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Lifetime Effect of Drinking Coors Light on the Environment

By: Sean Garrity

For:Grade 11 University Chemistry

SCH3U1

Sir Winston Churchill

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17 June 2013Table of Contents

Page #

3-9 Lifetime Effect of Drinking Coors Light on the Environment

10-12 Bibliography APA Format

13-16 Appendix A: Calculations

17-47 Appendix B: Research Pages

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Background InformationEffects on the environment are categorized in to three varieties; probably the most

famous of the three is the carbon footprint. A carbon footprint is defined as the sum of all greenhouse gases emitted directly or indirectly; an example is burning diesel fuel to transport products. The next footprint I calculated was the water footprint, which is the amount of water used directly or indirectly by an individual, company, or organization; an example is using water to clean a car. The remaining footprint is the ecological footprint; an ecological footprint is the impact on the environment to support human activities, such as mining. To summarize, everyone in the world makes an impact on the environment no matter if it’s big or small, bad or good and it is important that we understand our choices and their impacts on the environment so we can make conscious choices to reduce our impacts on the environment.

Carbon foot print InformationCalculating a carbon footprint can be time consuming and complex for many

reasons. In the highly automated and industrialized production of Coors Light, almost every step produces some form of carbon footprint. The common misconception with a carbon footprint is that it only pertains to the emissions of CO2, when in fact it encompasses emissions of any type of greenhouse gas (GHG) such as: water vapour, methane, nitrous oxide, and carbon dioxide [Mr. Pilot]. You might find yourself asking how these gases acquired the name “greenhouse gas”; well it was not just an arbitrary choice, it just so happens that these gases are labelled greenhouse gases because they allow the earth’s atmosphere to act like a greenhouse. These gases are very important because they trap heat in and regulate the temperatures and climates of the world. Greenhouse gases are vital to life on earth and without them earth would be a barren wasteland. But if there is too much green house gas, then the atmosphere will trap too much heat and it will become too hot to support life on earth. On top of contributing to global warming an excess of GHG adds to smog levels [greenliving.nationalgeographic], an increase in smog levels can lead to many different health complications especially for seniors and infants. Smog can weaken your immune system causing you to get sick more often, decrease your lungs working capacity, or smog can worsen your asthma [Clarington]. All of these health complications can lead to overcrowded hospitals which causes a larger carbon footprint because more people are driving to the hospital and the hospital is using more resources to treat the ill, so emitting GHG also indirectly causes more greenhouse gas to be emitted.

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Carbon Footprint To quantify the entire carbon footprint of drinking Coors Light over a lifetime, I broke the process down into two parts: the production of the beer can and the production of the actual beer. The first piece of information I found was the amount of beer consumed over a lifetime, it turns out that the average American consumes 13,248 cans of beer [greencontributor.com]. To figure out the amount of aluminum used to make these cans I found that the average empty beer can weighs 14.7 grams [the aluminum can group] and multiplied this by the amount of cans to find that the amount of aluminum needed is 194.7kgs[1]. This is helpful but it can not be used to calculate any footprints just yet; pure aluminum does not exist in nature it must be mined from bauxite ore and highly refined before it is of any use. For every tonne of aluminum 4.4tonnes of bauxite are needed [Mr. Pilot] so in total 856.9kgs[2] of bauxite are needed. Mining the bauxite does not cause a significant carbon footprint because it would only take a matter of seconds for a machine to extract 856.9kgs of ore, but after the ore is out of the ground it must be crushed. I found out that it takes about 153 MJ to crush a tonne of bauxite [world-aluminum] this energy is produced by diesel fuel; diesel fuel produces 45.5MJ/kg [world-aluminum]. To calculate the carbon footprint of crushing the bauxite we must first solve for the amount of fuel consumed, it turns out 2.9kgs[4] of diesel must be burnt. Now that the mass of the fuel is known we can use stoichiometry to determine the mass of CO2

produced. Stoichiometry is the relationships between mater taking place in a reaction. The first step in using stoichiometry is to determine what type of reaction is occurring; crushing bauxite takes power which in this case is produced by burning or combusting diesel fuel to power a machine. In every combustion reaction carbon dioxide (CO2) and water vapor (H2O) are created [Mr. Pilot] so the equation will look as it does in (figure 1.0). The next step in solving for the mass of CO2 is to balance the equation. It is very important to balance the equation properly so that molar ratios can be utilized; without a balanced equation the mass of CO2 can not be found. The balanced equation will look like (figure 1.1). After the equation is balanced the next step is to fill in the information that is known this equation will look like (figure 1.2). After the known information is input the next step is to solve for moles, to find moles the equation mol (n) = mass/molar mass is used. Once the moles of a reactant are found in a balanced equation you can use the molar ratio to determine the moles of a product in our case CO2. The molar ratio is determined by the numbers that are used to balance the equation, if the ratio of x:y is 1:2 then to the moles of y can be determined by multiplying the moles of x by 2. Once the moles of the product are found the equation mass= molar mass*moles is used to find the mass of CO2. These equations and principles are the cornerstones of stoichiometry and are used all through out this essay. All in all just the process of crushing the Bauxite creates 9.1kgs of CO2 (figure 1.3).

After the bauxite is crushed it must be refined in to alumina, although there are many bauxite refineries in the world the most practical refinery for the bauxite involved in making beer cans for Coors Light is the refinery in Gramercy Louisiana. As you can imagine there is a very large carbon footprint associated with transporting the bauxite to Gramercy Louisiana from the mine in Kirkvine Jamaica. The bauxite must first travel

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110kms by truck from the mine to the port in Montego Bay; next it travels about 2000kms from Montego Bay to the port in New Orleans [Google Maps] where it travels 75kms by truck to Gramercy Louisiana. In total the ore has to travel 185kms by transport truck which results in burning 73Litres of diesel fuel [5] [Diesel-Fuel]. The ore also has to travel 2000kms by cargo ship; the average 8000 container cargo ship consumes bunker fuel at a rate of 225tons/day at a normal speed of 44.5km/h [people.hofstra.edu]. So during the 2000km ocean voyage the ship travels for 45 hours(roughly 1.87 days)[6] and consumes 382,688.0kgs of diesel[7]. This seems like an insanely high number but as previously stated the container ship carries 8000 containers, hence if you divide the amount of fuel by 8000 you get the amount of fuel to ship one container which turns out to be 47.8kgs[8] and since we are only shipping 856.9kgs we can fit all of our ore into one container. In total 342.7kgs of CO2 is created (figure 2).

After the bauxite is crushed it has to be refined into alumina, this is referred to as the bayer process. During the bayer process the bauxite is exposed to high temperature and high pressure, the temperature is usually around 200 degrees C and the pressure is determined by the temperature at 240 degrees C the pressure is about 35 atm [world aluminum.org]. Next I determined that 1713.8kgs of alumina[9] are needed since the ratio of alumina to aluminum is 2:1 [Mr. Pilot]. I then found the average specific energy consumption to produce alumina which is around 14.5 GJ per1000kg of alumina [bauxite.world-aluminium.org]. So in total 24.9GJs[10] where needed to make the amount of alumina; this is enough power to power 6,944,444 60 watt light bulbs for 1 minute; luckily I picked the alumina smelter in Gramercy Louisiana which is powered by the Waterford 3 nuclear power plant 16 miles away [city-data.com/city/Gramercy-Louisiana]. Since nuclear power is so efficient the uranium needed to create this amount of power is a few grams since a single 1kg rod of uranium lasts over a year and produces 1TJ or 1000GJs[cna.ca/nuclear_facts]. To conclude there is no carbon footprint associated with the bayer process.

The bauxite refinery in Gramercy Louisiana only refines bauxite to alumina and does not convert the alumina to aluminum since it does not have an aluminum smelter, so the alumina must be transported to the New Madrid Missouri 822km away. Using diesel fuel in a transport truck 324.7L[11] would be needed. With a density of 0.832kg/L [Diesel-Fuel] we found that 270.2kg[12] of diesel fuel would be used, furthermore I used stoichiometry to determine that 852.6kgs of CO2 is created (figure 3).

At the aluminum smelter in New Madrid Missouri the alumina is combined with electricity in a container called a cryolite. The electricity is passed through the carbon lining of the cryolite this process splits the alumina into molten aluminum and CO2. As you can imagine this process uses a lot of electricity and is therefore expensive and harmful to the environment [aluminum.org]. The New Madrid smelter is fuelled by bituminous coal which is one of the dirtiest forms of creating power but it is very cheap. As previously alluded to it takes a tremendous amount of power to smelt the aluminum in fact it takes roughly 20,000KWH to make 1000kgs of aluminum. This is 72GJ, almost 3 times the amount of power used in the bayer process [Kenedy, n.d]. Since 194.7kgs[1] of aluminum is needed, 3894KWHs[13] of electricity are needed, this amount of power could

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power the average American house for 4 months [eia.gov]. Consequently 3894kgs of coal are needed because it turns out that 1kg of bituminous coal yields 1KWH [Kenedy, n.d]. Although 3894kgs[13] of coal are needed, only 2725.8kgs[14] of the coal is carbon since bituminous coal is only 70% carbon [Mr. Pilot]. when 2725.8kgs[14] of carbon are combusted 9986.3kgs of CO2 are created (figure 4).

The aluminum must now be transported to a processing plant so it can be made into actual cans. The processing plant is in Chicago, Illinois which is 666kms from New Madrid. Using diesel fuel again in a transport truck, and using the density of diesel fuel as 0.832kg/L [Diesel-Fuel], I found that 218.8kgs[16] of diesel fuel was needed creating 690.6kgs of CO2 (figure 5).

During the can processing step the aluminum, no chemical reactions take place so the only factor to account for is the power it takes to run the plant. The average aluminum can manufacturer produces an average of 100 billion cans per year [madehow.com], which is 273.9 million cans per day, 11.4 million cans per hour, and 190.2 thousand cans per minute(figure 6). Since over a life time the average amount of beer cans is only 13,248, it would only take seconds to create. This would not create a significant carbon footprint since advances in modern technology have lead to such efficient can processing factories.

