bentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,6:44);andFrancisBeaumont'sTheKnightoftheBurningPestle(London,1613),B1v,actedatBlackfriarsaround1607,wherethecitizen'swifemustclimbupontothestagebecausetherearenostairsleadingupfromthepit.
17.W.A.Armstrong,TheElizabethanPrivateTheatres(London,1958),13.
18.OED,s.v."sconce"(sb.3):"Asmallfortorearthwork;esp.onebuilttodefendafort,pass,castle-gate,etc.,orerectedasacounterfort."
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19.EmmettL.Avery,TheLondonStage,1700-1729:ACriticalIntroduction(Carbondale,1968),xlviii.
20.SeeJ.J.Elson,ed.,TheWits,orSportuponSport(Ithaca,1932),426.
21.Astington,''TheWitsIllustration,1662,"122-40.
22.I.C.,TheTwoMerryMilkmaids,O1-O1v.
23.G[offe],TheCarelessShepherdess,citedinG.E.Bentley,TheSeventeenth-CenturyStage(Chicago,1968),33.
24.Sabbattini,Praticadifabricar,bk.1,chap.41,p.57,trans.inNagler,ASourceBookinTheatricalHistory,90.
25.Mullin,"LightingontheEighteenth-CenturyLondonStage,"74.
26.Forexample,Dublintheatersoftheeighteenthcenturywerelit"withtallowcandles,stuckintotincircleshangingfromthemiddleofthestage,whichwereeverynowandthensnuffedbysomeperformer"(CharlesB.Hogan,TheLondonStage,1776-1800:ACriticalIntroduction[Carbondale,1968],lxv).
27.Bentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,6:105-6.Cunninghamdidnotsaywherehefoundthemanuscript,anditswhereaboutsareunknowntoday.
28."Tomyfriend,MasterJohnFletcher,uponhis'FaithfulShepherdess'"(c.1609),TheWorksofFrancisBeaumontandJohnFletcher,ed.A.H.Bullen(London,1908),3:12.
29.TheDiaryofSamuelPepys,8:55.
30.Recentreconstructionsestimateitsoutsidedimensionsas50by112feet;seeDonaldC.Mullin,"TheTheatreRoyal,BridgesStreet:AConjecturalRestoration,"EducationalTheatreJournal19(1967):25-
28;andRichardLeacroft,TheDevelopmentoftheEnglishPlayhouse(Ithaca,1973),83.
31.Bentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,6:88,92.
32.Bentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,6:97,100,104,112.
33.Murray,EnglishDramaticCompanies,1:269;Gurr,TheShakespearianPlayingCompanies,433-34.
34.MSC1,pts.4and5(1911):365.
35.Hillebrand,TheChildActors,224,althoughthechroniclerofOttoofHesse-Cassel'striptoLondonin1611saysthattheboysatWhitefriarsplayed"nurbeilichtern";Chambers,TheElizabethanStage,2:369.
36.PertinentOfficeofWorksaccountsfortheCockpit-in-CourtarefromMSC10:40-44;RevelsOfficeaccountsarefromMSC13:110,126,and133.
37.RestorationOfficeofWorkscitationsarefromE.Boswell,TheRestorationCourtStage,15-16,240-41.
38.Bergman,LightingintheTheatre,26.
39.Wither,Faire-Virtue,F4v.
40.JohnHeywood,AdialogueconteinyngthenomberineffectofalltheprouerbesIntheenglishetongue(London,1546),B2.
41.AndrewGurr,Shakespeare'sHats(Rome,1993).Hatsalsoservedthepracticalfunctionofinterceptingtallowandwaxdrippingfromoverhead,bothonstageandineverydayrooms.
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42.SeePalmer,TheLightingArt,21,forthecalculationoftheeffectofglareonvisibility.
43.DenisDiderot,OeuvresComplètes(Paris,1980),10:435.
44.ThomasCampbell,LifeofMrsSiddons(London,1834),2:38.
45.Chambers,WilliamShakespeare,2:319-35,listsrecordedperformancesofthecompany.
46.Gurr,"PlayinginAmphitheatres,"47-62.
47.Sabbattini,Praticadifabricar,L3-L3v.
48.TheWorksofJohnDryden,ed.J.H.SmithandD.MacMillan(Berkeley,1962),8:103.TheearlieststagedirectioncallingfortheextinctionofplayhousecandlesisinShadwell's1674adaptationofTheTempest(MontagueSummers,RestorationTheatre[London,1934],191,194,275).
49.ThomasHeywood,2IronAge(London,1632),D4v;RichardBrome,AMadCoupleWellMatched(London,1653),F6v.Theprovenanceofbothplaysissomewhatcloudy.Brome'splaymightpossiblyhavebeenwrittenforSalisburyCourtayearorsoearlier.Heywood'splaywaslaterrevivedattheCockpitinDruryLane,afterwhichitwaspublished.Thus,itsstagedirectionmightpossiblyalsoreflecttheuseofpantomimeindoorstosuggestnight.SeeAlanC.Dessen,RecoveringShakespeare'sTheatricalVocabulary(Cambridge,1995),139ff.,forathoroughdiscussionof"asif"stagedirections,includingonesindicatingimagineddarkness.
50.Herford,Simpson,andSimpson,BenJonson,5:445.Lawrence,Pre-RestorationStageStudies,229,listsahalf-dozenallusionstomistsandfogsindialogueandtwostagedirectionscallingfordampandmist,butnoneisidentifiedwithimaginarydarkness.
51.FrancisBeaumontandJohnFletcher,TheMaid'sTragedy(London,1619),C1.ThetitlepagegivesBlackfriarsasthesiteofproduction,probablyinthe1610-11winterseason.Theplaywasalsoperformedatcourt,1612-13(Chambers,TheElizabethanStage,3:224).TheonlyknownproductionofCatilinewasatcourton9November1634.
