Life on Mars Final Report

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December 2008

Life on Mars

By: Nader Sherif

Ahmed Magdy

Magdy Hani

John Reda Fahmy

Noura Hussein

Dalia Galal

Sara Essam

Nada Khaled

Mariam Rafik

Supervised By: Dr. Abdel Wahab El-Ghandour

Ain Shams University Faculty of Engineering

Credit Hour Engineering Program

Communication Systems


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ABSTRACTThe idea of life on Mars was first popularized by an American astronomer called Percival

Lowell, in the 1890s. There was global obsession with life on Mars since that day. It

wasn't until 1964, when NASA sent the probe (Appendix A1) "Mariner 4" to fly by Mars

and photograph it.

Mars seemed to be a dead planet. It wasn't until years later, during the 70s, when the

astronomers saw that the image of Mars as a dead planet wasn't quite right. By accurate

study and research, it was found that Mars contained all the basic ingredients for life. It

was also found that there were some microbes, which could mean that life may exist on

Mars.

Mars has several volcanoes that surpass the scale of the largest terrestrial volcanoes.

Scientists believe that those volcanoes caused the extinction of life on Mars. After that

mass extinction on the Martian surface, life can be created after applying some changes on

the climate, surface and other properties of Mars. By applying those changes, Mars can behabitable by humans and other terrestrial life; and thus providing the possibility of safe

and sustainable colonization of the large areas of the planet.

Some scientist have speculated that Mars might one day be transformed so as to allow a

wide variety of living things, including humans, to survive unaided on Mars' surface.

Others make a variety of objections to doing so, some relating to technical feasibility, and

others to desirability. Of course this isn't right, as there are some required changes, in order

to transfer Mars' differences into an earth like circumstances. The two major changes are

building up the atmosphere and keeping it hot.

Mars has the potential capacity to host human and other organic life. With an environmentsuitable for colonization, and potential for alteration into a stable ecosystem in the far

future, Mars is considered by most scientists as the ideal planet for future colonization and

renewal of life. The colonization of Mars is a thought-provoking subject that captures the

imagination of many people in science and science-fiction. The project of colonizing Mars

provides a useful thought experiment for contemplating the future of humanity.


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TableofContentsLIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................... iiiLIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................... iii1.0 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................ 1

1.1 Purpose of the Report....................................................................................................... 11.2 Background of the Report ................................................................................................ 11.3 Scope of the Report .......................................................................................................... 1

2.0 TECHNICAL BACKGROUND .......................................................................................... 22.1 Early speculation .............................................................................................................. 2

3.0 MISSIONS TO MARS ......................................................................................................... 33.1 Mariner 4 (1964) .............................................................................................................. 33.2 Viking Program (1983) .................................................................................................... 43.3 Mars Odyssey (2001) ....................................................................................................... 53.4 Mars Exploration Rover (2003) ....................................................................................... 63.5 Phoenix Lander (2008) .................................................................................................... 7

4.0 MICROBIAL LIFE ON MARS ........................................................................................... 84.1 Existence of frozen microbes ........................................................................................... 8

4.2 Proof of microbial life existence ...................................................................................... 84.3 Methane gas indicating microbial life on Mars ............................................................... 94.4 New claims..................................................................................................................... 10

5.0 CREATING NEW LIFE .................................................................................................... 115.1 Terraforming of Mars .................................................................................................... 11

5.1.1 Reasons for terraformin ........................................................................................ 11

5.1.2 Required changes .................................................................................................. 13

5.2 Colonization of Mars ..................................................................................................... 16

5.2.1 Getting there.......................................................................................................... 16

5.2.2 Possible locations for colonies .............................................................................. 18

5.2.3 Building small stations on the moon ..................................................................... 19

5.2.4Problems facing colonization ................................................................................ 19

6.0 CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................. 20REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................... 21


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ListoffiguresFigure 2-1 Percival Lowell, observing Mars from his telescope. ............................................... 2

Figure 2-2 Percival Lowells first Martian map ......................................................................... 2

Figure 3-1 Mariner 4 ................................................................................................................... 3

Figure 3-2 Mars Craters .............................................................................................................. 3Figure 3-3 Viking Orbiter ........................................................................................................... 4

Figure 3-4 Viking Lander ........................................................................................................... 4

Figure 3-5 2001 Mars odyssey .................................................................................................... 5Figure 3-6 Mars Exploration Rover ............................................................................................ 6Figure 3-7 Phoenix Lander ......................................................................................................... 7Figure 4-1 Nakhla meteorite ALH 84001 ................................................................................. 10Figure 4-2 Martian fossil microbe on meteorite ALH 84001 ................................................... 10

Figure 5-1 Artist's conception of the process of Mars terraforming ......................................... 11

Figure 5-2 Orbits of earth and Mars ......................................................................................... 16

Figure 5-3 The Basic Orion design ........................................................................................... 17

Figure 5-4 Eagle Crater, as seen from Opportunity .................................................................. 18Figure 5-5 Building a base on the moon to go to Mars ............................................................ 19

List of Tables

Table 1. Relative similarities between Earth and Mars ............................................................ 12Table 2. Relative differences between Earth and Mars ............................................................ 13


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1.0INTRODUCTION1.1PurposeoftheReportThis report illustrates the latest discoveries done by NASA in the past few years

concerning the planet Mars. Additionally, it studies the facts on which we can postulate

the existence of life on Mars. Since the universe is vast, nearly 880 x10 24 meters diameter,

and 13.73 0.12 billion years old [1], it is more likely to prove that the theory of finding

life elsewhere in the universe is true. The study of life on Mars can prove that theory. It

has to be mentioned that if life has arisen independently on the planet just next to us, that

means that life existed twice in our solar system. Therefore, the chances must be that life

could be everywhere in the universe.

Scientific observations show a huge growth in Earths population at the present time which

creates Earths first problem. The Earth will be over populated in the near future, possibly

a hundred years from now, and there will be no places for constructing new habitations

except on water surfaces. The second problem is that the sun will eventually grow too hot

for Earth to sustain life. Therefore, humans will have no other choice but to go another

planet which will have a cooler temperature. To solve these problems, Studies showed that

we can transform a new planet, such as Mars, to be suitable for life and creating new

habitations. Therefore, studies on Mars are in progress today to show the possibility of

Terraforming and colonization of Mars as shown in this report.