At this point in time the beer cans must now be transported to a brewery; I picked the Coors Light Brewery in Golden Colorado because Coors Light is the most consumed beer in Ontario [Beer Store]. The cans must travel 1627.0kms from the can processing plant in Chicago to the brewery in Golden Colorado [Google Maps]; this journey burns 534.2kgs[18] of diesel fuel [Diesel-Fuel] and creates 1685.8kgs of CO2 (figure 7).

Once the cans are at the plant they must be filled and sealed so they can be prepared for the last step, shipping the beer to its final destination. Although Coors Light guards their recipe, beer consists of four main ingredients: water, yeast, hops, and barley. To make a lifetime supply of beer 4703.04 litres of water are needed, 1.3kgs of yeast are needed, 10.5kgs of hops are needed, and 541.0kgs of barley are needed. Using this much water would not make a significant carbon footprint because an average water treatment plant treats a huge amount of water. Using 1.3kgs of yeast would not produce a significant carbon footprint either since the yeast is such a miniscule amount. Unlike some other beers no hops are used in the production of Coors Light, instead they use “tetrahop” is an aqueous alkaline solution that simulates hop flavour. Tetrahop has no aroma which is a distinct characteristic of beer, but tetrahop is more resilient to spoil from sunlight and significantly cheaper then using real hops [beeriety]. Although I don’t have access to the Coors Light recipe, to make a lifetime supply of beer roughly 1.5 litres of tetrahop is needed, this would not produce any significant effect carbon footprint [hop union]. Although none of the other ingredients would cause a significant carbon footprint the production of the barley would. On average one acre yields 34kgs of barley [byo.com], so 16acres[22] are needed to produce enough barley for a lifetime supply of beer. This barley is grown by Coors Light and they do not specify how much fertilizer they use [barley.idaho.gov], but the average amount of nitrogen fertilizer used is

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27.2kgs/acre so in total 435.5kgs[24] are needed. To produce 1kg of nitrogen fertilizer it takes 0.6kgs of natural gas [yara.com]; in total it takes 261.3kgs[25] of natural gas and produces 716.8kgs of CO2 (figure 9). Since Colorado is one of the United States leaders in barley production this barley comes from local farms near by the Coors Light malt house and would not produce a significant transportation emission [redorbit.com].

The last step in making beer is shipping the finished product to its final destination. The beer must travel 2031kms from Golden Colorado to Thunder Bay [Google maps]. A transport truck would consume 666.8kgs[20] of diesel fuel from travelling this far emitting 2104.4kgs of CO2 (figure 8).

Water Footprint InformationCalculating a detailed water footprint of an industrialized process such as the

production of Coors Light can be incredibly difficult. Water footprints are frequently created directly and indirectly in factories such as the Coors Light brewery in a variety of ways, a water footprint can be created from something as simple as cleaning machinery to cooling equipment. It is important to realize that water footprints can be created so easily and that our human actions can easily have adverse effects on the environment. Although the water to produce Coors Light is taken from the Rocky Mountains, which is a very plentiful resource it is vital to the wildlife and ecosystem and it is very important the water is not polluted. At Golden Colorado the Rocky Mountains flow into Cedar Creek which flows through the center of the city and is an integral part of life in Golden Colorado. Apart from boating and canoeing, Cedar Creek provides great fishing and is stocked with rainbow trout [hookandbullet.com], Rainbow Trout are very susceptible to pollution and so the fact that they are able to live in the Cedar Creek shows that there is minimal pollution.

Water FootprintThe most obvious water footprint associated with the lifetime consumption of

beer is the use of water as an ingredient in beer. It turns out that the water used in beer has a huge effect on its taste [realbeer.com] for example Coors Light only uses water from the Rocky Mountains, where Guinness uses water from Ireland and the two beers taste completely different. Although the beers are completely different for many other reasons like the hops and yeast, the difference in water does play a significant role in effecting the taste. To find the amount of water needed to produce the lifetime supply of beer I first needed to determine how much water is in a can of beer, it turns out that in a 355ml can of beer there are 355mls of water [realbeer.com]. So in total 4703.0L[21] of water are removed from the Rocky Mountains.

Coors Light like most beer contains barley; the main use of barley is in the production of beer although it is also used in health foods. Barley is similar to wheat and can be grown in almost any type of climate; barley is grown all over the world in countries such as: Russia, Canada, Turkey, Spain, and Germany. Although barley can be grown almost anywhere it takes a lot of water to produce barley, it takes roughly 1300 litres to produce 1kg of barley [muntons.com], in total it takes about 703,300L[23]. This

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water would probably be taken from the Rocky Mountains since this barley is grown in very close proximity to the Coors Light brewery.

Ecological Footprint InformationCalculating the ecological footprint of a highly automatic process like the

production of Coors Light is incredibly complex. An ecological footprint is the impact on the environment to support human activities; in the production of aluminum cans many ecological footprints are caused directly or indirectly. Most of the ecological footprints happen far away from Thunder Bay the bulk of them happen at the mine where the ore is extracted. Ecological footprints can be linked to many human activities if you dig a hole or cut down a single tree you have created an ecological footprint, during the mass production of any product ecological footprints are created left and right.

Ecological footprintTo determine the associated ecological footprint with producing these cans I

multiplied 194.7kgs by 4.4 to find the amount of bauxite needed [Mr. Pilot]. I determined that 856.9kgs are needed, next I found the average world wide density of bauxite mined from International Aluminum Institute mines which is 5600kg/m3.[world-aluminum] So 0.15m3 of bauxite are needed. The cubed root of 0.15 is 0.53 so the hole will need to be 0.53 meters wide by 0.53 meters long and the depth will be how much overburden there is above the bauxite. I then found out the average overburden from bauxite mines was 6m[world-aluminum] so the dimensions of the hole needed to be dug to reach the bauxite would be 6.00m (depth) 0.53m (width) 0.53m (length) the volume of this hole is 1.72 m3. Then I determined that the earth at the mine was limestone, the density of limestone is 2300kg/ m3 and multiplied 1.72 by 2300 which gave us 3947.9kgs which is just all of the limestone needed to be removed to get to the bauxite [Jamaica Bauxite Institute]. So the total ecological footprint is removing 856.9kgs of bauxite and removing 3947.9kgs of limestone to get to the bauxite, and then removing 4804.8kgs of limestone to fill the hole in the earth at the mine. This is not the only ecological footprint associated with producing a lifetimes supply of Coors Light, the amount of fuel used to transport the materials and the amount of fuel needed to power the process of creating a lifetime supply of Coors light. In total 261.3kgs of natural gas, 3894kgs of bituminous coal, and 1801.4kgs of diesel fuel must be removed to produce the lifetime supply of Coors Light.

SummaryTo conclude effects, on the environment are categorized in to three varieties:

carbon footprint, water footprint, and ecological footprint. The total carbon foot print of drinking Coors Light over a lifetime is emitting 16,388.3kgs of CO2; this is a reasonable figure because in my research I found that to make a bottle of beer it creates a carbon footprint of 0.9kgs of CO2 [guardian.co.uk], I found that 1.2kgs of CO2 is created per can of beer. Some discrepancies in the numbers can be caused by: the difference between a can and a bottle, transportation, and the ingredients in the beer. The total water footprint of consuming Coors Light over a lifetime is removing 708,003.0L of water from the Rocky Mountains. The total ecological footprint of drinking Coors Light over a lifetime is removing: 856.9kgs bauxite, 8752.7kgs limestone, 261.3kgs of natural gas, 3894kgs of bituminous coal, and 1801.4kgs of diesel fuel. It is important to remember that all numbers are estimations and would be higher because I have not calculated every factor;

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for example the paint needed on the aluminum beer cans was not accounted for. To summarize, everyone in the world makes an impact on the environment no matter if it’s big or small, bad or good and it is important that we understand our choices and their impacts on the environment so we can make conscious choices to reduce our impacts on the environment.

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Appendix A: CalculationsProduction of Can

Mining of Bauxite

13,248*0.0147=194.7kgs [1]

194.7*4.4= 856.9kgs [2]

Crushing of Bauxite153X0.8569=131.11MJ [3] 131.11/45.5=2.881 [4]

C12H23 + O2 H2O + CO2 (Figure 1.0)

(4)C12H23 + (71)O2 (46)H2O + (48)CO2 (Figure 1.1)

(4)C12H23 + (71)O2 (46)H2O + (48)CO2 M = 2881g M= ????g Mm= 167.3g/mol MM= 44.0g/mol N = ????mol N= mol(Figure 1.2)

(4)C12H23 + (71)O2 (46)H2O + (48)CO2 M = 2881g M= 9092.5g Mm= 167.3g/mol MM= 44.0g/mol N = 17.2mol N= 206.6mol(Figure 1.3)

Transportation of Bauxite to Refinery185/ 2.53=73Litres [5]

2000/44.5=45 (the ship travels for 45 hours or roughly 1.87 days) [6]

1.87X225=421.8tons=382,688.0kgs. [7]

382,688.0/8000=47.8kgs [8]

(4)C12H23 + (71)O2 (46)H2O + (48)CO2 M = 108,572g [47.8kgs+73L(0.832)density of diesel fuel] M = 342,654.0gMm= 167.3g/mol MM= 44.0g/mol

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N = 649.0mol N= 7787.6mol(Figure 2)

Bayer Process

856.9*2= 1713.8kgs [9]

1.7138*14.5= 24.9GJ [10]

Transportation to Aluminum Smelting Plant822/ 2.53= 324Litres [11]

324*0.832= 270.2kg [12]

(4)C12H23 + (71)O2 (46)H2O + (48)CO2 M = 270,150.4g M= 852,596.6g Mm= 167.3g/mol MM= 44.0g/molN = 1614.8mol N= 19,377.19mol(Figure 3)