52.Herford,Simpson,andSimpson,BenJonson,5:445.
9PropertyLightsandSpecialEffects
1.W.J.Lawrence'sessays"LightandDarknessintheElizabethanTheatre,"inTheElizabethanPlayhouse,2:1-22,and"CharacteristicsofPlatformStageSpectacle,"inPre-RestorationStageStudies,251-76,recountthemajoreffectswithawealthofexamples.LeeMitchell,"Shakespeare'sLightingEffects,"SpeechMonographs15(1948):72-84,centersonthelightingeffectsandclassifiesthembychronographic,symbolic,ceremonial,andmetaphoricfunctions--categoriesthatIhaveslightlyalteredformyownpurposes.BrownellSalomon,"VisualandAuralSignsinthePerformedEnglishRenaissancePlay,''RenaissanceDrama5(1972):163-64,followsinMitchell'sfootstepswithasemiologicalviewofpropertylightsinnon-Shakespeareandrama.AlanC.Dessen,ElizabethanStageConventionsandModernInterpreters(Cambridge,1984),70-83,demonstratesthecomplexityoftransferringRenaissancelightingconventionstothemodernstage.
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2.Armstrong,TheElizabethanPrivateTheatres,12;andHenryChettle,TheTragedyofHoffman(London,1631),H.
3.FoakesandRickert,Henslowe'sDiary,207.
4.R.A.Foakes,"TragedyattheChildren'sTheatresafter1600,"TheElizabethanTheatre2(1970):52,seesanearlychildren'stheaterinfluenceintheplay.
5.Marston,WhatYouWill,H1v.
6.RobertArmin,TheHistoryoftheTwoMaidsofMore-clack(London,1609),A1v.Later,inawelcomingceremony,lordsandladiesparadeoverthestage"somanyasmaybe"(H2v).Suchindefiniteand"permissive"stagedirections(usuallywithoutlights)arecommonandassociatedwithauthorial,ratherthanplayhouse,intentions;seeW.W.Greg,TheShakespeareFirstFolio(Oxford,1955),135-38.
7.SimilarlyinJohnMarston'sAntonio'sRevenge(London,1602),afuneralprocessionincludes"twomournerswithtorches,twowithstreamers;Castilio&Forobosco,withtorches"(C3).
8.PeterArnott,GreekScenicConventionsintheFifthCenturyB.C.(London,1962),121,findsthatdarknesswasindicatedatthedaylitTheaterofDionysosinAthensbyaburninglampinIphigeneiainAulisandbychorusescarryinglightedtorchesintheRhesusandtheEkklesiazusae.HenotesthattheconventionwasreputedtobecommoninMiddleComedy.Asacorollarytothisconvention,astandardsightgaginancientcomedywassingeingfellowactors;thescholiastonLysistrata1218plausiblyconcludesthat"itisvulgartocomeonstagewithalampandburnsomebody."
9.Lawrence,TheElizabethanPlayhouse,1:6-7,2:2-3.
10.HarleyGranville-Parker,PrefacestoShakespeare(Princeton,
1946),1:472.
11.InRichardIII,inasimilarscenewithasoldierinatentdreamingofghosts,Richardnotesthat"[t]heLightsburneblew,"thatis,dim(F3642).Botheffectswouldbedifficulttoproduceattheoutdooramphitheaters.
12.Dessen,RecoveringShakespeare'sTheatricalVocabulary,166.
13.Dessen,RecoveringShakespeare'sTheatricalVocabulary,35.
14.TragedyofAlphonsus,EmperorofGermany(London,1654),B.Similarly,inMarston'sAntonio'sRevenge,Antoniofollowsthetapersdiscussedaboveinhisnightgownandnightcap.InassigningplaystoBlackfriarsandtheCockpitinDruryLane,IfollowT.J.Kingincitingplayswhosestagedirectionsprobablyreflectactualstagepracticethere;seeKing's"StagingofPlaysatthePhoenixinDruryLane,"TheatreNotebook19(1965):149-50,andhisreviewarticleofI.Smith'sShakespeare'sBlackfriarsPlayhouseinRenaissanceDrama9(1966):297-99.
15.AneyewitnessdescriptionofEnglishactorsinGermanyaround1626recountsthescenewithslightlydifferentemphasis.Realmoonshineisneverconsidered,butaredandyellowpapermoonandonemadeofrottenwoodthatglowsinthedarkare.Themechanicalsconcludethatthemost"natural"methodisalantern"hungonabutcher'sskewer,whichoneofuswillcarryandmovealongwithitalittleeveryquarterhour";seeErnestBrennecke,ShakespeareinGermany(Chicago,1964),65.
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16.FoakesandRickert,Henslowe'sDiary,319-20.
17.AllanHoladay,"Heywood'sTroiaBritannicaandtheAges,"JEGP14(1946):437.
18.[1]TroublesomeReignofJohn(1591;rpt.London,1911),G2v.
19.Chambers,TheElizabethanStage,4:23.
20.ThomasWright,AHistoryofDomesticMannersandSentimentsinEnglandDuringtheMiddleAges(London,1862),454-55.
21.Kernodle,FromArttoTheatre,142.
22.Salter,MediaevalDramainChester,17.
23.HardinCraig,"TheLondonCordwainers'Pageant,"PMLA25(1917):606.
24.Chambers,TheMediaevalStage,2:399.
25.[GeorgePeele,]TheBattleofAlcazar(London,1594),F.InTwoElizabethanStageAbridgments(London,1922),117,W.W.GregarguedthatthetextofTheBattleofAlcazarwasacutversionfortheprovinces(whichmightwellhaveincludedindoorperformances),whilethe"plot,"whichdoesnotspecificallymentiontheblazingstar,reflectspracticeattheRose.However,DavidBradley,FromTexttoPerformanceintheElizabethanTheatre(Cambridge,1992),convincinglyshowsthatdifferencesbetweentheplotandtextwerenotcausedbydifferentperformancevenuesbutratherbytheprocessofpreparingtheplayforthestage.Still,anotherRoseplay,CaptainThomasStukeley(London,1605;fac.rpt.London,1911),K,performedaround1596,usesablazingstarinaverysimilardumbshow.