1.2BackgroundoftheReportEver since people looked up into the night sky, there has been a question that bothered us

all, are we alone in the Universe? For that reason, many NASA probes were launched.

They were sent to Mars to carry out the most detailed analysis ever of the planets surface.

This search for life elsewhere in the universe is a difficult job. In order to do that, we have

to travel to all the distant worlds and scoop up samples. Unfortunately, the worlds that we

can travel to are the other planets in our solar system and none of them are very good in

terms of prospecting for biology. The best one is probably Mars.

The reason Mars is important is because it is close by, just 60 million kilometers away. Itssurface conditions and the availability of water make it arguably the most hospitable of the

planets in this solar system, other than Earth. This is why Mars has obsessed scientists.

1.3ScopeoftheReportThis report provides technical background on the early speculations of Mars, the missions

sent there, some proofs that made scientist believe that Mars is alive, and the Terraforming

of Mars followed by the possibility of colonization.


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Figure 2-2 Percival Lowells first Martian mapSource: http://www.msss.com/http/ps/life/schia.gif

2.0TECHNICALBACKGROUND2.1EarlyspeculationIn 1854, William Whewell, a fellow of

Trinity College, Cambridge, who popularized the word scientist, theorized

that Mars had seas, land and possibly life

forms. Speculation about life on Mars

exploded in the late 19th century, following

telescopic observation by some observers of

apparent Martian canals which were

however soon found to be optical illusions.

Despite this, in 1895, American astronomer

Percival Lowell published his book Mars,

followed by Mars and its Canals in 1906,proposing that the canals were the work of a

long-gone civilization [2]. Lowell starred at

Mars for months and kept studying it, he

drew what he saw from his telescope (figure

2-1) and created the first Martian map

(figure 2-2).

Mars' polar ice caps were observed asearly as the mid-17th century, and

they were first proven to grow and

shrink alternately, in the summer and

winter of each hemisphere. By the

mid-19th century, astronomers knew

that Mars had certain other

similarities to Earth (section 5.1.2.1).

These observations led to the increase

in speculation that the darker albedo

(Appendix A1) features were water,

and brighter ones were land. It was

therefore natural to suppose that Mars

may be inhabited by some form of life.

Spectroscopic analysis of Mars' atmosphere began in earnest in 1894, when U.S.

astronomer William Wallace Campbell showed that neither water nor oxygen was present

in the Martian atmosphere [3]. By 1909, better telescopes and the best perihelic opposition

of Mars since 1877 conclusively put an end to the canal theory.

Scientists became more obsessed with Mars, and it wasnt easy to study it by telescopes

only. Therefore, NASA lunched several missions to the red planet in order to search for

signs of life. See section 3.0

Figure 2-1 Percival Lowell, observing Mars from his oldtelescope.

Source: http://www.creationism.org/books/TaylorInMind

sMen/ TaylorIMMgjPercivalLowellM.jpg


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3.0MISSIONSTOMARS3.1Mariner4(1964)OverviewMariner 4 (figure 3-1) was the fourth in a series of

spacecraft intended for planetary exploration in a

flyby mode and performed the first successful

flyby of the planet Mars, returning the first pictures

of the Martian surface. It captured the first images

of another planet ever returned from deep space;

their depiction of a cratered, seemingly dead world

shook the scientific community [4].

ObjectivesMariner 4 objectives were to:

Conduct close up scientific observations of Mars Transmit these observations to Earth. Perform field and particle measurements in interplanetary space in the vicinity of

Mars

Provide experience in and knowledge of the engineering capabilities forinterplanetary flights of long duration.

ResultsAll experiments operated successfully, the images returned showed a Moon-like crateredterrain (figure 3-2). Later mission then showed thatthis was not typical for Mars.

The images of craters and measurements of a thin

atmosphere, indicating a relatively inactive planet

exposed to the harshness of space, generally

dissipated hopes of finding intelligent life on Mars.

Life there had been the subject of speculation andscience fiction for centuries. If there was life on

Mars, after Mariner 4, most concluded it would

probably be smaller, simpler forms.

Mariner 4 may have concluded the gradual change, in science fiction, from describing

intelligent aliens as dwellers on other planets in our Solar System, to describing them as

living on planets circling distant stars

Figure 3-1 Mariner 4

Source: zebu.uoregon.edu/~probs/mech/grav/geo/geo.gif

Figure 3-2 Mars CratersSource: www.psrd.hawaii.edu/WebImg/Mars_craters

.gif


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Figure 3-3 Viking orbiter

Source: ebu.uoregon.edu/~probs/mech/grav/geo.gif

3.2VikingProgram(1983)Overview

NASA's Viking program consisted of a pair of space probes sent to Mars, Viking one and

Viking two. Each vehicle was composed of two main parts, an orbiter designed to photographthe surface of Mars from orbit, and a Lander designed to study the planet from the surface. The

orbiters also served as communication relays for the Landers once they touched down.

OrbitersThe primary objectives of the Viking orbiters (figure 3-

3) were to transport the Landers to Mars, perform

reconnaissance to locate and certify landing sites, act as

a communications relays for the Landers, and to

perform their own scientific investigations.

LandersEach Lander (as shown in figure 3-4) was covered over

from launch until Martian atmospheric entry with an

aero-shell heat shield designed to slow the Lander

down during the entry phase, and also to prevent

contamination of the Martian surface with Earthly

microbial life that can survive the harsh conditions of

deep space. The Lander carried instruments to achieve

the primary scientific objectives of the Lander mission:

to study the biology, chemical composition, magnetic

properties, and physical properties of Mars and

atmosphere.

ResultsofthebiologicalexperimentsThe Viking Landers conducted biological experiments designed to detect life in the Martian

soil. The results were initially positive but, based on the results of another test that failed to

reveal any organic molecules in the soil.

MissionendAlthough there is general consensus that the Viking Lander results demonstrated a lack of

robust microorganism biota in soils at the two landing sites, the test results and their

limitations are still under assessment. The validity of the positive 'Labeled Release' (LR)

results hinged entirely on the absence of an oxidative agent in the Martian soil, but one was

recently discovered by the Phoenix Lander (section 3.5) in the form of perchlorate salts. In

conclusion, the question of microbial life on Mars remained unresolved [5].