Smelting Process

C + O2 CO2 + ENERGYM = 272,5800g** M= 9,986,278.1g Mm= 12.01g/mol MM= 44.0g/molN = 226,960.9mol N= 226,960.9mol(Figure 4)

20,000X0.1947= 3894kgs of coal [13]

3894X0.7= 2725.8kgs of carbon [14]

Transportation to Can Processing Plant666/2.53=263.2L [15]

263.2*0.832= 218.8kgs [16]

(4)C12H23 + (71)O2 (46)H2O + (48)CO2 M = 218,816g M= 690,584.9g Mm= 167.3g/mol MM= 44.0g/molN = 1307.9mol N= 15,695.1mol(Figure 5)

Processing Into a Can

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(Figure 6)

Transportation of Cans to Brewery1627.0/2.53=643.1L [17]

643.1*0.832=534.2kgs [18]

(4)C12H23 + (71)O2 (46)H2O + (48)CO2 M = 534,164.9g M= 1,685,828.3g Mm= 167.3g/mol MM= 44.0g/molN = 3192.9mol N= 38,314.3mol(Figure 7)

Transportation to Thunder Bay2031/2.53=801.4L [19]

801.4*0.832=666.8kgs [20]

(4)C12H23 + (71)O2 (46)H2O + (48)CO2 M = 666,782.8g M= 2,104,371.3g Mm= 167.3g/mol MM= 44.0g/molN = 3985.6mol N= 47,826.6mol(Figure 8)

Production of actual Beer

Water13248*0.355= 4703.04L [21]

Barley

*CH4 + (2)O2 (2)H2O + CO2 + ENERGYM = 261,300g M= 716,783.0gMm= 16.04g/mol MM= 44.0g/molN = 16,290.5mol N= 16,290.5mol

(Figure 9)

*natural gas is 70-90% methane (CH4) [naturalgas.org]

541/34=16acres[22]

16*27.2=435.5kgs [24]

435.5*0.6=261.3kgs [25]

541*1300=703,300L [23]

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SummaryCarbon Footprint: Crushing the Bauxite 9.1kgs of CO2

Transportation mine to bauxite refinery 342.7kgs of CO2

Transportation to aluminum smelting plant 852.6kgs of CO2

Aluminum smelting 9986.3kgs of CO2

Transportation to can processing plant 690.6kgs of CO2

Transportation to brewery 1685.8kgs of CO2

Transportation to Thunder Bay 2104.4kgs of CO2

Barley production 716.8kgs of CO2

TOTAL=16,388.3kgs of CO2

TOTAL(single beer)= 16,388.3/13,248.0=1.2kgs of CO2

Water Footprint:Barley production 703,300.0L Water inside the beer 4703.0LTOTAL= 708,003.0L

Ecological Footprint:Mining of bauxite removing 3947.9kgs of limestone and 856.9kgs of bauxiteRemoving 4804.8kgs of limestone from somewhere else to replace the mined oreCrushing of bauxite 2.8kgs of diesel Transportation of bauxite to refinery 108.6kgs of dieselTransportation to aluminum smelter 270.2kgs of dieselTransportation to can processing plant 218.8kgs of dieselTransportation of cans to brewery 534.2kgs of dieselTransportation to Thunder Bay 666.8kgs of dieselMaking manure for barley 261.3kgs of natural gasSmelting process 3894kgs of bituminous coalTOTALS= Removing 856.9kgs bauxiteRemoving 8752.7kgs limestoneRemoving 261.3kgs of natural gasRemoving 3894kgs of bituminous coalRemoving 1801.4kgs of diesel fuel

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Appendix B: Research Pages(Information used in bold)

*Note: I emailed Coors Light asking questions pertaining to their environmental

impact and brewing procedures but they replied back to me that “Unfortunately,

the information you are requesting is not available. We apologize that we could not

be of greater assistance but appreciate your interest in our company.”

Beer Recipe

(18.9271 litre yield)

Water: 18.9271 litres

Yeast: 5.25 grams

Barley malt: 6 pounds malt syrup (4.8 pounds dry malt)

Hops: 42.5243 grams

So we will need to do this recipe 249times (4703.04/18.9271= 248.48180651)

Beer Recipe

Lifetime yield (4703.04 litre yield)

Water: 4703.04 litres

Yeast: 1304.6 grams

Barley malt: 676255.7 grams malt syrup (541004.5 grams dry malt)

Hops: 10566.5 grams

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The carbon footprint of a pint of beer:300g CO2e: locally brewed cask ale at the pub 500g CO2e: local bottled beer from a shop or foreign beer in a pub 900g CO2e: bottled beer from the shop, extensively transported

Beer is unlikely to dominate your carbon footprint but it can make a significant contribution. According to my calculations, a few bottles of imported lager per day might add up to as much as a tonne of CO2e per year – equivalent to around 50,000 cups of black tea.

The beer at the low end of the scale is based on figures for the Keswick Brewing Company, a microbrewery quite near where I live. Just about everything you can think of was included in the study I did for them. There were the obvious things such as ingredients, packaging, fuel, electricity and transport. I also included such elements as staff travel, the carbon cost of having to replace their equipment every so many years, and office stationery.

For the Keswick Brewing Company, I estimated that ingredients accounted for about one-third of the footprint, fuel and electricity about another one-quarter, and staff travel about one-tenth. The fermentation process itself releases CO2, accounting for about one-twentieth (15g per pint). Most of the company's beer is sold in reusable casks, so the footprint of packaging is kept right down.

Here's a full breakdown of the footprint of a Keswick pint:

Ingredients: 36%Electricity: 26%Equipment: 13%Travel and commuting: 10% Freight: 7%Fermentation: 5%Packaging: 3%

A few miles from the Keswick Brewery is another, larger brewery. Delivery from there to pubs just down the road is via a distribution centre in Wolverhampton, a couple of hundred miles away. This is the usual story for big breweries and their subsidiaries. Even the country of origin is not always obvious from the branding. Although a few hundred road miles are not usually the most significant factor for foods, beer is an exception because it's so heavy. Hence opting for local ale is usually a good idea.

For home consumption, and thinking for a moment only of carbon rather than taste, cans are slightly better than bottles, provided you recycle them. (I can feel the connoisseurs at

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Keswick cringing as I write.) Heeding this advice is especially important if the beer is travelling a long way because the glass also adds to the weight.

Wherever and whatever you drink, a single pint of a quality beer is almost always better for both you and the planet than spending the same money on several tins of bargain-basement brew.

Plant populationsWhile barley can produce a large number of tillers, best yields will be achieved with an established plant stand of 800,000 to 1.2 million plants/ha (80-120 plants/square metre). While barley can tolerate quite high plant populations without significant yield reductions, if plant populations fall below 80 plants per square metre, yield can be reduced. Lower plant populations can also encourage excess or late tillering resulting in a less even crop and delayed harvest. Late tillers often have smaller seed which also affects the quality of the crop.

Planting ratePlanting rate is the kilograms of seed needed to plant in order to establish the target plant population. To determine planting rate you need to know the target plant population, the number of seeds per kg, the germination percentage of the seed and the likely field establishment.

The number of seed per kg will vary depending on variety and the season in which the seed was produced. This varies from season to season and to calculate this figure, count the number of seeds in a 20 g sample and multiply by 50. Newer varieties tend to have larger seed and it is important to take note of this in determining planting rate.

Field establishmentField establishment refers to the number of viable seeds that produce established plants after planting. This can be affected by factors such as seedbed moisture, disease, soil insects, depth of planting, and the germination percentage of the seed. An establishment figure of 70% means that for every 10 seeds planted only seven will emerge to produce a viable plant.

It is important to check establishment after planting in order to evaluate the effectiveness of the planting technique and make adjustments if necessary.

A guide to likely field establishment, when good quality seed with a laboratory germination of 90% or better is planted at a depth of 5-7 cm and emerges without the assistance of post-planting rains, is set out below.

Likely field establishmentSoil type Establishment (%)No press wheels Press wheelsHeavy clay 45 60Brigalow clay 55 70

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Red earth 70 80Approximate seeding rates (kg/ha) assuming 90% germinationDesired population (plants/ha) Field establishment (%)60 70 80 90Planting rate (kg/ha)700,000 52 45 39 34900,000 67 57 46 441,000,000 74 63 56 49Use higher sowing rates for grazing crops and very early or late crops.

Planting rates can be calculated for any variety or situation by using the following formula:

Planting rate (kg/ha) = Desired population (pl/ha) ÷ (Seeds per kg x germination x establishment)

Note: germination and establishment figures are decimal e.g. 80%=0.8, 90%=0.9, etc.Example:

Desired plant population of 900,000 pl/haGermination = 95%Expected establishment = 85%No of seeds/kg = 25,000

Planting rate (kg/ha) = 900,000 (pl/ha) ÷ (25,000 x 0.95 x 0.85)

Planting rate = 44.6 kg/ha

Row spacingNo yield reductions have been recorded for row spacings up to 36 cm. Rows wider than 36 cm have caused minor yield reductions, particularly in good seasons. Wider rows are more predisposed to lodging and will reduce the level of weed smothering due to canopy ground cover.

Planting depthThe ideal depth for planting barley is 50-75 mm. Plant emergence may be reduced if seed is sown deeper than 75 mm. Plant seed into moisture at the minimum depth possible. For successful establishment, the root must continue to grow into wet soil. Press wheels can improve the contact between seed and wet soil and reduce the rate of drying of soil above the seed. Particular care should be taken with planting depth if using seed with fungicidal dressing which may shorten the coleoptile length and make establishment from depth more difficult. Check the label before use.

The erratic nature of planting rains has resulted in some growers taking opportunities to sow barley at greater depths than the recommended 50-70mm. As a very vigorous seedling this has generally been successful for barley if good planting techniques are

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applied. In trials barley has emerged from as far as 15cm. A few tips to take into account include:

avoid the shorter coleoptile (dwarf) varietiesavoid seed dressings which contain triadimenol as these can shorten the coleoptile and make emerging from depth more difficulttry to minimise the amount of soil which is placed back over the top of the planting furrow.ensure that the seed planted has good germination and vigour.NutritionNitrogen (N)Management of nitrogen availability is vital to achieve optimal yields and quality in your barley crop. The level of nitrogen and plant available water will impact strongly on yield and protein having potentially a major impact on crop return. Unlike wheat where premiums are available for high protein barley premiums for malting require moderate proteins of 9-12%. If you target around 12% protein this will also be maximising yield potential for barley.