26.WilliamRowley,TheBirthofMerlin(London,1662),F4-F4v.
27.Jewkes,ActDivisioninElizabethanandJacobeanPlays,309.
28.JohnBate,TheMysteriesofNatureandArt(London,1635),P4v.
29.ThomasDekkerandJohnWebster,NorthwardHo!(London,1607;fac.rpt.London,1914),F3v-F4.
30.JohnMarston,Parasitaster,orTheFawn(London,1606),B.
31.Inga-StinaEwbank,"ANoteon'TheRevenger'sTragedy,'"NotesandQueries200(1955):98-99.
32.Chambers,TheElizabethanStage,3:110.
33.SeealsoD.L.Frost,TheSchoolofShakespeare(Cambridge,1968),259-60.
34.ThomasGoffe,TheCourageousTurk(London,1632),H;andBentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,4:506.
35.Chambers,TheElizabethanStage,3:342-43;MadeleineDoran,ed.,IfYouKnowNotMe(1606;rpt.London,1934),1:xii-xv,2:xi,E2v.
36.Bentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,1:109,2:695;andJohnFletcher,Rollo,DukeofNormandy;orTheBloodyBrother,ed.J.D.Jump(London,1636;fac.rpt.London,1948),67.
37.Bentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,2:695.
38.W.W.Greg,ed.,DramaticDocumentsfromtheElizabethanPlayhouses(Oxford,1931),1:310.Gregdatesthemanuscripttoaround1600.
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39.Continentaleffectsweresometimesmoresophisticated.Fora1539play(andintermedii)inthegreatcourtyardoftheMedicipalaceatFlorence,forexample,AristotiledeSanGallocreatedasun,approximatelytwofeethigh,madeofacrystalballfilledwithwaterbehindwhichtwotorchesshone.Overthecourtyardwasstretchedanartificialskyofbluecloth,fromwhichalsohunglights.Thesunwascontrolledbyawinch(arganetto)thatdrewthesunalonganarc,sothatthesunrosetothezenithbythemiddleofthecomedyandsankinthewestbytheend.GiorgioVasariclaimedit"lookedlikeaveritablesun"(LeVitede'piúeccellentipittoriscultoriearchitettori,5:475).
40.SeeFilippoPigafetta'sfirst-handaccountinNagler,ASourceBookinTheatricalHistory,81-86.
41.Chambers,TheElizabethanStage,2:455.
42.JohnFord,TheBrokenHeart(London,1633),D2.
43.ChristopherMarlowe,TheTragicalHistoryofDoctorFaustus(London,1616),H2.
44.JohnMelton,Astrologaster(London,1620),E4.
45.Dekker,WorkeforArmorours,F4.
46.Serly,TheFirstBookeofArchitecture,bk.2,chap.3,fol.26v.
47.AWarningforFairWomen,A2v.
48.ThePoemsofRichardLovelace,ed.C.Wilkinson(Oxford,1930),67.Theplayitselfhasnotsurvived.
49.L.B.Campbell,ScenesandMachines,64-65,157,describestheclassicalmethodofpaintinglightningonperiaktoi(whichcouldbespun)oronplanks(whichcouldbedroppedfromtheheavens)andaseventeenth-centuryItalianmethodofcuttingaboardlengthwiseina
zigzagpatternandthenplacingcandlesbehindwhiletheriftbetweenthetwosectionsoftheboardwasopenedandclosed.
50.RobertWilson,TheCobler'sProphecy(1594;rpt.London,1914),G1v-G2.Theprovenanceoftheplayisunclear;Chambers,TheElizabethanStage,3:516,suggestsacourtlyvenue.
51.BeaumontandFletcher,ComediesandTragedies,Hhhh1.
52.R.C.Bald,BibliographicalStudiesintheBeaumontandFletcherFolio(London,1938),78;Chambers,TheElizabethanStage,3:228.
53.ThomasMiddleton,AGameatChess(MSc.1624;fac.printingLondon,1990),fol.43b.InJamesShirley'sSt.PatrickforIreland(London,1640)--writtenfortheDublinstage--analtarisdiscovered,lightsandincenseprepared,anda"flamebehindetheAltar"ignites(C4v).
54.RobertFludd,Utriusquecosmimaiorisscilicetetminorismetaphysica,physicaatqvetechnicahistoria,TomusPrimus,TractatusSecundus:Denaturaesimiaseutechnicamacrocosmihistoria(Oppenheim,1618),477.Mytranslation.
55.ChristopherMarlowe,2Tamburlaine(London,1590),H2.
56.Fludd,Utriusque,477-78.
57.AlbertFeuillerat,ed.,DocumentsRelatingtotheRevelsatCourtintheTimeofKingEdwardVIandQueenMary(Louvain,1914),110.
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58.Sabbattini,Praticadifabricar,bk.2,chap.11,trans.inBarnardHewitt,TheRenaissanceStage(CoralGables,1958),111.
59.Feuillerat,Elizabeth,142.
60.Durand,"PalamonandArcyte,"514.
61.ThomasSackvilleandThomasNorton,Gorboduc(London,1565),C5.
62.NotethecostumedesignsforThomasCampion'sLords'Masque,1613.TheearlofSalisburypaidtwenty-twoshillings"forcutting42flamesandcoulleringethem"forhisheadpiece;seeOrgelandStrong,InigoJones,1:242andpl.81(seealsoWilliamDavenant,TheTempleofLove,1635).
63.T.Lupton,AllforMoney(1578;rpt.London,1910),BijandEij.