Figure 3-4 Viking LanderSource: www.psrd.hawaii.edu/WebImg/Mars_crat

ers.gif


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3.3MarsOdyssey(2001)The 2001 Mars Odyssey is a robotic spacecraft

orbiting the planet Mars (figure 3-5). The

mission was named after the movie 2001: A

Space Odyssey, and refers to the differences

between the movie and real life by the year 2001.

Overview

Odyssey was launched April 7, 2001 on a Delta

II rocket from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station

and reached Mars on 24th October 2001. The

spacecraft's main engine fired to break the

spacecraft's speed and allowed it to be captured

into orbit around Mars.

Odyssey used a technique called "aero-braking" that gradually brought the spacecraft

closer to Mars with each orbit. Aero-braking ended in January, and Odyssey began its

science mapping mission on February 19, 2002.

Objectives

The main objective of Mars Odyssey is to search for water. If water is found, then this

proves the existence of:

Life on Mars whether it was in the past or nowadays. Atmosphere and its relationship to Earth's climate changes processes. Mars Resources as a solid planet and the study of how it evolved.Achievements

About 85 % of images and other data from NASA's twin Mars rovers (Appendix A1),Spirit and Opportunity, have reached Earth via communications relay by Odyssey,

which receives transmissions from both rovers every day.

The orbiter helped analyze potential landing sites for the rovers and performed thesame task for NASA's Phoenix mission (section 3.5).

Odyssey aided NASA's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, which reached Mars in March2006, by monitoring atmospheric conditions during months when the newly arrived

orbiter used aero-braking to alter its orbit into the desired shape[5].

Figure 3-5 2001 Mars odyssey

Source: marsweb.jpl.nasa.gov./hires/mars-odyssey.jpg


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3.4MarsExplorationRover(2003)NASA's Mars Exploration Rover (Figure 3-6) Mission

is an ongoing robotic mission of exploring Mars, that

began in 2003 with the sending of two rovers; Spirit

and Opportunity to explore the Martian surface and

geology (Appendix A1).

Overview

Primary among the mission's scientific goals is to

search for and characterize a wide range of rocks and

soils that hold clues to past water activity on Mars.

Objectives

The objectives of the rovers, Spirit and opportunity, were to:

Search for rocks and soils that hold clues to past water activity. Determine the distribution and composition of minerals, rocks, and soils surrounding

the landing sites.

Determine what geologic processes have shaped the local terrain and influenced thechemistry.

Search for iron-containing minerals, identify and quantify relative amounts of specificmineral types that contain water or were formed in water, such as iron-bearingcarbonates.

Achievements

Opportunity discovered jarosite which indicates the presence of micro-organisms. Spirit and Opportunity reached the summit of Husband Hill, Colombia Hills, Gusev

Crater and Meridiani planum. Spirit and Opportunity had lasted over five years on the

Martian surface [5].

Figure 3-6 Mars Exploration RoverSource: http://www.planetary.org/image/PIA04413_

mars-exploration-rover_art.jpg>


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3.5PhoenixLander(2008)Phoenix was a robotic spacecraft on a space

exploration mission on Mars under the Mars Scout

Program (figure 3-7). Mission scientists used

instruments aboard the Phoenix Lander to search for

environments suitable for microbial life on Mars,

and to research the history of water there.

Overview

The mission had two goals. The first was to study

the geologic history of water, the key to unlocking

the story of past climate change. The second was

evaluating past or potential planetary habitability in the ice-soil boundary.

Objectives

The main surface mission for the Lander is to sample the Martian soil for ice.

Achievements

The Lander was designed to last 90 days, and had been running on bonus timesince the successful end of its primary mission in August 2008[5].

On July 31, 2008, NASA announced that Phoenix confirmed the presence of waterice on Mars, as predicted on 2002 by the Mars Odyssey orbiter. At last, Phoenixwas able to prove that the conditions on mars were suitable for microbial life.

Mission end

On November 10, Phoenix Mission Control reported the loss of contact with the Phoenix

Lander (the last signal was received on November 2).[6] Immediately prior, Phoenix sent

its final message: "Triumph" in binary.[6] The demise of the craft occurred three weeks

earlier than expected, as a result of a dust storm that reduced power generation even

further.[6] The spacecraft's computer has a safe mode that, theoretically, will attempt to

reestablish communications when the Lander can recharge its batteries next spring.However, its landing location is in an area that is usually part of the north polar ice cap

during the Martian winter, meaning the spacecraft will likely be encased in dry ice. It is

considered unlikely that the spacecraft will survive this condition [7].

Figure 3-7 Phoenix LanderSource: http://media.shinyplastic.com/prodimg/mars

-phoenix-lander.jpg


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4.0MICROBIALLIFEONMARSGenetic studies have shown that microbes living in these extreme environments are most

closely related to the first forms of terrestrial life.

Thus, if life is found on Mars, it will certainly be microbes. In fact for most of Earth'shistory, all the life was on Earth was microbes. And so going to Mars and even finding the

smallest, organism that will be very important because it will confirm that life in our own

solar system started twice. Microbes are tough (they can live under conditions of very high

temperature, acid, and salt). Consequently, microbes literally define the limits and the

potential of life.

The search for tiny microbes would not be easy. Mars is 6,700 kilometers wide and it has

the same land mass as Earth.

4.1ExistenceoffrozenmicrobesMicro-organisms were found in the permafrost in the end of 19th century. It was

discovered that bacteria can survive in the permafrost for far longer than anyone had

thought possible. In 2001, they found bacteria which may turn out to have been at -20C

for more than 10 million years. Bacteria have been buried alive here at Earth in the frozen

ground since before the beginning of human evolution [8].

If life can survive in Antarctica for 15 million years, then something could be waiting to be

revived on Mars

4.2ProofofmicrobiallifeexistenceThe arrival Mariner 4 in 1964, provided evidence of liquid water on Mars in the recent

past. This has led to speculation about whether simple forms of life, like bacteria, might

exist on Mars.

The thin atmosphere of Mars does little to block out damaging radiation from the sun, and

the surface of Mars seems to be sterilized by caustic chemicals like hydrogen peroxide, but

scientists still hold out hope that life on Mars could survive protected below the surface.

Mixtures of water and hydrogen peroxide freeze at much lower temperatures than water

alone. The researchers theorize that microbes might be able to use hydrogen peroxide to

survive at lower temperatures. The idea is based on Earth microbes that use salts. In a

similar way, they can be provided with antifreeze" that keeps them alive in cold

environments. If microbes on Mars adapted to use hydrogen peroxide in a similar way, it

may mean that the Viking results need to be reinterpreted.