A large percentage of Queensland's barley crop is classified as feed with protein levels above 12%. Older cultivation or double crop situations with lower soil N supplies can produce malt-grade barley especially in a good season, however, skill is required to balance the requirement for nitrogen to maximise yield without over fertilising and increasing the protein level.

A rule of thumb used by some is to grow malting barley, 0.4 kg of nitrogen is required for every mm of available soil moisture. Thus if there is 150 mm of available soil moisture, this will require 60 kg of nitrogen to produce a barley crop with protein between 8.5-12%. In high yielding years, grain protein can be reduced through nitrogen dilution as grain yield increases.

Nitrogen calculations for barleyDetermining soil nitrogen statusBefore a fertiliser program can be decided on it is important to gain an estimate of the existing soil nutrient status. Continuously low grain protein levels are indicative of a lower soil nitrogen supply. When barley protein levels are below 11.5% dry or below 10-11% (@12.5% moisture) grain yield losses are likely.

Monitoring crop yields and protein over time can give a good indication of the nitrogen status of a paddock.

Using grain protein of preceding barley and wheat crops as an indicator of paddock nitrogen statusBarley protein(dry basis)% Wheat protein (11% moisture)

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% CommentsLess than 8.5 Less than 10 Acutely nitrogen deficient. Potential yield loss may be in excess of 30%. Applied N should increase yield significantly. Grain protein would be increased only if a large amount of N was applied.8.5-11 10-11.5 Moderately to slightly nitrogen deficient. At least 15% yield loss is likely because of low soil N. Yield would probably be increased by applying N if there were no other limiting factors (e.g. soil moisture).11-12 11.5-12.5 Satisfactory nitrogen status for optimum yield. Additional N would probably not increase yield but would be likely to increase grain protein.Greater than 12 Greater than 12.5Nitrogen not deficient. Yield was most likely limited by water deficit. Additional N would not increase yield but would probably increase grain protein.

If high protein and low yield occur, even in years of good rain, phosphorus may be deficient.

Indicative N fertiliser required to produce the target yield of barley with 11.5% grain protein.Target yield (t/ha)@ 11.5% protein (dry)2 3 4 5Total N required (kg/ha)75 110 145 180Cropping history Estimated available soil N (kg/ha)* Balance of N required as fertiliser (kg/ha)Double-cropped from sorghum 30 45 80 117 152Fallowed from winter cereal 55 20 55 92 127Fallow from chickpeas (yielding 0.5-1.0 t/ha) 65 10 45 82 117Fallow from chickpeas (yielding 1.0-1.5 t/ha) 75 0 35 72 105* It is assumed that 30 kg N/ha will be released from the soil as the crop is growing and the difference in soil N up to the value indicated was present at sowing.

Calculating nitrogen requirementAnother way to calculate nitrogen requirement is by measuring existing soil nitrogen and estimating a target yield and protein.

Calculate available soil water e.g. using HowWet, stored soil moisture and estimated in-crop rainfall.Estimate target grain yield and protein %. - based on available moisture (e.g. 3.5 t/ha @ 10.1 % protein). Crop simulations such as Whopper Cropper can generate yield probabilities for a range of starting soil moisture and sowing dates. Ideal malting barley grain protein is about 11.5% dry (optimum yield) or 10.1 % wet @ 12% grain moisture. Target for feed barley grain protein is about 12% dry (max yield) or 10.5% wet at 12.5% grain moisture.Calculate how much nitrogen will be harvested in the grain. Grain N (kg/ha) = Yield (t/ha) x protein % x 1.6 (e.g. for the above target yield and protein 3.5 x 10.1 x 1.6 = 57 kg N/ha).

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Calculate N required to grow the crop. Barley requires roughly twice the amount of N in the grain. N required for crop (kg/ha) = Grain N x 2 e.g. (3.5 x 10.1 x 1.6) x 2 = 113 kg N/ha. # Estimate or measure the soil nitrogen e.g. use soil tests (including the soil profile to 90 or 120 cm), or previous crop yields and proteins. Include mineralisation (generally about 30kg N/ha).Calculate the extra N required. Extra N required = N required to grow crop - soil N. For example if there is 10 units of N in the soil and an estimated 30 units to be mineralised and a total of 113 units of N to grow your crop of 3.5 mt/ha @ 10.1 % protein.The equation will be 113 (total N required) - 40 (total available or to be mineralised) = 73 kg/ha of N. If using a product such as urea which is 46% N you will need 158 kg/ha of urea. (73/0.46).

Bauxite mining requires relatively low energy inputs, compared to other steps in the aluminium production process – with less than 1.5 kilograms of fuel oil (mainly in the form of diesel for haul trucks) and less than 5 kWh of electricity consumed per tonne of bauxite extracted.

The bauxite refining process requires significantly higher energy, primarily in the form of heat and steam; natural gas, coal and oil are the main fuel sources and are combusted on site.

The energy required by the Bayer Process is very much dependent on the quality of the raw material, with böhemitic or diasporic bauxites requiring higher temperature digestion, often associated with a higher fuel input. Investments in cost effective technology upgrades at existing facilities can improve the energy efficiency with no change in input material, as can “sweetening” of the feedstock with small quantities of higher quality bauxite. Such improvements, along with the addition of new, best available technology, refining capacity has driven an almost 10% improvement in global refining energy efficiency in just 5 years. Today, the average specific energy consumption is around 14.5 GJ per tonne of alumina, including electrical energy of around 150 kWh/t Al2O3.

Cogeneration or combined heat and power (CHP), wherein fuel is combusted to generate both electricity and useful heat simultaneously, is increasingly being employed in refineries. While a significant capital investment is required to build a CHP plant, there can be significant benefits, both in terms of energy efficiency and as a valuable resource for local communities. In an alumina refinery, a cogeneration facility provides all the electricity needed to power the refining process and supporting systems (such as lighting, offices etc). The waste heat from the generator is captured and used to produce steam for the refining process. The CHP plant is sometimes designed to produce surplus electricity for export to local communities, a local customer or to the grid. In some instances, excess or lower quality steam can also be exported.

The greenhouse gas emissions from alumina production are predominantly related to fuel combustion; therefore improved energy efficiency along with fuel switching, where

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viable and appropriate, is the primary means of reducing the greenhouse gas intensity of refining processes, which currently stands at around 1 tonne of CO2e per tonne of alumina produced.

Ontario beer customers enjoy a wide selection of high quality beers. If you're not sure which one to choose, listed below are the 10 most popular brands at The Beer Store.

1Coors Light

Brewer: MOLSONAlcohol Content (ABV): 4%Type of Beer: Light

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Brewed according to the high quality standards of the Coors Brewing Company, Golden, Colorado, U.S.A. Aged slowly for that legendary ice cold, easy drinking taste that could only come from a brewing tradition born in the Rockies.

Beer Details

2Molson Canadian

Brewer: MOLSONAlcohol Content (ABV): 5%Type of Beer: Lager

The definitive Canadian lager. Brewed by Canada's oldest brewery, Molson Canadian is an easy drinking lager with a true Canadian taste that delivers the perfect balance of sweetness with a slightly hoppy bitterness and medium body for a refreshing finish.

Beer Details

3Budweiser

Brewer: LABATTAlcohol Content (ABV): 5%Type of Beer: Lager

The famous Budweiser beer. Our exclusive Beechwood Aging produces a taste, smoothness and a drinkability you will find in no other beer at any price.

Beer Details

4Blue

Brewer: LABATTAlcohol Content (ABV): 5%Type of Beer: Lager

Labatt Blue is a refreshing, pilsener-style lager brewed using John Labatt's founding philosophy that a quality beer should have a real, authentic taste. Blue is made with the finest hops and Canadian Barley malt.

Beer Details

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5Bud Light

Brewer: LABATTAlcohol Content (ABV): 4.0%Type of Beer: Light

Bud Light is brewed longer, for a refreshingly easy drinking taste, using a blend of rice and malted barley to give it a clean aroma and crisp, smooth finish. Only the finest ingredients are used: water, barley malt, rice, hops, and yeast.

Beer Details

6Carling Lager

Brewer: MOLSONAlcohol Content (ABV): 4.9%Type of Beer: Lager

A traditional bottom fermenting lager utilizing Canadian barley malts and selected aroma and bittering hops to produce a fine, clean, crisp refreshing beer.

Beer Details

7Busch

Brewer: LABATTAlcohol Content (ABV): 4.7%Type of Beer: Lager

Introduced in 1955, Busch Lager has a smooth, light taste. The brand is the USA's largest selling sub premium-priced beer in all major demographics.

Beer Details

8Keiths

Brewer: KEITHS BREWERYAlcohol Content (ABV): 5.0%Type of Beer: Ale

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Brewed in Halifax since 1820, India Pale Ale is light in colour and hopped in flavour. Only the lightest and finest barleys that produce a pale malt are used while the amounts of hops are increased so as to give a pronounced hop flavour.

Beer Details

9Heineken

Brewer: HEINEKEN BROUWERIJEN BVAlcohol Content (ABV): 5.0%Type of Beer: Lager

Brewed in Holland according to the original recipe, Heineken's distinctive flavour offers a refreshing European taste that has made it a favourite all over the world.

Beer Details

10Lakeport Pilsener

Brewer: LABATTAlcohol Content (ABV): 5.0%Type of Beer: Lager

Lakeport Pilsener is crisp, clean and smooth with a well-balanced hop character. The result is a highly drinkable pilsener beer brewed to uncompromising quality standards.

Beer Details

This document is intended to be distributed freely and may be copied for personal use. Copyright © 1994 by John J. Palmer All Rights Reserved.