64.FrancesTeague,Shakespeare'sSpeakingProperties(Lewisburg,1991),19-20,158-93.
10IlluminatingtheScene:TheDuchessofMalfiattheGlobeandBlackfriars
1.UnaEllis-Fermor,TheJacobeanDrama,4thed.,rev.(1961;rpt.NewYork,1964),275.
2.Styan,Shakespeare'sStagecraft,42-44.
3.JohnRussellBrown,ed.,TheDuchessofMalfi,byJohnWebster(London,1964),xxiii.
4.Allsubsequentcitationsarefromthe1612edition.
5.Allsubsequentcitationsarefromthe1623edition.
6.J.Brown,TheDuchessofMalfi,xxiii.
7.OntheabsurditiesresultingfromtoomuchillusionintheilluminationofShakespeareanrevivals,seeG.WilsonKnight,ShakespeareanProduction(Evanston,Ill.,1964),63-65.MartinWhite,RenaissanceDramainAction(London,1998),151,arguesthat,atBlackfriars,theaudiencewouldbeassurprisedastheDuchessisbythedeadman'shand,whileattheGlobe,theaudiencewouldexperiencethescenefromFerdinand'spointofview.
8.Thedateoftheoriginalproductioncanbefixedat1613or1614becausetheplayincorporatesmaterialnotpublisheduntillate1612andbecauseitscastlistincludesWilliamOstler,whodiedinDecember1614.InsuggestingthattheplaycouldworkaswellattheGlobeasatBlackfriars,IamawarethattheGlobefireon29June1613cutshortthefirstofthetwoGlobeseasonsinwhichtheplaycouldhavepremieredandperhapsdelayedthebeginningoftheseconduntilthenewtheaterwasfinished.SeeBentley,TheJacobeanandCarolineStage,6:182.
9.Weknowthattheplaywascut,butthemostfrequentlymentionedconstraint--earlysunsets--doesnotsupportatheorythattheplayhousewindowswerecovered.
10.Chambers,TheElizabethanStage,3:511.MarionLomax,StageImagesandTraditions(Cambridge,1987),147,inaninsightfulcomparisonofTheWhiteDevilandTheDuchessofMalfi,concludesthatthereferencetoOstlerinthecastlistimpliesaDe-
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cember1614performanceofthelatterplay.Thisispossible,perhapsevenlikely,buttheDecemberdateprovidesonlyaterminusadquemforthepremiere.
11.IdonotincludeinthislistthelightthatAntoniobelievesheseesovertheDuchess'sgraveinact5,scene3.J.Brown(TheDuchessofMalfi,xxxv)takesthishallucinationtobeaspeciallightingeffectthatwouldhavetobe"cutforperformanceattheGlobe,"althoughhecanhardlybelievethedead-man's-handscenewasalsocutthere.Itisquestionablewhetherthereisanylightatall,butifonewererequiredIimagineatorchheldbytheDuchess'sghostwouldhavedoneaswellattheGlobeasatBlackfriars.Lomax(StageImagesandTraditions,146)drawsmyattentiontoArthurC.Kirsch'sview(JacobeanDramaticPerspectives[Charlottesville,1972],111)that"inthelastactsofTheDuchess,theartificialandthenaturalbecomeinterchangeable."
12.MSC13:108.
13.Dessen,ElizabethanStageConventions,78,discussesasimilareffectinMacbeth3.3.19,whereoneofBanquo'smurderersmistakenlyputsouthislight.
14.See,forexample,M.L.Wine,ed.,DramaoftheEnglishRenaissance(NewYork,1969),498;andE.M.Brennan,ed.,TheDuchessofMalfi,byJohnWebster,NewMermaided.(London,1964),114-15,who,disregardingthemanyscenesofpretendeddarknessinpublictheaterplays,believesBosola'smistakenkillingofAntonioinact5,scene4,wasduetotheweaklight"providedbycandlesorlanternswhichthespeakersheld."Ellis-Fermor,TheJacobeanDrama,43,remarksthatBosola'slastspeechcouldnotbespokeninanoutdoortheater"withthatalmostinaudiblefaintnesswhichtheimpliedmusicalnotationdemands."ShedoesnotinsistonaBlackfriarspremiere,but,inanycase,onedoubtsJohnLowinthrew
awaytheselinestoinaudibilityattheGlobe.
15.FrankKermode,ed.,TheTempest,[New]ArdenShakespeare(Cambridge,Mass.,1958),151-52.
16.AndrewGurr,"TheTempest'sTempestatBlackfriars,"ShakespeareSurvey41(1989):91-102,pointstothebreakbetweenacts4and5(Prosperoexitsandthenimmediatelyreenters)asconfirmingBlackfriarsprovenanceforTheTempest.
17.DekkerwishedTheWhiteDevila"FaireandFortunateDay"inadedicationtohisownplay,IfThisBeNotaGoodPlay(London,1612),A3v.
18.Forareasonableaccountofit,seeJ.R.Mulryne,"TheWhiteDevilandTheDuchessofMalfi,"Stratford-upon-AvonStudies1(1960),rpt.inJacobeanTheatre,223.CliffordLeech,"'ThreeTimesHoandaBraceofWidows':SomePlaysforthePrivateTheatre,"TheElizabethanTheatre3(1973):32,pointsoutthattheDuchesstranscendstheprejudiceagainstremarriageinprivatetheaterdrama.ThesympathetictreatmentofAntonio'sriseinfortunealsoseemsoutofcharacterforaplaywrittenexpresslyforaprivatetheater"coterie."
19.WilliamShakespeare,TheRapeofLucrece(London,1594;fac.rpt.London,1890),F.
20.FrancisBeaumontandJohnFletcher,AKingandNoKing(London,1619),13v.
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21.H.T.Price,"TheFunctionofImageryinWebster,"PMLA20(1955),rpt.inElizabethanDrama,ed.R.J.Kaufmann(London,1961),225-49.