Signatures, that indicate microbes, were identified by testing the Martian soil with TEGA

instrument(Appendix A2), identify signatures that indicated microbes. Specific chemicals

that can be detected by TEGA can now serve as biomarkers for possible life on Mars [8].

Jarosite is a yellowish-brown sulfate mineral containing iron, potassium and hydroxide. Itis found in places around the world such as southern California beaches and volcanic


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fields in New Zealand. It forms only in the presence of highly acidic water. In 2004,

Jarosite was found on Mars by Opportunity, one of NASAs Mars Exploration Rovers

(section 3.4). It was a clear evidence for past water on the red planet. But there is

something else about Jarosite that makes it interesting. One of the steps in its formation

involves combining pyrite (ferrous sulfide) with oxygen. This oxidation reaction can be

performed by certain "rock-eating" microorganisms.

The rate of the Jarosite formation would be extremely slow without microbes and the

presence of water, whether Jarosite can form without the assistance of these microbes is

very difficult to prove, since every corner of Earth is occupied by little bugs of some sort

or another.

4.3MethanegasindicatingmicrobiallifeonMarsAmounts of methane were first reported in Mars' atmosphere with a concentration of about

10 ppb by volume [9]. The presence of methane on Mars is very intriguing, since as an

unstable gas it indicates that there must be a source of the gas on the planet. It is estimatedthat Mars must produce 270 ton/year of methane [10], but asteroid (Appendix A2) impacts

account for only 0.8% of the total methane production. The geologic sources of methane

are possible, but the lack of current volcanism, hydrothermal activity and hotspots are not

favorable for geologic methane. The existence of life in the form of micro-organisms, such

as methanogens which produce methane in anoxic conditions (a total decrease in the level

of oxygen), are among possible.

The European Space Agency (ESA) found that the concentration of methane in the

Martian atmosphere was not even, but rather that it coincided with the presence of water

vapor. In the upper atmosphere these two gasses are uniformly distributed, but near the

surface they concentrate in three equatorial regions, namely Arabia Terra, ElysiumPlanitia, andArcadia Memnonia.

Ultimately, to prove an organic nature for the methane, a future probe or Lander hosting a

mass spectrometer will be needed, since the isotopic proportions of C12 to C14 can clearly

distinguish between an inorganic and an organic (biologic, e.g. bacterial decay) origin of

the methane[11]. In 2010, theMars Science Laboratory roverwill measure such isotopes

in CO2 and methane [12].


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4.4NewclaimsSensational new claims about life on Mars were made

by US scientists. Some of the researchers claimed, in

1996, to have found evidence for past life in a Martian

meteorite; it was claimed that an unusual structures in

a meteorite called ALH84001 (figure 4-1) looked like

fossilized bacteria.

The new evidence comes from a study of the so-called

Nakhla meteorite that fell at Nakhla, Egypt, in 1911. It

broke up into many pieces, and years later, a detailed

analysis of the rock revealed it to be one of only 13

known meteorites from the planet Mars. It is estimated

to be about 1.37 billion years old and was thrown into

space when a giant asteroid slammed into Mars

hundreds of millions of years ago.

Examination of the Nakhla meteorite, using an optical and a more powerful scanning

electron microscope (SEM), has revealed rounded particles of a limited size range. The

researchers suggest that these structures are the mineralized remnants of bacteria that once

lived on Mars. They say that their size is similar to bacteria found on Earth [13].

It has to be mentioned that by looking closely at the

alleged fossilized bacterial colonies, scientists say they

are reminded of microbes undergoing the process of

division. One of the structures may even have anextension like a fibril sometimes seen in Earth

bacteria. They even go onto to say that they believe the

Nakhla meteorite may have been colonized by two

generations of bacteria.

It was also mentioned that another meteorite from

Mars, called Shergotty, may also contain the bacterial

fossils (figure 4-2). For most scientists, though, curious

and minute shapes in meteorites are not enough to

make them believe that bacteria once lived on Mars.

They say it is all too easy to be fooled by the shapes ofmineral grains, especially if viewed with an eye

looking for organic shapes [5].

Figure 4-1 Nakhla meteorite ALH 84001

Source: http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/meteoritre

ALH84001.jpg

Figure 4-2 Martian fossil microbe on

meteorite ALH 84001

Source: http://media-2.web.britannica.com/eb-

media/28/75428-004-84C3C5C1.jpg


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5.0CREATINGNEWLIFETransforming Mars into a planet suitable for life is not a science fictional story, but the

whole transformation is based on scientific studies. The planet can now be transformed so

as to allow a wide variety of living things, including humans, to survive unaided on Mars'

surface [14].

5.1TerraformingofMarsTerraforming of Mars is a hypothetical process by which the

climate, surface and known properties of Mars would be

deliberately changed with the goal of making it habitable by

humans and other terrestrial life; and thus providing the

possibility of safe and sustainable colonization of the large areas

of the planet. (Figure 5-1 shows an artists conception of the

process of terraforming), see appendix for further illustrations.

5.1.1ReasonsforTerraformingIn the near future, population growth and demand for resources

may create pressure for humans to colonize new habitats such as

the surface of the Earth's oceans, the sea floor, and nearby

planets, as well as mine the solar system for energy and materials

[15]. Thinking far into the future (in the order of hundreds of

millions of years), some scientists point out that the Sun will

eventually grow too hot for Earth to sustain life, even before itbecomes a red giant star, because all main sequence stars brighten

slowly throughout their lifetimes. When this happens, it will

become imperative for humans to migrate away to areas farther

from the sun if they have any hope of surviving.

It has to be mentioned that through terraforming, humans could

make Mars habitable long before this deadline. Mars could then

be in the habitable zone for a while, giving humanity some

thousand additional years to develop further space technology to

settle on the outer rim of the solar system, before Mars becomesuninhabitable due to the sun's increasing heat.

Figure 5-1 Artist'sconception of the process ofMars terraforming.Source:http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7f/Mars

TransitionV.jpg


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5.1.1.1RelativeSimilaritiesandDifferencestoEarthProgressive studies should be taken in consideration first; if a planet is to be terraformed,

then it must have similarities to Earth according to the following points:

Total number of the hours in a day.