These instructions are designed for the first-time Brewer. What follows can be considered an annotated recipe for a fool-proof Ale beer. Why an Ale beer? Because Ales are the simplest to brew. Brewing Beer is simple and complicated, easy and hard. Compare it to fishing - Sit on the end of the dock with a can of worms and a cane pole and you will catch fish. Going after a specific kind of fish is when fishing gets complicated. Brewing the specific kind of beer you want is the same thing. There are many different styles of beer and many techniques to brew them.

Brewing a beer is a combination of several general processes. First is the mixing of ingredients and bringing the solution (wort) to a boil. Second is the cooling of the wort to the fermentation temperature. Next the wort is transferred to the fermenter and the yeast is added. After fermentation, the raw beer is siphoned off the yeast sediment and bottled

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with a little extra sugar to provide the carbonation. But there are three important things to keep in mind every time you brew: Cleanliness, Preparation and Good Record Keeping.

Cleanliness

Cleanliness is the foremost concern of the brewer. After all, Fermentation is the manipulation of living organisms, the yeast. Providing good growing conditions for the yeast in the beer also provides good growing conditions for other micro-organisms, including bacteria. Cleanliness must be maintained throughout every stage of the brewing process.Preparation

Take the time to prepare your brewing area. Have the ingredients ready on the counter. Prepare your brewing water. Have the ice on- hand to cool the wort when its done boiling. Is the Fermenter clean and sanitized? Make sure that all equipment is clean and ready to go before starting. Patience and planning are necessities.Record Keeping

Always keep good notes on what ingredients, amounts and times were used in the brewing process. The brewer needs to be able to repeat good batches and learn from poor ones.Brewing Terms:

The following terms will be used throughout these instructions. Many of the terms come from German and appropriate pronunciations are given. On the other hand, German pronunciation is optional.AleA beer brewed from a top-fermenting yeast with a relatively short, warm fermentation.Alpha Acid Units (AAU)A homebrewing measurement of Hops. Equal to the weight in ounces multiplied by the percent of Alpha Acids.AttenuationThe degree of conversion of sugar to alcohol and CO2.BeerAny beverage made by fermenting malted barley and seasoning with Hops.Cold BreakProteins that coagulate and fall out of solution when the wort is rapidly cooled prior to Pitching the yeast.ConditioningAn aspect of Secondary Fermentation in which the yeast refine the flavors of the final beer. Conditioning continues in the bottle.FermentationThe total conversion of malt sugar to beer, defined here as two parts, Primary and Secondary.Hops

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Hop vines are grown in cool climates and brewers make use of the cone-like flowers. The dried cones are available in Pellets, Plugs, or whole.Hot BreakProteins that coagulate and fall out of solution during the wort boil.GravityLike density, gravity describes the concentration of malt sugar in the wort. The specific gravity of water is 1.000 at 59F. Typical beer worts range from 1.0351.055 before fermentation (Original Gravity).International Bittering Units (IBU)A more precise method of measuring Hops. Equal to the AAU multiplied by factors for percent utilization, wort volume and wort gravity.Krausen (kroy-zen)Used to refer to the foamy head that builds on top of the beer during fermentation. Also an advanced method of priming.LagerA beer brewed from a bottom-fermenting yeast and given a long cool fermentation.PitchingTerm for adding the yeast to the fermenter.Primary FermentationThe initial fermentation activity marked by the evolution of carbon dioxide and Krausen. Most of the total attenuation occurs during this phase.PrimingThe method of adding a small amount of fermentable sugar prior to bottling to give the beer carbonation.RackingThe careful siphoning of the beer away from the Trub.Secondary FermentationA period of settling and conditioning of the beer after Primary Fermentation and before bottling.Trub (trub or troob)The sediment at the bottom of the fermenter consisting of Hot and Cold Break material and dead yeast.Wort (wart or wert)The malt-sugar solution that is boiled prior to fermentation.ZymurgyThe science of Brewing and Fermentation.Required Equipment

AirlockSeveral styles are available. Fill to the water line with bleach water (1T per gallon) and cap it (if it has one).Boiling PotMust be able to comfortably hold a minimum of 3 gallons; bigger is better. Use only Stainless Steel, Ceramic- coated Steel, or Aluminum. Plain steel will give off-flavors.Bottles

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Two cases of recappable 12 oz bottles. Use Corona or heavier glass import bottles. Twist-offs do not work well. Used champagne bottles are ideal if you can find them.Bottle CapperEither Hand Capper or Bench Capper. Bench Cappers are more versatile and are needed for the champagne bottles, but are more expensive.Bottle CapsEither standard or oxygen absorbing are available.Bottle FillerRigid plastic (or metal) tube with spring loaded valve at the tip for filling bottles.Bottle BrushNecessary for first, hard-core cleaning of used beer bottles.Fermenter(s)The 6 gallon food-grade plastic pail is recommended for beginners. These are very easy to work with. Glass carboys are also available, in 5, 6, and 7.5 gallon sizes.Racking CaneRigid plastic tube with sediment stand-off.Siphon/HoseAvailable in several configurations, consisting of clear plastic tubing with optional Racking Cane and Bottle Filler.Stirring PaddleFood grade plastic paddle (spoon) for stirring the wort during boiling.ThermometerObtain a thermometer that can be safely immersed in the wort and has a range of at least 40F to 150F. The floating dairy thermometers are great.Optional but Highly Recommended

Bottling BucketA 6 gallon food-grade plastic pail with attached spigot and fill-tube. The finished beer is racked into this for priming prior to bottling. Racking into the bottling bucket allows clearer beer with less sediment in the bottle. The spigot set-up is used instead of the Bottle Filler above, allowing greater control of the fill level and no hassles with a siphon during bottling.Ingredients

Commercial beer kits always provide 3-4 pounds of malt extract and instructions to add a couple pounds of sugar. Don't Do It! The resultant beer will have an unpleasant cidery taste. The following is a basic beer recipe:5-7 pounds of Hopped Pale Malt Extract syrup. (OG of 1.038 - 1.053)5 gallons of water.1-2 ounces of Hops (if desired for more hop character)1 packet of dry Ale yeast, plus 1 packet for back-up.3/4 cup corn sugar for Priming.

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This is a basic Ale beer and quite tasty. You will be amazed. Further descriptions of the ingredients follow.Malt Extract:

Using Malt Extract is what makes first time brewing simple. Malt Extract is the concentrated sugars extracted from malted barley. It is sold in both the liquid and powdered forms. The syrups are approximately 20 percent water, so 4 pounds of dry Malt Extract (DME) is roughly equal to 5 pounds of Malt Extract syrup. Malt Extract is available in both the Hopped and Unhopped varieties. Screen the ingredients to avoid corn sugar. Munton & Fison, Alexanders, Coopers, Edme and Premier are all good brands. Laaglander is another good brand but the brewer needs to be aware that it contains extra unfermentables which add to the body, making the beer finish with an FG of about 1.020.Using Unhopped means adding 1-2 ounces of Hops during the boil for bittering and flavor. Hops may also be added to the Hopped Extracts towards the end of the boil for more Hop character in the final beer. Unhopped extract is preferable for brewers making their own recipes.

A rule of thumb is 1 pound of malt extract (syrup) per gallon of water for a light bodied beer. One and a half pounds per gallon produces a richer, full bodied beer. One pound of malt extract syrup typically yields a gravity of 1.034 - 38 when dissolved in one gallon of water. Dry malt will yield about 1.040 - 43. Malt extract is commonly available in Pale, Amber and Dark varieties, and can be mixed depending on the style of beer desired. Wheat malt extract is also available and more new extracts are coming out each year. With the variety of extract now available, there is almost no beer style that cannot be brewed using extract alone.

The next step in complexity for the homebrewer is to learn how to extract the sugars from the malted grain himself. This process, called Mashing, allows the brewer to take more control of producing the wort. This type of homebrewing is referred to as All-Grain brewing.

Water

The water is very important to the resulting beer. After all, beer is mostly water. If your tap water tastes good at room temperature, it should make good beer. It will just need to be boiled for a few minutes to remove the chlorine and kill any bacteria. If the water has a metallic taste, boil and let it cool before using to let the excess minerals settle out, and pour it off to another vessel. Do not use water from a salt based water softener. Do not use Distilled (De-ionized) water. Beer, and Ale particularly, needs the minerals for flavor. The yeast need the minerals for proper growth. A good bet for your first batch of beer is the bottled water sold in most supermarkets as Drinking Water. Use the 2.5 gallon containers. Use one container for boiling the extract and set the other aside for addition to the fermenter later.Hops

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This is another involved subject. There are many varieties of Hops, but they are divided into two main categories: Bittering and Aroma. Bittering Hops are high in Alpha Acids (the main bittering agent), typically around 10 percent. Aroma Hops are lower, around 5 percent. Several Hop varieties are in between and are used for both purposes. Bittering Hops are added at the start of the boil and usually boiled for an hour. Aroma Hops are added towards the end of the boil and are typically boiled for 15 minutes or less (Finishing). Hops can also be added to the fermenter for increased hop aroma in the final beer, called Dry Hopping, but this is best done during Secondary Fermentation. A mesh bag, called a Hop Bag, may be used to help retain the hops and make removal of the Hops easier prior to fermentation. Straining or removal of the Hops before fermentation is largely a matter of personal preference.Published beer recipes often include a Hops schedule, with amounts and boil times specified. Other recipes specify the Hops in terms of AAUs and IBUs. AAUs are a convenient unit for specifying Hops when discussing Hop additions because it allows for variation in the Alpha Acid percentages between Hop varieties. For the purposes of this recipe, 7 AAUs are recommended for the Boil (60 minutes) and 4 AAUs for Finishing (15 minutes). This is assuming the use of Unhopped malt extract; if using Hopped, then only add the 4 AAUs for finishing. In this recipe, these amounts correspond to 22 IBUs for the boil, and 1.25 IBU for the finish. IBUs allow for variation in brewing practices between brewers, yet provide for nearly identical final Hop bitterness levels in the beers. This recipe is not very bitter.