22.SeeAndrewGurr'sintroductiontotheRevelseditionofBeaumontandFletcher'sPhilaster,xxxv-xliv,forabalancedassessmentoftheinfluenceoftheBlackfriarsontheKing'smen'srepertoryandthisplay.
23.MSC13:10.
24.Orrell,TheTheatresofInigoJonesandJohnWebb,11.
25.GeoffreyTillotson,"OthelloandTheAlchemistatOxfordin1610,"TLS,20July1933,494.
26.Tillotson,"OthelloandTheAlchemistatOxford,"494.
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Index
A
acoustics,7
actbreaks,121,225
acting,1012,106,107,109,19195
Adams,J.Q.,12829,140
Admiral'smen,23,69,74,8081,8485,202,208,209,213
Alberti,LeonBattista,37
Albion'sTriumph(Townshend),16667
Alleyn,Edward,92,116
AllforMoney(Lupton),217
Alphonsus,EmperorofGermany,206
Alphonsus,KingofAragon(Greene),44,238n.8
altars,21416
amountoflight:
atamphitheaters,100103,1078,11920;
atcourt,134,163;
inhallplayhouses,120,15657,18892
Amsterdam(Netherlands),11416
AntonioandMellida(Marston),155,172
Antonio'sRevenge(Marston),206
AntonyandCleopatra(Shakespeare),109
Appia,Adolphe,4
ArdenofFeversham,15
Armstrong,W.A.,17374,180,2012
Artaud,Antonin,109
artificiallight:
inamphitheaters,11323;
inhalls(seeundercandles)
ArviragusandPhilicia(Carlell),159
ascents.Seedescents
Astington,John,151,181
AsYouLikeIt(Shakespeare),45,9394
Atheist'sTragedy,The(Tourneur),110
awnings,27,2930,37,38
B
Babington,Gervase,59
Bacon,Francis,170
Baker,Stuart,99
banquetinghouses:
artificiallightin,161,162,164,166,16874,177,179,231;
ceilingsin,3,15253;
windowsin,15960
BartholomewFair(Jonson),83
Bate,John,24,20910
BattleofAlcazar,The(Peele),209,211
beacons,2324
Beargarden(Elizabethan),27,72,212
Beargarden(Jacobean).SeeHopeplayhouse
Beaulieu(Hampshire),140
Beaumont,Francis,185
Beauty,Masqueof(Jonson),168
Beckerman,Bernard,49,245n.1
Beeston,Christopher,129,142
Bell,C.F.,16970,171
BelSavageinn,44
Bentley,G.E.,46,63,12829,142
Bereblock,John,52
Berry,Herbert,90,9697,116
Beverley(Humberside),42
Binche(Belgium),4647
BirthofMerlin,The(Rowley),20911
Blackfriarsplayhouse:
first,127,139,147,153;
second,57,27,45,49,80,81,97,125,12729,130,139,143,147,153,175,176,178,179,18587,196,200,206,210,214,22032
Blackness,Masqueof(Jonson),172
BloodyBanquet,The(T.D.),22
BloodyBrother,The.SeeRollo,DukeofNormandy
Boar'sHeadplayhouse,28,76,90,96,11617
Bonduca(Fletcher),214
Booth,Abram,88,96
branches(seealsochandeliers),17,51,16064,166,169,183,18788,192,231
Brayne,John,26
Brecht,Bertolt,109
BridgesStreettheater.SeeDruryLanetheater
brightness.Seeamountoflight
brightnessadaptation,1035,12021,18991
Bristol(Gloucestershire),57
BrokenHeart,The(Ford),212
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BronzeAge,The(T.Heywood),208
Brown,JohnRussell,220,222,225,227
Brown,Keith,11718
Brownstein,Oscar,27
Buckingham,GeorgeVilliers,1stdukeof,63
Burbage,James,26,93,97,127,139,161
Burbage,Richard,223,226
Busino,Orazio,159,162,179,224
BussyD'Ambois(Chapman),22
C
Calaistheater,45,51
CambridgeUniversity,23,5255,113,147,153
Campbell,L.B.,39
candles:
cost,1718,54,57,18384;
cotton,51,160;
atcourt,16063;
extinguishing,17,179,199;
guttering,1416;
athallplayhouses,12930,177200;
lighting,162,17879;
sises,166,169;
sizeof,18,184;
snuffing,1416,178,18283;
tallow,1418,160,167,18386,199;
wax,1415,17,160,165,166,167,16970,181,18386,188,199;
white,17,160;
wick,160;
wicksof,11,14;
yellow,18,167
candlesticks,15,17,51,54,16566
Canterbury(Kent),58
CaptainThomasStukeley,211
CarelessShepherdess,The(Goffe),129,182
Carew,Richard,31
CastleofPerseverance,The,3334,41,56
Catiline(Jonson),199200
Cavendish,George,23
ceilings(seealsoheavens),3,28,37,4546,98100,152,192
Chamberlain,John,63,80
Chamberlain'smen(seealsoKing'smen),75,97,127,161
Chambers,E.K.,63,78,83,113,140,159,208,210,214
chambersofrhetoric,11516
chandeliers(seealsobranches),17,51,54,130,161,18082
Changeling,The(MiddletonandRowley),180
Chapelchildren,127,139,161,216
CharlesI(kingofEngland),164
ChasteMaidinCheapside,A(Middleton),15
Chester(Cheshire),42,58,209
churchplays:
indoors,56;
inyards,28
classicallightingarrangements(seealsoneoclassicallightingarrangements;Vitruvius),2933,3839,111
Cobler'sProphecy,The(Wilson),214
Cockpit-in-Court,49,98,142,14752,153,156,159,174,18788,225