Axial tilt which has a huge role in the duration of the seasons (i.e. summer,winter,...etc.)

Surface area that can be habitable.Atmosphere and amount of water present.

RelativesimilaritiesTable 1 shows the relative similarities between Earth and Mars:

Table 1. Relative similarities between Earth and Mars

Earth Mars

Day time(HH:MM:SS)

24 24:39:35

Axial Tilt (Degree) 23.44 25.19

Equilateral Radius(km)

3 396.2 6,378.1

Surface Area (Km2)

148,940,000 Land

361,132,000 Water144,798,500

Atmospheric

components

Nitrogen (N2), Oxygen (O2),

Argon, Carbon dioxide (CO2),

and, water vapor

Carbon dioxide (CO2),

Nitrogen (N2), Argon,

Oxygen, and water

Water 71% of its area is liquid waterIced water were found

only

Source:


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RelativedifferencesTable 2 shows the relative similarities between Earth and Mars:

Table 2. Relative differences between Earth and Mars

Earth Mars

Orbit around the sun (days) 365.25 685.18

Surface Gravity (g) 0.997 0.376

Temperature (Kelvin) 287 227

Liquid water Exists Doesnt exist

Surface Pressure (kPa) 101.3 0.7 : 0.9

Atmospheric components percentages

78.08% N2

20.95% O2

0.93% Argon

1% water vapor

95% CO2

3% N2

1.6% Argon

Magnetosphere[appendix]

Relatively stronger Weak

5.1.2.RequiredchangesIn order to transform Mars differences into an earth like circumstances, there are some

changes required to be done first. Terraforming Mars would entail two major interlaced

changes: building up the atmosphere and keeping it warm. The atmosphere of Mars is

relatively thin and, since it consists mainly of CO2, a known greenhouse gas. Once the planet begins to heat; more CO2 enters the atmosphere from the frozen reserves on the

poles, adding to the greenhouse effect. This means that the two processes of building the

atmosphere and heating it would augment one another, favoring terraforming. However,

on a large scale, controlled application of certain techniques (explained in the next two

pages) over enough time to achieve sustainable changes, would be required to make this

theory a reality.

Source:


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5.1.2.1.BuildingtheatmosphereUsingChlorofluorocarbonsChlorofluorocarbons (or CFCs) are the most likely candidates for artificial insertion into

the Martian atmosphere because of their strong effect as a greenhouse gas. This can

conceivably be done relatively cheaply by sending rockets with a payload of compressedCFCs on a collision course with Mars [16]. When the rocket crashes onto the surface it

releases its payload into the atmosphere. A steady barrage of these "CFC rockets" would

need to be sustained for a little more than a decade while the planet changes chemicallyand becomes warmer.

As the planet becomes warmer, the CO2 on the polar caps sublimes into the atmosphere

and contributes to the warming effect. The tremendous air currents generated by the

moving gasses would create large, sustained dust storms, which would also contribute to

the warming of the planet by directly heating (through absorbing solar radiation) the

molecules in the atmosphere. Eventually Mars would be warm enough that CO2 could notsolidify on the poles, but liquid water would still not develop because the pressure would

be too low.

After the heavy dust-storms subside, the warmer planet could conceivably be habitable to

some forms of terrestrial life. Certain forms of algae and bacteria that are able to live in the

Antarctic would be prime candidates. By filling a few rockets with algae spores and

crashing them in the polar areas where there would still be water-ice, they could not onlygrow but even thrive in the no-competition, high-radiation, high CO2 environment.

If the algae are successful in propagating themselves around parts of the planet, this wouldhave the effect of darkening the surface and reducing the albedo of the planet. By

absorbing more sunlight, the ground will warm the atmosphere even more, and theatmosphere will have a new small oxygen contribution from the algae. This is still not

enough oxygen for humans to breathe, but it's a step in the right direction. If the

atmosphere grows denser, the atmospheric surface pressure may rise and approximate thatof Earth. At first, until there is enough oxygen in the atmosphere, humans will probably

need nothing more than a breathing mask and a small tank of oxygen that they carry

around with them. To contribute to the oxygen content of the air, factories could be

produced that reduce the metals in the soil, effectively resulting in desired crude metalsand oxygen as a byproduct. Also, by bringing plants with them (along with the microbial

life inherent in fertile topsoil), humans could propagate plant life on Mars, which wouldcreate a sustainable oxygen supply to the atmosphere.

UsingAmmoniaAnother, more intricate method, uses ammonia as a powerful greenhouse gas (as it is

possible that nature has stockpiled large amounts of it in frozen form on asteroidal objectsorbiting in the outer solar system), it may be possible to move these (for example, by using

very large nuclear bombs to blast them in the right direction) and send them into Mars's

atmosphere. Since ammonia (NH3) is high in nitrogen it might also take care of the

problem of needing a buffer gas in the atmosphere. Sustained smaller impacts will alsocontribute to increases in the temperature and mass of the atmosphere.


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The need for a buffer gas is a challenge that will face any potential atmosphere builders.On Earth, nitrogen is the primary atmospheric component making up 77% of the

atmosphere. Mars would require a similar buffer gas component although not necessarily

as much. Still, obtaining significant quantities of nitrogen, argon or some othercomparatively inert gas could prove difficult.

Hydrogen importation could also be done for atmospheric and hydrospheric engineering.Depending on the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, importation and reaction of

hydrogen would produce heat, water and graphite via the Bosch reaction (Appendix A2).

Adding water and heat to the environment will be the key for making the dry, cold worldsuitable for life. Alternatively, reacting hydrogen with the carbon dioxide atmosphere via a

certain reaction would yield methane and water. The methane could be vented into theatmosphere where it would act to compound the greenhouse effect.

5.1.2.2.AddingheatAdding heat and conserving heat present is a particularly important stage of this process,

as heat from the Sun is the primary driver of planetary climate. Since long term climatestability would be required for sustaining a human population, the use of especially

powerful greenhouse gases possibly including halocarbons such as CFCs and PFCs hasbeen suggested. A proposal to mine fluorine-containing minerals as a source of these gases

is supported by the belief that since the quantities present are expected to be at least as

common on Mars as on Earth, this process could sustain the production of sufficientquantities of optimal greenhouse compounds (CF3SCF3, CF3OCF2OCF3, CF3SCF2SCF3,

CF3OCF2NFCF3) to maintain Mars at 'comfortable' temperatures, as a method of

maintaining an Earth-like atmosphere produced previously by some other means [16].