For more information, see the Recommended Reading section.

Yeast

There are several aspects to yeast; it is the other major factor in determining the flavor of the beer. Different yeast strains will produce different beers when pitched to identical worts. Yeast is available both wet and dry, for Ale and Lager, et cetera. For the first-time brewer, a dry Ale yeast is highly recommended. There are several brands available, including Coopers, Edme, Nottingham, and Red Star. All of these listed will produce good results.Ale yeast are referred to as top-fermenting because much of the fermentation action takes place at the top of the fermenter, while Lager yeasts would seem to prefer the bottom. While many of today's strains like to confound this generalization, there is one important difference, and that is temperature. Ale yeasts like warmer temperatures, going dormant below 55F (12C), while Lager yeasts will happily work at 40F. Using Lager yeast at Ale temperatures 65-70F (18-20C) produces Steam Beer, or what is now termed California Common Beer. Anchor Steam Beer (tm) was the founder of this unique style.

For more information, see the Recommended Reading section.

Yeast Starter

Liquid yeast must be and all yeast should be, pitched to a Starter before pitching to the beer in the fermenter. Using a starter gives yeast a head start and prevents weak

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fermentations from under-pitching. Dry Yeast should be re-hydrated before pitching. Re-hydrating dry yeast is simple.1. Put 1 cup of warm (90F, 35C) boiled water into a sterile jar and stir in the yeast. Cover with Saran Wrap and wait 10 minutes.2. Stir in one teaspoon of sugar.3. Cover and place in a warm area out of direct sunlight.4. After 30 minutes or so the yeast should be actively churning and foaming. This is now ready to pitch.Liquid yeast is regarded as superior to Dry yeast because of the refinement of yeast strains present and little risk of bacterial contamination during manufacture. Liquid yeast allows for greater tailoring of the beer to a particular style. However, the amount of yeast in a liquid packet is much less than the amount in the dry. For best results, it needs a starter. The packet must be squeezed and warmed to 80F at least two days before brewing. One day before, it should be pitched to a wort starter made from 1/4 cup of DME and a pint of water that has been boiled and cooled to 75F (25C). Adding a quarter teaspoon of yeast nutrient is also advisable. Let this sit in the same warm place until brewing time the next day. Some foaming or an increase in the white yeast layer on the bottom should be evident. The Starter process may be repeated to provide even more yeast to the wort to insure a strong fermentation.

The Wort and Oxygen

The use of oxygen in brewing is a double-edged sword. The yeast need oxygen to grow and multiply enough to provide a good fermentation. When the yeast has first been pitched, whether to the starter or the beer, it first seeks to reproduce. The yeast makes use of the dissolved oxygen in the wort for this. Boiling the wort drives out the dissolved oxygen, which is why aeration of some sort is needed prior to fermentation. The yeast first use up all of the oxygen in the wort for reproduction, then get down to the business of turning sugar into alcohol and CO2 as well as processing the other flavor compounds.On the other hand, if oxygen is introduced while the wort is still hot, the oxygen will oxidize the wort and the yeast cannot utilize it. This will later cause oxidation of the beer which gives a wet cardboard taste. The key is temperature. The generally accepted temperature cutoff for preventing hot wort oxidation is 80F. In addition, if oxygen is introduced after the fermentation has started, it will not be utilized by the yeast and will later cause the wet cardboard or sherry-like flavors.

This is why it is important to cool the wort rapidly to below 80F, to prevent oxidation, and then aerate it by shaking or whatever to provide the dissolved oxygen that the yeast need. Cooling rapidly between 90 and 130F is important because this region is ideal for bacterial growth to establish itself in the wort.

Most homebrewers use cold water baths around the pot or copper tubing Wort Chillers to accomplish this cooling in about 20 minutes or less. A rapid chill also causes the Cold Break material to settle out, which decreases the amount of protein Chill Haze in the finished beer.

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Aeration of the wort can be accomplished several ways: shaking the container, pouring the wort into the fermenter so it splashes, or even hooking up an airstone to an aquarium air pump and letting that bubble for an hour. For the latter method, (which is popular) everything must be sanitized! Otherwise, Infection City. These instructions recommend shaking the starter and pouring/shaking the wort. More on this later.

Sanitization

So far, sanitization of ingredients and equipment has been discussed but not much has been said about how to do this. The definition and objective of sanitization is to reduce bacteria and contaminants to insignificant or manageable levels. Sterilization is not really possible. The Starter solution, Wort and Priming solutions will all be boiled, so those are not a problem (usually).One note - Do Not Boil the Yeast! You need them to be alive.

The easiest sanitizing solution is made be adding 1 tablespoon of bleach to 1 gallon of water (4 ml per liter). This can be prepared in the Fermenting Bucket. Immerse all of equipment - airlock, hoses, paddles, rubber stopper, fermenter lid and anything else contacting the beer. Let it sit for 20 minutes. Rinsing is not really necessary at this concentration, but rinsing with boiled water may be done.

Clean all equipment as soon as possible. This means rinsing out the fermenter, tubing, etc. as soon as they are used. It is very easy to get distracted and come back to find the syrup or yeast has dried hard as a rock and the equipment is stained. Keep a large container with chlorine water handy and just toss things in, clean later.

Rinsing bottles after each use eliminates the need to scrub bottles. If your bottles are dirty, moldy or whatever, soaking and washing in a mild solution of chlorine bleach water for a day or two will soften most residue. Brushing with a bottle brush is a necessity to remove stuck residue. Dish washers are great for cleaning the outside of bottles and heat sterilizing, but will not clean the inside where the beer is going to go; that must be done beforehand. Trisodium Phosphate and B-Brite also work very well but must be rinsed carefully. Do not wash with soap. This leaves a residue which you will be able to taste. Never use any scented cleaning agents, these odors can be absorbed into the plastic buckets and manifest in the beer. Fresh-Lemon Scented Pinesol Beer is not very good. Also, dishwasher Rinse Agents will destroy the Head retention on your glassware. If you pour a beer with carbonation and no head, this is a common cause.

Beginning the Boil

Bring 2 1/2 gallons water to a boil in a large pot. Meanwhile, re-hydrate the dry yeast. When the water is boiling, remove from the heat. Add all the malt syrup to the hot water and stir until dissolved. Make sure there is no syrup stuck to the bottom of the pot by scraping the bottom of the pot with the spoon while stirring. It is very important not to burn any malt stuck to the bottom when the pot is returned to the heat. Burnt sugar tastes terrible.

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The following stage is critical. The pot needs to be watched continuously. Return the pot to the heat and bring to a rolling boil, stirring frequently. Start timing the hour.

If you are adding bittering hops, do so now.

A foam may start to rise and form a smooth surface. This is good. If the foam suddenly billows over the side, this is a boil over (Bad). By the way, adding hop pellets at this stage tends to trigger a boilover if the pot is really full. Murphy's Law... The liquid is very unstable at this point and remains so until it goes through the Hot Break (when the wort stops foaming). This may take 5-20 minutes. The foaming can be controlled by lowering the heat and/or spraying some water on the surface from a spray bottle. The heat control using an electric range is poor. Try to maintain a rolling boil. Boiling 2.5 - 3 gallons can be maintained fairly easily on an electric stove. Boiling the full 5 gallons of water on electric ranges is almost impossible (not enough heat) and dangerous to lift when the boil is over.

Continue the rolling boil for the remainder of the hour. Stir occasionally to prevent scorching. There may be a change in color and aroma and there will be particles floating in the wort. This is not a concern, its the hot break material. If you are adding the finishing hops, do so during the last fifteen minutes. Add during the last five minutes if more hop aroma is desired. This provides less time for the volatile oils to boil away.

Cooling the Wort

At the end of the boil, cooling the wort is very important. While it is above 130F, bacteria and wild yeasts are inhibited. It is very susceptible to oxygen damage as it cools though. There are also sulfur compounds that evolve while the wort is hot. If the wort is cooled slowly these di-methyl sulfides can dissolve back into the wort causing cabbage or cooked vegetable flavors in the final beer. The objective is to rapidly cool the wort to below 80F before oxidation or contamination can occur. Here is one preferred method for cooling the wort.Place the pot in a sink or tub filled with cold/ice water that can be circulated around the hot pot. While the cold water is flowing around the pot, gently stir the wort in a circular pattern so the maximum amount of wort is moving against the sides of the pot. If the water gets warm, replace with cold water. The wort will cool to 80F in about 20 minutes. When the pot is still warm to the touch, the temperature is close enough.

Pour the reserved 2.5 gallons of water into the sanitized fermenter. Pour the warm wort into it, allowing vigorous churning and splashing. Oxidation of the wort is minimal at these temperatures and this provides the dissolved oxygen that the yeast need to reproduce. Combining the warm wort with the cool water should bring the mixture to fermentation temperature. It is best for the yeast if the pitching temperature is the same as the fermentation temperature. For Ale yeasts, the fermentation temperature range is 65-75F. (The temperatures mentioned are not absolutely critical and a thermometer is not absolutely necessary, but is nice to have.)

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Note: Do not add commercial ice to the wort to cool. Commercial Ice harbors lots of dormant bacteria that would love a chance to work on the new beer. Bottled Drinking Water is usually pasteurized or otherwise sanitized to inhibit contamination.

Pitching the Yeast

If the Dry Yeast Starter is not foaming or churning, use the backup yeast. Repeat the re-hydration procedure and then pitch the Yeast Starter into the beer, making sure to add it all. Put the lid in place and seal it. Do not put the airlock in quite yet. Place a piece of clean Saran Wrap over the hole in the lid and cover it with your hand.With the fermenter tightly sealed, pick it up, sit in a chair, put the fermenter on your knees and shake it several minutes to churn it up. This mixes the yeast into the wort and provides more dissolved oxygen that the yeast need to grow. Wipe off any wort around the hole with a paper towel that is wet with bleach water and place the sanitized airlock and rubber stopper in the lid. The airlock should be filled to the line with the bleach water solution.