CockpitinDruryLane,98,125,129,142,174,199,202,2067,211,221
Coelum
*Britannicum(Carew),174
Coignet,Gillis,114
Collier,J.Payne,7879
coloredlight,2425,16871
comedy,102,110,197
ComedyofErrors,The(Shakespeare),12,197,227
comets.Seeunderproperties
concentrationoflight,24,17173
Congreve,William,180
Cook,AnnJennalie,5
Cornishrounds,3031
CorpusChristiplays,4243
Cotgrave,Randle,113
CourageousTurk,The(Goffe),21011
CourtSecret,The(Shirley),237n.11
Coventry(Warwickshire),21,42,43
cover,stage.Seeheavens
Craik,T.W.,56
cressets,2021,43,53,11322
CrossKeysinn,7576
Cunningham,Peter,183
Cupid'sRevenge(Fletcher),45
cupolas,41,9899,152
Curtainplayhouse,44,70,71,84,88
Cymbeline(Shakespeare),15,22,46,49,205
D
Danckert,Hendrik,14748,151
darkness(seealsotwilight;amountoflight):
imaginary,10912,199200,202,2047,219,222,22829;
prevalent,7273,11822,176,179,191,222,22426;
realized,112,154,171,197200
Davenant,William,20
DeCritz,John,187
DekkerThomas(seealsospecifictitles),79,84,94,130,132,15355,213,225,228
descents,41,4445,97,9899,152
Dessen,Alan,206
deWitt,Johannes,37,38,89,97,107,123
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Diderot,Denis,194
diSomi,Leone,112,171
DoctorFaustus(Marlowe),25,110,197,21213
Donne,John,155
DorsetGardentheater,18081
DoubtfulHeir,The(Shirley),7,210
Douce,Francis,21
douters,162
drippans,15,17,16364,181
DruryLanetheater:
first(BridgesStreet),156;
second,183,194
DuchessofMalfi,The(Webster),22,8384,110,112,22033
DutchCourtesan,The(Marston),154
Dutton,Richard,70
E
ElderBrother,The(Fletcher),206
ElizabethI(queenofEngland),69,126,139,216
Ellis-Fermor,Una,218
Elson,J.J.,181
EnglishmenforMyMoney(Haughton),110
EntertainmentoftheKing&QueenatTheobald's(Jonson),167,168
eveningprayer,6772,12527
EveryManinhisHumour(Jonson),112
Ewbank,Inga-Stina,210
Exeter(Devon),28
F
FairMaidoftheInn,The(Fletcher),206
FaithfulShepherdess,The(Fletcher),176,185
fencing,77
fireeffects,25,200,209,21317
firelight,56,62
fireworks,178,20913
flambeaux,20,167
Flanders,11415
Flecknoe,Richard,71,76
Flowers,Masqueof,168
Fludd,Robert,21416
Foakes,R.A.,andR.T.Rickert,7374
footcandle,defined,18
footlights,12,181,194
Forman,Simon,219
Fortuneplayhouse:
first,39,92,97,99,100,122,202,212,213;
second,66,92,129
FriarBaconandFriarBungay(Greene),13,197
Fuller,Thomas,141
G
Gädertz,Karl,4
Galloway,David,75
GameatChess,A(Middleton),80,214
GammerGurton'sNeedle,55
GentlemanUsher,The(Chapman),6263
Gerschow,Frederic,176
GismondofSalerne(Wilmot),242n.47
glare,94,101,11820,192,223
Globeplayhouse:
first,56,8,45,49,76,78,80,8992,97,100,122,214,219,22032;
second,2,7,49,66,80,85,90,92,9899,18687,196,210,211;
"new,"9,13,94,1028,120,157,204
Gloucester(Gloucestershire),57
GoldenAgeRestored,The(Jonson),173
Gorboduc(NortonandSackville),216
Granville-Barker,Harley,205
Graves,T.S.,80
Greenblatt,Stephen,2
Greene,Robert(seealsospecifictitles),13,44
Greenwich(Kent),44,4546,51,161,162,163
Greg,W.W.,73
Grotowski,Jerzy,109
Gurr,Andrew,45,45,69,80,83,119,191,196
H
HaddingtonMasque(Jonson),172
Hall,Edward,46
Hamlet(Shakespeare),16,97,109,204,223,227
HamptonCourt,13234,136,142,159,161,163,165,186,192,194,219
hangings,stage,102,175
Harbage,Alfred,56
Harrington,SirJohn,117
Harrison,William,37
Hart,Alfred,82
heavens,3,28,38,4042,44,4650,96100,152
hell,213
HenriettaMaria(queenofEngland),128
1HenryIV(Shakespeare),15,110
HenryV(Shakespeare),111
2HenryVI(Shakespeare),206
3HenryVI(Shakespeare),211
Henslowe,Philip,23,44,7374,78,8081,83,93,96,99,116,202
Herbert,Henry,128,159,167
Heywood,John,190
Page272
Heywood,Thomas(seealsospecifictitles),38,81,98
HistoriaHistrionica,66,125,211
Histriomastix,78
Hodges,C.Walter,84,92,95,9899
Hoffmann(Chettle),2012
Hollar,Wenceslaus,9092,99
Hopeplayhouse,27,78,80,83,92,98,224
Hosley,Richard,7,28,86,88,91,92,99,100,101,134,143,232
Hunsdon,HenryCarey,1stlord,75,77
huts,8892
Hythe(Kent),81
I
IfYouKnowNotMe,YouKnowNobody(T.Heywood),211
inns:
indoorvenues,59;
innyards,28
InternationalShakespeareGlobeCentre(seealsoGlobeplayhouse:''new"),9,142
2IronAge(T.Heywood),199,208
IsleofGulls,The(Day),127
J
Jeronimo,74
JohanJohan(J.Heywood),244n.85
Johnston,Alexandra,27,28
Jones,Inigo,1,8,24,39,118,142,14750,153,167,16874,217,231