Another way to increase the temperature could be to direct small cosmic bodies asteroidsonto the Martian surface (Appendix A1); the impact energy would be released as heat and

could evaporate Martian water ice to steam, which is also a greenhouse gas.

5.1.2.3.SolarradiationMars has no global geomagnetic field comparable to Earth's. Combined with a thin

atmosphere, this permits a significant amount of ionizing radiation to reach the Martian

surface. The Mars Radiation Environment Experiment (MARIE) found that radiationlevels in orbit above Mars are 2.5 times higher than at the International Space Station. A

three year exposure to such levels would be close to the safety limits currently adopted by

NASA. Levels at the Martian surface would be somewhat lower and might varysignificantly at different locations depending on altitude and local magnetic fields.

Occasional solar proton events (SPEs) produce much higher doses. Some SPEs were

observed by MARIE that were not seen by sensors near Earth due to the fact that SPEs aredirectional. This would imply that a network of spacecraft in orbit around the Sun might

be needed to ensure all SPEs threatening Mars were detected.


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5.2ColonizationofMarsMars is the focus of much speculation and serious study about possible human

colonization. The Moon has been proposed as the first location for human colonization,

but unlike Earth's moon, Mars has the potential capacity to host human and other organic

life. With an environment suitable for colonization, and potential for alteration into a

stable ecosystem in the far future, Mars is considered by most scientists, including Stephen

Hawking [14], as the ideal planet for future colonization and renewal of life. The

colonization of Mars is a thought-provoking subject that captures the imagination of many

people in science and science-fiction. The project of colonizing Mars provides a useful

thought experiment for contemplating the future of humanity.

5.2.1GettingthereEarth and Mars are circling the sun in different speeds and different orbits (figure 5-2).

The Mars craft was set course for a moving target

travelling millions of kilometers. This critical task is

being studied by the European space agency. Their job is

to help decide the spaceship trajectory.

There are two choices:

1) Choice one is to go to Mars when it is closest tothe Earth (56 million kilometers away). This

option requires the least fuel so less weight. But

the minus side is that astronauts can only come

home when the two planets are close together once more which would be only after

18 months. They have to live 18 months on the isolated deadly planet.

2) Choice two, which is riskier, is, on coming back, a short stay mission. The spaceship swings by Venus and uses the planets gravity as a slim shot that saves fuel.

But the time range to reach Venus is short, if they miss it, the astronauts will not

come home.

The safest of all is to go to Mars and return back directly in the shortest time and by using

less fuel. The best fuel that can be used is nuclear energy [17].

5.2.1.1PsychologicalandPhysicaleffectsThe human factor is one of the greatest risks of the voyage to Mars. Can any 6 people live

together for a year in a spaceship the size of an apartment without someone cracking up?

Psychological effects

Crew members would be expected to remain in space under conditions of confinement and

microgravity for months to years. Furthermore, a relatively large number of individuals

would interact around complicated tasks that may be different. The ability of these of crew

members to work together in space over long periods of time has not been studied

adequately.

An astronaut, Jerry Linenger, spent 5 months above a Russian space ship. He cant

imagine the impact of a two and a half year mission to Mars. He says, I cant imagine

Figure 5-2 Orbits of earth and MarsSource: www.wiki edia.com


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how I was isolated and cut off and how vulnerable I was. I felt some serious psychological

problems developing. The journey to Mars is an exercise on boredom, slipping days,

aerobic exercises, and dehydrated meals. There is very little to do and nowhere to escape.

Physical effects

The psychological anguish is only one problem; the physical effects are much more

serious. Bones and muscles weaken radically at zero gravity and NASA still doesn't have

solutions. Jerry spent 132 consecutive days in space, that's lee than one third of the travel

time to Mars and back. He lost 65% of his strength level and lost about 13-14% of the

bone mass [17].

5.2.1.2Nuclearpower:Rockets are chemical powered, they require millions of pounds of fuel, and in space travel,

weight is the enemy. One of NASA's engineers has an answer, which is "A nuclear

efficient propulsion system. The benefits of nuclear power are that it has higher gasmileage, which is twice that of the chemical rockets. That means that we would have fewer

number of heavy-lift launch vehicles. Scientists were convinced that chemical rockets,

with their limited payloads and high cost, represented the wrong approach to space travel.

Orion, they argued, was simple, capacious, and above all affordable. Furthermore, it is

faster and decreases the time of the trip from 18 to 2 months, which is the aim of such

rocket. A nuclear pulse drive starship powered by matter-antimatter pulse

units would be theoretically capable of obtaining a velocity up to 50% of

the speed of light [15].

The birth of Orion

Project Orion shown in (figure 5-3) was an advanced rocket design

explored in the 1960s. Orion was designed to replace the Space Shuttle and

eventually return to the Moon. Missions that were designed for an Orion

vehicle in the original project included single stage (i.e., directly from

Earth's surface) to Mars and back.

The 1960s Project Orion examined the feasibility of building a nuclear-

pulse rocket powered by nuclear fission. The scientists, Ulam and Everett,

suggested releasing atomic bombs behind a spacecraft, followed by disks

made of solid propellant. The bombs would explode, vaporizing the

material of the disks and converting it into hot plasma. As this plasma

rushed out in all directions, some of it would catch up with the spacecraft,

impinge upon a pusher plate, and so drive the vehicle forward [15].Figure 5-3 The

basic Orion designSource:http://media.s

hinyplastic.com


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Later modifications and developments

Ulam and Everett's idea was modified by de Hoffman so that instead of propellant disks,

the propellant and bomb were combined into a single pulse unit. The effective specific

impulse could theoretically be as high as 10,000 to one million seconds. A series of abrupt

jolts would be experienced by the pusher plate and a shock absorbing system was devised

so that the impulse energy delivered to the plate could be stored and then graduallyreleased to the vehicle as a whole.

This called for a 40-million-ton spacecraft to be powered by the sequential release of ten

million bombs, each designed to explode roughly 60 m to the vehicle's back. In the more

immediate future, Orion was envisaged as a means of transporting large expeditions to the

Moon, Mars, and Saturn [17].