Active fermentation should start within 12 hours. It can be longer for liquid yeasts because of lower cell counts, about 24 hours.

Fermentation

Put the fermenter in a protected area like the bathtub. If foam escapes it will run down the drain and is easy to clean. The temperature here is usually about the most stable in the house. Animals and small children are fascinated by the smell and noises from the airlock, so keep them away.The airlock should be bubbling in twelve hours. Maintain a consistent temperature if possible. Fluctuating temperature strains the yeast and could impair fermentation. On the other hand, if the temperature drops overnight and the bubbling stops, simply move it to a warmer room and it should pick up again. The yeast does not die, it merely goes dormant. It should not be heated too quickly as this can thermally shock the yeast. In summary, if the temperature deviates too much or goes above 80F the fermentation can be affected, which then affects the flavor. If it goes too low, the ale yeast will go into hibernation.

The fermentation process can be very vigorous or slow; either is fine. The secret is in providing enough active yeast. Fermentation time is a sum of several variables with the most significant probably being temperature. It is very common for an ale with an active ferment to be done in a short time. It could last a few days, a week, maybe longer. Any of the above is acceptable. Three days at 70F may be regarded as typical for the simple ale being described here.

If the fermentation is so vigorous that the foam pops the airlock out of the lid, just rinse it out with bleach water and wipe off the lid before replacing it. Contamination is not a big problem at this point. With so much coming out of the fermenter, not much gets in. Once the bubbling slows down however, do not open the lid to peek. The beer is still

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susceptible to infections, particularly anaerobic ones like Lacto Bacillus, found in your mouth. It will do just fine if left alone for a minimum of two weeks.

The fermentation of malt sugars into beer is a complicated biochemical process. It is more than just attenuation, which can be regarded as the primary activity. Total fermentation is better defined as two phases, the Primary or Attenuative phase and a Secondary or Conditioning phase. The yeast do not end Phase 1 before beginning Phase 2, the processes occur in parallel, but the conditioning processes occur more slowly. This is why beer (and wine) improves with age. Tasting the beer at bottling time will show rough edges that will disappear after a few weeks in the bottle. Because the conditioning process is a function of the yeast, it follows that the greater yeast mass in the fermenter is more effective at conditioning the beer than the smaller amount of suspended yeast in the bottle. Leaving the beer in the fermenter for a total of two or even three weeks will go a long way to improving the final beer. This will also allow time for more sediment to settle out before bottling, resulting in a clearer beer.

Use of Secondary Fermenters (Optional)

Using a two stage fermentation requires a good understanding of the fermentation process. At any time, racking the beer can adversely affect it because of potential oxygen exposure and contamination risk. Racking the beer before the Primary fermentation phase has completed can result in a stuck or incomplete fermentation and too high a final gravity. Simple extract ales do not need to be racked to a secondary fermenter. It can improve clarity and aspects of the flavor, but wait until the second or third beer when you have more experience with the brewing processes.The reason for racking to a Secondary Fermenter is to prevent a yeast breakdown called autolysis, and the resulting bad taste imparted to the beer. This will not be a problem for these relatively short fermentation-time ale beers. Other beer types, like Lagers and some high-gravity beer styles, need to be racked to a secondary because these sit on the yeast for a longer period of time.

The following is a general schedule for a simple ale beer using a secondary fermenter. Allow the Primary Fermentation stage to wind down. This will be 3-4 days after pitching when the bubbling rate drops off dramatically to about 1-5 per minute. Using a sanitized siphon (no sucking!), rack the beer off the trub into a another clean fermenter and affix an airlock. The beer should still be fairly cloudy with suspended yeast. Racking from the primary may be done at any time after primary fermentation has more-or-less completed.(Although if it has been more than two weeks, you may as well bottle.) Most brewers will notice a brief increase in activity after racking, but then all activity may cease. This is very normal. Fermentation (Conditioning) is still taking place, so just leave it alone. A minimum useful time in the secondary fermenter is two weeks. Overly long times in the secondary (for ales- more than 6 weeks) may require the addition of fresh yeast at bottling time for good carbonation. This is usually not a concern.

See the Recommended Reading section for further information.

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A Word About Hydrometers

A hydrometer measures the relative specific gravity between pure water and water with sugar dissolved in it. The hydrometer is used to gauge fermentation by measuring one aspect of it, attenuation. Attenuation is the conversion of sugar to ethanol by the yeast. Water has a specific gravity of 1.000. Beers typically have a final gravity between 1.015 and 1.005. Champagnes and meads can have gravities less than 1.000, because of the large percentage of ethyl alcohol, which is less than 1. By the way, hydrometer readings are standardized to 59F, since liquid gravity (density) is dependent on temperature. Temperature correction tables are usually sold with a hydrometer or are available from Chemistry Handbooks (ex. CRCs). Here is a short table of corrections:50F => -.000655F => -.000359F => 065F => +.000670F => +.001275F => +.001880F => +.002685F => +.0033A hydrometer is a useful tool in the hands of an experienced brewer who knows what he wants to measure. Various books or recipes may give Original and/or Final Gravities (OG and FG) of a beer to assist the brewer in the evaluation of his success. For an average beer yeast, a rule of thumb is that the FG should be about one forth of the OG. For example, a common beer OG of 1.040 should finish about 1.010 (or lower). A couple points either way is typical scatter.

It needs to be emphasized that the stated FG of a recipe is not the goal. The goal is to make a good tasting beer. The hydrometer should be regarded as only one tool available to the brewer as a means to gauge the fermentation progress. The brewer should only be concerned about a high hydrometer reading when primary fermentation has apparently ended and the reading is about one half of the OG, instead of the nominal one forth. Incidentally, if this situation occurs, two remedies are possible. The first is to agitate or swirl the fermenter to rouse the yeastbed from the bottom. The fermenter should remain closed with no aeration. The goal is to re-suspend the yeast so they can get back to work. The alternative is to pitch some fresh yeast.

Hydrometers are necessary when making beer from scratch (all-grain brewing) or when designing recipes. But the first-time brewer using known quantities of extracts simply does not need one.

Priming & Bottling

This ale beer will be ready to bottle in two weeks when primary fermentation has completely stopped. There should be few, if any, bubbles in the airlock. The flavor won't improve by bottling any earlier. Some books recommend bottling after the bubbling stops or in about 1 week. It is not uncommon for fermentation to stop after 3-4 days and begin

39

again a few days later. If the beer is bottled too soon, the beer will be over-carbonated and the pressure may exceed the bottle strength. Exploding bottles are a disaster.After the bottles have been cleaned with a brush, rinse them with sanitization solution or run in the dishwasher with the heat on to sanitize. If using bleach solution, allow to drain upside down in the six-pack holders or on a rack. Do not rinse out with tap water unless it has been boiled. (Rinsing should not be necessary.) Also sanitize priming container, siphon unit, stirring spoon and bottle caps. But do not heat the bottle caps, as this may ruin the gaskets or tarnish them.

Boil 3/4 cup of corn sugar or 1 and 1/4 cup Dry Malt Extract in some water and let it cool. Here are two methods of Priming:

1. Pour this into the sanitized Bottling Bucket. Using your sanitized siphon unit transfer the beer into the sanitized bottling bucket. Place the outlet beneath the surface of the priming solution. Do not allow the beer to splash as you don't want to add oxygen to your beer at this point. Keep the intake end of the racking tube an inch off the bottom of the fermenter to leave the yeast and sediment behind. See Note on Siphoning.

2. Opening the fermenter, gently pour the priming solution into the beer. Stir the beer gently with the sanitized paddle, trying to mix it in evenly while being careful not to stir up the sediment. Wait a half hour for the sediment to settle back down and to allow more diffusion of the priming solution to take place. Then siphon to your bottles.

Note on Siphoning: Do not suck on the hose to start the siphon. This will contaminate the hose with Lacto Bacillus bacteria from your mouth. Fill the hose with sanitizing solution prior to putting it into the beer. Keep the end pinched or otherwise closed to prevent the solution from draining out. Place the outlet into another container and release the flow; the draining solution will start the siphon. Once the siphon is started, transfer it to wherever.

Some books recommend 1 tsp. sugar per bottle for priming. This is not recommended because it is time consuming and not precise. Bottles may carbonate unevenly and explode.

Place the fill tube of the siphon unit or bottling bucket at the bottom of the bottle. Fill slowly at first to prevent gurgling and keep the fill tube below the waterline to prevent aeration. Fill to about 3/4 inch from the top of the bottles. Place a sanitized cap on the bottle and cap. Inspect every bottle to make sure the cap is secure. Age the capped bottles at room temperature for two weeks, out of direct sunlight. Aging up to two months will improve the flavor considerably, but one week will do the job of carbonation for the impatient.

It is not necessary to store the beer cool, room temperature is fine. It will keep for several months. When cooled prior to serving, some batches will exhibit chill haze. It is caused by proteins left over from the initial cold break. It is nothing to worry about.

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Life time

Resource used

41

Diaper

A child uses diaper

for 2.5 yrs in their life

4/day; 1518/year;

3796/child/lifetime

Takes 1898 pints (897.7 litres or

237.25 gallons) of crude oil for

plastic water proof lining, 715 lbs

of plastic, uses pulp of 4.5  trees

for the fluffy padding, just to keep

one American toddler tidy

18 billion disposable diapers thrown out every year. If placed end to end can stretch around the

world 90 times. The diapers long outlives us, they take 500 yrs to biodegrade, much longer for

plastic.

Reusable diaper   Need 22455 gallons of water to

clean them. This is enough

drinking water to quench the thirst

of an average person for 93 years

By first year itself an American toddler would have generated more Carbon dioxide emission than

an average person in Tanzania will generate in a life time.