Jonesplayhouse,14247,156,186,189
Jonson,Ben(seealsospecifictitles),12,8,20,3738,112,153,167,16874,176,200
JuliusCaesar(Shakespeare),13,78,108,205
K
Kermode,Frank,227
Kernodle,George,40,208
Killigrew,Thomas,18586
King,T.J.,56
KingandNoKing,A(BeaumontandFletcher),22930
KingJohn(Shakespeare),208
KingLear(Shakespeare),3,78,19,109,197
KingOedipus(Sophocles),212
King'sEntertainmentinPassingtohisCoronation(Jonson),113
King'smen(seealsoChamberlain'smen),5,6,98,117,127,128,132,155,159,182,186,196,200,213,214,227,232
King'sRevelschildren,129
Klein,David,8283
KnacktoKnowaKnave,A,7374
KnightofMalta,The(BeaumontandFletcher),206
Kohler,RichardC.,29
Kyd,Thomas,7
L
LadyElizabeth'smen,78,83,224
LadyofPleasure,The(Shirley),207
lamps(seealsounderproperties),1113,53,16870,180,181
Langley,Francis,93
lanterns(seealsocupolas),13,22,53
Lavin,J.A.,6
Lavoisier,Antoine-Laurent,16
Lawrence,W.J.,116,122,154,201,205
Lawrenson,T.E.,39
Leech,Clifford,6
Leicester'smen,69,161
lengthofperformance,8284
Lenton,Francis,179
lightningeffects,13,25,46,213,216
Lincoln(Lincolnshire),42
Lincoln'smen,161
links,1820,53,57,170
Lords,Masqueof(Campion),173
lords'rooms,94,106
Lovelace,Richard,213
Lovers'Progress(FletcherandMassinger),205
Love'sPilgrimage(Fletcher),206
LyonTerence,3537
M
Macbeth(Shakespeare),22,112,194,203,219,227,232,266n.13
MadCoupleWellMatched,A(Brome),199
MadWorld,MyMasters,A(Middleton),6264
Mago,John,11617
MaidintheMill,The(FletcherandRowley),206
Maid'sRevenge,The(Shirley),207
Maid'sTragedy,The(BeaumontandFletcher),200,204,205
Malcontent,The(Marston),6,16,20,6263,180
Malone,Edmond,6566,7879
MartyrdomofSaintApollonia,The(Fouquet),33,35,41
Page273
masques,60,10910,161,166,16874
MeasureforMeasure(Shakespeare),229
medievallightingarrangements,4043
Melton,John,213
MemorableMasque,The(Chapman),172
MerchantofVenice,The(Shakespeare),190
MerchantTaylors'children,161
MerryDevilofEdmonton,The,154
MichaelmasTerm(Middleton),177
MiddleTemple,134,143,14546,156,186
Middleton,Thomas(seealsospecifictitles),62,177,210
MidsummerNight'sDream,A(Shakespeare),110,112,154,15556,159,207,219,23233
Mildmay,Humphrey,128,129,211
Mitchell,Lee,201
Mitertavern,6263
moons.Seeunderproperties
movinglights,17374
MuchAdoaboutNothing(Shakespeare),206
N
Nagler,A.M.,97
Nash,Thomas,49,60
Nature(Medwall),244n.85
Nelson,Alan,23
neoclassicallightingarrangements(seealsoclassicallightingarrangements),33,3540
NewingtonButtsplayhouse,74,196
NewsfromtheNewWorld(Jonson),1
Nicoll,Allardyce,39,169,171
nocturnal,130,15455
Norden,John,8991
NorthwardHo!(DekkerandWebster),210
Norwich(Norfolk),42,56,58
N-Townplay,21
O
Oberon(Jonson),168
Ordish,T.F.,30
orientation:
ofamphitheaters,29,31,8695;
ofhallplayhouses,132,134
Orrell,John,27,29,37,45,9091,94,142,150,152,170,174
Othello(Shakespeare),4,8,109,112,2056,219,23032
Overbury,Thomas,18081
OxfordUniversity,5255,153,167,170,211,216,23132
P
Palladio,Andrea,173
Palme,Per,153
Parasitaster,orTheFawn(Marston),210
ParisGarden.SeeBeargarden(Elizabethan)
Pembroke'smen,58
Pepys,Samuel,63,156,185
Percy,William,68,126
Pericles(Shakespeare),45
Philaster(BeaumontandFletcher),230
Phoenixplayhouse.SeeCockpitinDruryLane
plates,16365,188
Platter,Thomas,7879,92,108
PleasureReconciledtoVirtue(Jonson),63,159,162
Poetaster(Jonson),76
Porter'sHallplayhouse,80,253n.16
Price,H.T.,229
PrideofLife,The,56
PrinceCharles's(I)men,155
PrinceCharles's(II)men,58
properties,stage,25,20117,22526,228;
candles,204,231;
indicatorsofcharacter,19;
indicatorsofmood,206;
indicatorsofplace,2056;
indicatorsoftime,2047,226;
lamps,13,113;
lanterns,22,207,208;
moons,38,49,207,208;
starsandcomets,20812,215;
suns38,49,208,21112;
tapers,13,2223,194,2056,214;
torches,20,24,202,206,223,226,228
Q
QueenAnne'smen,155,208,209
QueenHenriettaMaria'smen,186
QueenofCorinth,The(Fletcher),17576,205
Queens,Masqueof(Jonson),24,168,172
Queen'smen,44,7273
Queen'sRevelschildren,129,155,176
R
RapeofLucrece,The(Shakespeare),229
RedBullplayhouse,38,49,66,69,76,84,92,9798,129,199,209,210,220,227
rederijkkamers.Seechambersofrhetoric
RedLioninn(Norwich),58,76
RedLionplayhouse,26,50,88,96
refectories,14041
reflectionoflight,100,192