5.2.2PossiblelocationsforcoloniesThe selection of location in which a colony is to be formed is not an easy task. Scientistshave studied several locations on the surface of Mars, for example, as seen in (figure 5-4),

and chose the following locations [18]:

Polar Regions: Mars' north and south poles have seasonally-varying polar ice capshave long been observed by telescope from Earth. The largest concentration of water

was found near the North Pole.

Equatorial Regions: Mars Odyssey foundnatural caves near the volcano Arsia Mons.

Water ice and geothermal energy weresuspected on the ground of the caves.

Colonists could possibly benefit from both

shelters from radiation and ice reservoirs.

Midlands: The two Mars ExplorationRovers, Spirit and Opportunity, have

encountered very different soil and rock

characteristics. This suggests that the

Martian landscape is quite varied and the

ideal location for a colony would be better

determined when more data become available.

Valles Marineris: Valles Marineris, the "Grand Canyon" of Mars, is over 3,000 kmlong and averages 8 km deep. Atmospheric pressure at the bottom would be some

25% higher than the surface average. The canyon runs roughly east-west, so shadows

from its walls should not interfere too badly with solar power collection. River

channels lead to the canyon, indicating it was once flooded.

Figure 5-4 Eagle Crater, as seen from Opportunity

Source: http://media.shinyplastic.com/prodimg/mars-

phoe nix-lander.jpg


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5.2.3BuildingsmallstationsonthemoonOverview

NASA announces plans to build a moon base that

would house a new generation of lunar explorers. The

plan calls for a return to the moon by 2020, with a

rudimentary base camp established by 2024. But the

ambitious plan faces some stiff technical and political

challenges. For that aim, NASA has been designing

rockets that it callsApollo on steroids.

A lunar base would look something like a dusty trailer

park in Antarctica during winter. It would need to have

a landing pad, and possibly a parking lot for a rover.

(Figure 5-5)

Using our moon to practice life on Mars

The Moon is also viewed as a place where the basic principles can be tested for the first time.

Although the lunar and Martian environments differ in detail, there are important similarities.

Many subsystems such as electrolysis cells, gas liquefaction systems, life support, operational

autonomy, surface mobility, and storage and handling systems, will be common for the Moon

and Mars. In addition, the Moon can be an important location for the study of the long-term

effects on humans and human activity in less than 1-g environments. This understanding is

critical to the safety of the first astronauts who will spend extensive time traveling to and

exploring the surface of Mars.

The lunar surface has a unique record of the first billion years of impact history and records

the chronology of inner-solar-system evolution in a cumulative form. The Martian time scaleis thought to be similar to that of the Moon, although the rate of collisions at Mars' impact

history might be higher due to its close proximity to the asteroid belt.

5.2.4Problemsfacingcolonization5.2.4.1CommunicationCommunications with Earth are relatively straightforward during the half-sol when the Earth is

above the Martian horizon. NASA included communications relay equipment in several of the

Mars orbiters, so Mars already has communications satellites. But, additional orbiters with

communication relay capability are likely to be launched before any colonization expeditions

are mounted. It has to be mentioned that the main problem is the one-way communication

delay due to the speed of light ranges approximately from about 3 to 22 minutes. Telephone

conversations or Internet Relay Chat between Earth and Mars would be highly impractical due

to the long time lags involved. NASA has found that direct communication can be blocked for

about two weeks every synodic period, around the time of superior conjunction when the Sun

is directly between Mars and Earth. A satellite at either of the Earth-Sun L4/L5 Lagrange

points could serve as a relay during this period to solve the problem, or even a constellation of

communications satellites, which would be a minor expense in the context of a full-blown

Mars colonization program [17].

Figure 5-5 Building a base on the moon to goto MarsSource: http://media.shinyplastic.com/prodimg/moon-station.jpg


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6.0CONCLUSION The American astronomerPercival Lowell popularized the idea of life on Mars when

he saw the lines crossing Marss surface, which he thought to be canals liking Martian

cities.

For Lowells theory, many spacecrafts were sent to Mars. Mariner 4 was one of thespacecrafts intended for planetary exploration in a flyby mode and retuned the first

pictures of the Martian surface. The Viking program formed most of the database of

information about Mars. The Viking Lander carried instruments to achieve the

primary scientific objectives of the Lander mission. Odyssey was then sent to

understand the potential for life elsewhere in the Universe and understand the

relationship to Earths climate change processes. Odyssey was followed by Mars

Exploration Rover and its aim was to explore the Martian surface and geology.

Finally, the Phoenix Lander was launched and it was able to find ice caps on the

Martian surface.

The beginning of the search for life on Mars was to search for microbial life asmicrobes were the first living organisms on Earth, millions of years before the

existence of humans. As the temperature on Mars is extremely cold, Antarctica is the

most similar place on Earth to Mars, and truly microbes were able to survive under

such conditions. So scientists believed that life can be created after applying some

changes on the climate, surface, and other properties of Mars.

Colonization of Mars would require extreme actions. Colonization needs transformingthe entire planet into an artificial Earth. This involves creating more oxygen andraising the temperature of the atmosphere. Once this is done, then we can assume that

water exists in a free form on the Martian surface, and it again will create rivers, lakes

and oceans, which will be used for the survival of living creatures.

After Mars is terraformed, it can be habitable by human. But scientists have to thinkabout the means of transportation. For spacecrafts to go to mars and come back again,

it would take 18 months. The proposed solution is to use nuclear energy as a fuel as it

can decrease the time needed from 18 to 2 months. After the time of the trip is

decreased, almost all the problem facing life on Mars are solved. So, life can truly

start on Mars.

Mars is our new world. One day, millions of people will live there. What languagewill they speak? What values and traditions will they cherish as they move from there

to the solar system and beyond? When they look back on our time, will any of our

other actions compare in value with what we do now to bring their society into being?

Today we have the opportunity to be the parents, the founders, the shapers of a new

branch of the human family. By doing that, we will put our stamp on the future. It is a

privilege not to be disdained lightly.

.


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References[1] C.Kenneth, "Gauging Age of Universe Becomes More Precise," New York Times,

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Universe, Retrieved on September 24, 2008.

[2] P. Lowell, "Mars and its canals," http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_on_Mars.[3] C. Paul, "Life on Mars; The Complete Story," London, 1999,

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_on_Mars.

[4] V. McGregor, "Phoenix Mission Status Report," Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif, October29, 2008, http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.cfm?release=2008-200.