Food (for basic nutrients - proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals etc)

Milk

(for vitamins, proteins

and minerals)

3 pints/ week; 14 pints/ month; 168

pints/ year; 13056 pints/ lifetime or

1632 gallons

 

Eggs (proteins) 5/ week, 255/ year , 19826/ lifetime

(1.3 tons)

 

Beef (proteins) 2.5 tons/  lifetime  

Pork ( proteins) 1.7 tons/ lifetime  

Chicken (proteins) 1423 chicken

(2.3 tons)/ lifetime

 

Potatoes 9,917 lbs 4 tons –

about 20000 potatoes

 

Bread 55/year; 4376/lifetime

Or 87000 slices

 

 

Hotdog rolls 5,442  

Hamburger buns 12,129 (eat the weight of a family

car)

 

Apple  11196 / lifetime  

bananas 5067 / lifetime  

oranges 12,888 / lifetime  

Pine apples 262  

Beer each person in US  

42

drinks 13248 beerswine

 

942 bottles in their lifetime  

Candy 25 lbs / year (1 shopping cart

full); 14518 candy bars/ lifetime

(12 shopping cart full)

A diet of candy adds to a lifetime

of sugar intake, 1056 lbs – 200 of

5 lbs bag

Tooth brush 156  

Tooth paste 389 tubes  

Soaps 656 bars  

Shampoo 198  

Deodorant 272 sticks  

Hair styling gel 35 tubes  

Skin care products 411  

Nail polish 25  

Perfumes 37  

Lipstick 50 tubes  

Washing machine 7  

Refrigerator 5  

Microwave 8  

Air conditioners 7  

Television 10  

Computers 15 Over 574 millions sold worldwide

every year, at least 100 million to

Americans. It takes a wide range

of materials and resources to

make each one of them.

To make a single desktop, it

requires at least 530 lbs of fossil

fuels, 48 lbs of assorted chemicals

and over 1.7 tons of water used in

production

Every one of these leaves a mark, has an effect on the environment.

Take a hair dryer. An average person using it burns 3 quarter tonne of coal during their life time –

just to dry your hair.

Homes Average American moves home 10

times in a lifetime.

More than 64 trees to supply all

woods in an average home. (2000

sq foot house uses 13837 ft of

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lumber to stretch across Brooklyn

bridge and back again.)

11500 sq feet of siding enough to

cover 4 tennis court,

17 tons of concrete, 5.500 sq feet

of interior raw mat, wood paneling

and insulation, 400 lbs. of copper,

30 gallons of paint

Cars - symbol of

freedom - “freedom

on wheels”

12 5% of worlds population has 30%

of car population of the world

Clothes

 

An average American throws away

in weight - 68 lbs of clothing and

textiles each year.

It takes 528 gallons of water, 1/3

lbs of chemicals along with cotton

to make one T-shirt logs 14625 air

miles from USA to China and back

just to get components to factory

and T-shirt back to you.

An average pair of Jeans travelled

20000 miles before you even put it

on.

Sneakers   Leather from Texas, tanned in

South Korea, stitched in

Indonesia, before they are out of

box they would have travelled

20000 miles using up resources

and increasing weight of the

footprints. Brand new pair of

sneakers would have travelled

farther than we will ever walk on

earth.

Laundry Average American generates 500

pounds of dirty laundry every year

45 billion loads of laundry across

the country, 1100 loads started

every sec and all those loads uses

560 billion gallons of water equal

to amount of water that flows over

Niagara falls every 11 days.

Showers taken in a

lifetime

28433 times/ lifetime uses 700000 gallons of water

44

Water - sprinkle front

lawns, wash cars, fill

kitchen sink, flush

toilets (not

considering shower)

  1.277 million gallons of water in a

life time. (same as keeping the tap

running continuously for 62

weeks)

Habits

Watching TV 4 hrs / day adding up all that

amounts to 12.5 years spend in

front of tube in a lifetime

This past time consumes 22000

kilowatts of electricity enough to

power light bulb for 43 years

Reading (books,

magazines,

newspapers)

Average American polish off 6

books per year 412 books/ lifetime.

Over the life time, read 5054

newspaper

43 Trees/per person to read all the

newspaper in lifetime.

191 million trees for making all the

papers for one year.

Cutting down these trees means

365500 tons of CO2 released into

atmosphere each year, rather be

absorbed by trees to create

oxygen.

1000 tons of carbon dioxide per

day just to read newspaper

Driving habits Each drive an average of 11000

miles a year that’s 627000 miles

over a life time or 25 times around

the world and on that journey we

use 31350 gallons of gasoline,

Americans use a quarter of all oil

consumption and it takes half of

that to fuel all our cars, 10.5

million barrels of oil everyday

Gasoline 31350 gallons enough to fill 3 big oil

tankers

Gasoline creates 6 tons of carbon

emissions a year. Over a driving

life time this amounts to 360

tonnes each.

Flying In USA there more domestic flights

than any place on earth. At any

given time there are 5000 airplanes

crossing the country

Atlanta airport 2685 take of or land

every day, 1 plane landing or take

off every 2 seconds

 

Their vapour trail form heat

trapping clouds allowing excessive

CO2 to build up in our

atmosphere.

A single trip from Seoul to

Washington DC produces 3.5

tonnes of carbon emissions. It

takes 6 months of car driving to

generate this amount of carbon

45

emissions

Just the vehicles alone create a carbon foot print that is equal to that of many nations put

together.  Use of hybrid vehicles -  it would be possible to cut emissions by a third

Waste and packaging thrown from just food alone.

Plastic thrown/

person in lifetime   

29700 lbs about 15 tons  

Aluminium thrown –

most are soda cans

43371 cans of soda/ lifetime  

Other Waste

Sewage system Every day each of us sends 20

gallons

567575 gallons/ each in a life time

 

Waste to landfills 5.3 lbs./day; 160 lbs./month; a

ton/year;

Each of us sends 64 tons of waste

to landfills /lifetime, i.e. 4 garbage

truck filled to the brim

Every sec 694 plastic bottles,

11 million glass bottles and jars

every day, (that is equivalent to

440 Titanic or 30 empire state

buildings)

Another 100 million aluminium and

steel cans everyday, 36 billion

cans tossed every year. Enough

to build a roof over New York

every day

Bauxite mining requires only a small amount of energycompared to refining of bauxite and electrolytic reduction ofalumina. Diesel fuel (69%) and fuel oil (24%) provide the bulkof the energy used to mine and transport the bauxite. Theaverage energy consumption amounted to 153 MJ per drytonne of mined bauxite (range: 40-470 MJ/tonne). Onaverage each tonne of bauxite had to be transported 54kmfrom the point of extraction to the shipping point or localrefinery stockpile (range: 11-240km).69%24%1%3%2%Figure 5: Energy sourcesfor bauxite mining and transport to point of shipping

46

Source: International Aluminium Institute, 20091%Diesel fuel Natural gasCoal Hydro OthersFuel oil Mine operators have adopted a number of strategies to useenergy more efficiently and to reduce emissions. Thesestrategies include:• Purchase of larger, more energy efficient mining equipment and trucks• Improved maintenance of mining and transport machinery• More efficient use of equipment by optimising truck cycle times and reducing idling and waiting times• Reduction of haul distances for overburden storage• Use of downhill regenerative cable belt conveyors to transport bauxite• Change to lower emission fuels such as natural gas where possible

Table 1: Bauxite properties Minimum MaximumAverage bauxite layer thickness 2 m 20 mAverage overburden thickness 0.4 m 12 mAverage available alumina content (Al2O3) 31% 52%

Fuel consumption by a containership is mostly a function of ship size and cruising speed, which follows an exponential function above 14 knots. For instance, while a containership of around 8,000 TEU would consume about 225 tons of bunker fuel per day at 24 knots, at 21 knots this consumption drops to about 150 tons per day, a 33% decline. While shipping lines would prefer consuming the least amount of fuel by adopting lower speeds, this advantage must be mitigated with longer shipping times as well as assigning more ships on a pendulum service to maintain the same port call frequency. The main ship speed classes are:Normal (20-25 knots; 37.0 - 46.3 km/hr). Represents the optimal cruising speed a containership and its engine have been designed to travel at. It also reflects the

47

hydrodynamic limits of the hull to perform within acceptable fuel consumption levels. Most containerships are designed to travel at speeds around 24 knots.Slow steaming (18-20 knots; 33.3 - 37.0 km/hr). Running ship engines below capacity to save fuel consumption, but at the expense a additional travel time, particularly over long distances (compounding effect). This is likely to become the dominant operational speed as more than 50% of the global container shipping capacity was operating under such conditions as of 2011.Extra slow steaming (15-18 knots; 27.8 - 33.3 km/hr). Also known as super slow steaming or economical speed. A substantial decline in speed for the purpose of achieving a minimal level of fuel consumption while still maintaining a commercial service. Can be applied on specific short distance routes.Minimal cost (12-15 knots; 22.2 - 27.8 km/hr). The lowest speed technically possible, since lower speeds do not lead to any significant additional fuel economy. The level of service is however commercially unacceptable, so it is unlikely that maritime shipping companies would adopt such speeds.The practice of slow steaming emerged during the financial crisis of 2008-2009 as international trade and the demand for containerized shipping plummeted at the same time as new capacity ordered during boom years was coming online. As a response, maritime shipping companies adopted slow steaming and even extra slow steaming services on several of their pendulum routes. It enabled them to accommodate additional ships with a similar frequency of port calls. It was expected that as growth resumed and traffic picked up maritime shipping companies would return to normal cruising speeds. However, in an environment of higher fossil fuel prices, maritime shipping companies are opting for slow steaming for cost cutting purposes, but using the environmental agenda to further justify them. Slow steaming practices have become the new normal to which users must adapt to.

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Slow steaming also involves adapting engines that were designed for a specific optimal speed of around 22-25 knots, implying that for that speed they run at around 80% of full power capacity. Adopting slow steaming requires the "de-rating" of the main engine to the new speed and new power level (around 70%), which involves the timing of fuel injection, adjusting exhaust valves, and exchanging other mechanical components in the engine. The ongoing practice of slow steaming is likely to have an impact on supply chain management, mar itime routes and the use of transshipment hubs.