RevelsOffice,17,20,24,44,51,158,16066,180,216,231
Page274
Revenger'sTragedy,The(Middleton?),21011
Reynolds,G.F.,218
Riccoboni,MarieJeanne,194
Richard,DukeofYork,TheTrueTragedyof(3HenryVI)(Shakespeare),211
RichardIII(Shakespeare),262n.11
Richmond(Surrey),161
RivalQueens,The(Dryden),199
Rollo,DukeofNormandy(Fletcher),159,211
RomeoandJuliet(Shakespeare),23,62,82,190,226
Rosenberg,Marvin,81
Rosenfeld,Sybil,57
Roseplayhouse,2,9,38,44,49,7375,80,84,8990,9496,100,110,210,212
Rosseter'sBlackfriarsplayhouse.SeePorter'sHallplayhouse
Rowan,D.F.,142
rushes,18,116
S
Sabbattini,Nicola,1112,170,18283,19798,216
SadShepherd,The(Jonson),199200
safety,20,119,122,182,216
SalisburyCourtplayhouse,117,120,125,12930,18387
Salter,F.M.,42
Scholars,The(Lovelace),213
sconces.Seewallbrackets
seasons,72,8688,101,11617,130,156,158,183,186,22021
Serlio,Sabastiano,24,37,16871,213
Shakespeare,William(seealsospecifictitles),5,13,25,97,109,111,206,207,217,219,226
Shirley,James(seealsospecifictitles),7
shutteredwindows,3,55,15356,224
Siddons,Sarah,194
Sidney,SirPhilip,112
SilverAge,The(T.Heywood),46
Sisson,C.J.,116
Smith,Irwin,139
smoke,1516,19,46,21214
snuffers,162
Somerset,161
Southern,Richard,28,33,56,99
Spanishtheater,25,83,94
SpanishTragedy,The(Kyd),19
StapleofNews,The(Jonson),178
stars.Seeunderproperties
Stow,John,1213
St.PatrickforIreland(Shirley),264n.53
St.Paul'splayhouse,50,62,68,12627,130,139,153,177,178,202,206,210
Strange'smen,7475
Streete,Peter,97
streetpageants,4042
Styan,J.L.,10911,219
suns.Seeunderproperties
sunset(seealsotwilight),6973,108,120,177,218,224
Sussex'smen,161
Sutterton(Lincolnshire),59
Swanplayhouse(seealsodeWitt,Johannes;vanBuchel,Aernout),4,38,46,48,8688,89,97,101,107,123,134,138,146
T
Tamburlaine(Marlowe),25
tapers(seealsounderproperties),2223,175
Tarleton,Richard,158
Taylor,Joseph,128
TeatroOlimpico,171,173,212
TempeRestored(Townshend),171,173,174
Tempest,The(Shakespeare),163,227
TempleofLove,The(Davenant),174
TérencedesDucs,Le,3233
Tethys'Festival(Daniel),173,177
Theaterplayhouse,26,44,50,70,71,75,88,96
Theobalds,EntertainmentoftheKing&Queenat(Jonson),167,168
Thompson,Benjamin,16
Thorney-Abbey,179
ThreeSistersofMantua,The,44
timeofperformance(seealsolengthofperformance):
atamphitheaters,6684,120,224;
atcourt,15860;
athallplayhouses,12529,132,194;
atinns,5960;
intheprovinces,58
Timon,211
tiremen,178,18283,199,225
'TisPityShe'saWhore(Ford),229
TitusAndonicus(Shakespeare),223
torches(seealsounderproperties),13,1821,43,52,57,60,116,117,166,167,169,170,182,204
tournaments,94
Page275
Tourneur,Cyril,210
townhalls,57
tragedy,102,110,130,132,15455,17576,197
Trechsel,Johannes,3537
TriumphofPeace,The(Shirley),16667
TroublesomeReignofJohn,The,208
Tudorhalls,4344,5657,13242
TwelfthNight(Shakespeare),134,227
twilight(seealsosunset),7283,108,123,19192
TwoMaidsofMore-Clack,The(Armin),202
TwoMerryMilkmaids,The(I.C.),182,237n.11
TwoNobleKinsmen,The(FletcherandShakespeare),214
U
Unton,Henry,6062,177
V
vanBuchel,Aernout,48,123
Verulamium(Hertfordshire),30
Visscher,J.C.,89,115
Vitruvius,26,31,35,37,39,93,141
W
Wakefield(WestYorkshire),43
wallbrackets,17,164,169,180,183,188
WarningforFairWomen,A,102,213
Warwick'smen,44,161
weather,27,8485,94,1012,104,121
Weather,ThePlayofthe(J.Heywood),57
Webb,Geoffrey,140
Webb,John,142,150,153
Webster,John(seealsospecifictitles),6,76,22032
Wedding,The(Shirley),207
Westcott,Sebastian,126
WestwardHo!(DekkerandWebster),18
WhatYouWill(Marston),178,202
WhiteDevil,The(Webster),19,23,76,22021,22728
Whitefriarsplayhouse,129,130,140,153,18687,213
Whitehall,3,78,128,159,16064,16874,177,179,186,187
Wickham,Glynne,27,30,42,53,75,76,96,140
Widow'sTears,The(Chapman),45
windows(seealsoshutteredwindows):
inamphitheaters,99;
inbanquetinghouses,60,160,207;
inhallplayhouses,13057,160
Windsor(Berkshire),161
Winter'sTale,The(Shakespeare),163
Wither,George,180,190
Wits,orSportuponSport,The,13031,181,184
WittyFairOne,The(Shirley),207
WomenBewareWomen(Middleton),204
Wotton,SirHenry,141
Wright,Thomas,208
Wymondham(Norfolk),21
Y
Yarmouth(Norfolk),209
Yates,FrancisA.,29,37
York(NorthYorkshire),41,42,43,57,58
Young,Alan,93
YourFiveGallants(Middleton),63