[5] C. Mckay, W. Boynton, Life on Mars. 48 min. BBC Learning Channel, 2003.(DVD)[6] http://twitter.com/MarsPhoenix/status/999393608.[7] A.J.S. Rayl, "Sun Sets on Phoenix, NASA Declares End of Mission," Planetary News, Retrieved on

November 11, 2008, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenix_lander#cite_ref-56.

[8] Is it Real Life on Mars. 47 min. National Geographic, 2002.(DVD)[9] M. Mumma, "Mars Methane Boosts Chances for Life,

"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Mars#cite_note-repeat1-8, Retrieved on 2007.

[10] V. Krasnopolsky, "Some problems related to the origin of methane on Mars," Icarus, vol. 180, no. 2,pp. 359367, February 2005, http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WGF-

4HTCW362&_user=10&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&vers

ion=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=a614a9e35a422b94cc2611ccdc4bf180.

[11] M. Nicholas, "Missions to Mars during the Third Millennium," NASA,http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Mars#cite_note-nasa-15.

[12] T. David, "Making Sense of Mars Methane, " Astrobiology Magazine," June 9, 2008,http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Mars#cite_note-16, Retrieved on October 8, 2008.

[13] B. Maxwell, NS-Life on Mars. 47 min. (DVD) No date.[14] Z. Robert, "Touchstone," 1996, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonization_of_Mars#cite_note-8.[15]N. Savage, T. Marshall," The Millennial Project: Colonizing the Galaxy in Eight Easy Steps", 1994,

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terraforming_of_Mars#cite_note-0.

[16] P. Ahrens, "Keeping Mars warm with new super greenhouse gases,"http://www.pnas.org/content/98/5/2154.full.

[17] Mars Rising ep.1 Journey to the Red Planet. 45 min. Discovery Channel, 2004. (DVD)[18] D. Shiga, "Stephen Hawking calls for Moon and Mars colonies," April 2008,

http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn13748?feedId=online-news_rss20.


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AppendixPhysicalcharacteristicsofMarsSoilMartian soil is slightly alkaline and containing vital nutrients such as magnesium, sodium,

potassium and chloride, all of which are necessary for living things to grow. The martian pHsoil test discovered traces of the salt perchlorate. Its presence, make the soil more exotic than

previously believed.

HydrologyLiquid water cannot exist on the surface of Mars with its present low atmospheric pressure,

except at the lowest elevations for short period, but water ice is in no short supply, with two

polar ice caps made largely of ice. Higher resolution observations from spacecraft like Mars

Global Surveyor also revealed at least a few hundred features along crater and canyon walls

that appear similar to terrestrial seepage gullies.

MagnetosphereMars lost its magnetosphere 4 billion years ago, so the solar wind interacts directly with theMartian ionosphere, keeping the atmosphere thinner than it would otherwise be by stripping

away atoms from the outer layer.

ClimateMars's seasons are the most Earth-like, due to the similar tilts of the two planets' rotational

axes. However, the lengths of the Martian seasons are about twice those of Earth's, as Mars

greater distance from the Sun leads to the Martian year being about two Earth years in length.

Martian surface temperatures vary from lows of about 133K (140 C) during the polar

winters to highs of up to 293 K (20 C) in summers.

MoonsMars has two tiny natural moons, Phobos and Deimos, which orbit very close to the planet and

are thought to be captured asteroids.

NASAprobesA space probe is a scientific space exploration mission in which a robotic spacecraft leaves the

gravity well of Earth and approaches the Moon or enters interplanetary or interstellar space;

approximately twenty are currently extant. The space agencies of the USSR (now Russia and

Ukraine), the United States, the European Union, Japan, India and China have in the aggregate

launched probes to several planets and moons of the solar system as well as to a number of

asteroids and comets.

AlbedoFeatureAn albedo feature is a large area on the surface of a planet (or other solar system body) which

shows a contrast in brightness or darkness (albedo) with adjacent areas.

Historically, albedo features were the very first (and usually only) features to be seen and

named on Mars and Mercury. Early classical maps (such as those of Schiaparelli and

Antoniadi) showed only albedo features, and it was not until the arrival of space probes that

other surface features such as craters could be seen.

The very first albedo feature ever seen on another planet was Syrtis Major on Mars in the 17thcentury.

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Today, thanks to space probes, very high-resolution images of surface features on Mars and

Mercury are available, and the classical nomenclature based on albedo features has fallen

somewhat into disuse. It is however still used for Earth-based observing of Mars by amateur

astronomers.

MARSEXPLORATIONROVERSRover stands 1.5 m (4.9 ft) high, 2.3 m (7.5 ft) wide and 1.6 m (5.2 ft) long. They weigh 180

kg (400 lb), 35 kg (80 lb) of which is the wheel and suspension system. The rover has a top

speed on flat hard ground of 50 mm/s (2 in/s).

When fully illuminated, the rover triple-junction solar arrays generate about 140 watts for up to

four hours per sol. The rover needs about 100 watts to drive. Its power system includes two

rechargeable lithium ion batteries that provide energy when the sun is not shining.

The NASA team uses actual video game applications called SAP to view images collected

from the rover, and to plan its daily activities. There is a version available to the public called

Maestro [5].

TheTEGAinstrumentThe Thermal and Evolved Gas Analyzer(TEGA) is a scientific instrument aboard the Phoenix

spacecraft. TEGA's design is based on experience gained from the failed Mars Polar Lander.

Soil samples taken from the Martian surface by the robot arm are eventually delivered to the

TEGA, where they are heated in an oven to about 1,000C. This heat causes the volatile

compounds to be given off as gases which are sent to a mass spectrometer for analysis. This

spectrometer is adjusted to measure particularly the isotope ratios for oxygen, carbon, nitrogen,

and heavier gases. Detection values as low as 10 parts per billion. The Phoenix TEGA has 8

ovens, which are enough for 8 samples [6].

AsteroidsSometimes called minor planets or planetoids, are bodiesprimarily of the inner Solar

Systemthat are smaller than planets but larger than meteoroids, but exclude comets. The

distinction between asteroids and comets is made on visual appearance when discovered:

Comets show a perceptible coma while asteroids do not.

BoschreactionIs a chemical reaction between carbon dioxide and hydrogen that produces elemental carbon(graphite), water and a 10% return of invested heat. This reaction requires the introduction of

iron as a catalyst and requires a temperature level of 530-730 degrees.

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