LicentaAnaPopescufinish.docx

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Introduction

It always seemed interesting to me how a nation can write its own history, endure all the changes

that time brought along and how eventually be able to set its hallmark on each life aspect and evolution.

Whether we talk about scientific discoveries or successful progress in different domains, it always comes

down to people. Because human nature is capable to step out of its boundaries and create something that

will provide her with the freedom to judge how it is best to live. So in my final thesis I have decided to

choose the American history, and find out how it met its most tremendous evolutions and became todays

Land of All Possibilities. But most of all I wanted to emphasize how a nation implementing so strong

its isolationism policy, succeeded eventually to change the course of the two most horrendous periods of

the 20th

century: the Two World Wars. More precisely, my thesis deals with the political and militaryinvolvement of the United States in these wars.

Because Im a student at the Faculty of Letters, many would be surprised about my choice to

prepare my final paper about these aspects that seem more proper to be debated by a student in the field

of history. But encouraged by the course of American Culture and Civilization we took in the second

year, I have decided to choose a subject that would combine my love for history and the aspects of

American civilization. It was not easy to write about the United States, it was not easy to understand the

aspects under which the American democracy and people are displayed, but it is simple enough to

acknowledge that the bases of the United States were laid on the true American spirit. Because it was

formed by the colonists of different ethnic backgrounds, because those men and women had different

political, social, religious and economic beliefs, in order for the United States to become a nation, they

decided to recognize and accept the idea of cultural pluralism. But this ideal, that from a multitude of

cultures one could create a unity, has not always been accomplished. Instead of being tolerant, the

Americans proved sometimes to be hostile to those with a different skin color, other religion or who came

from other cultural background.

This paper summarizes in three chapters the most important stages in the American history and itconcentrates on the effective contribution that the United States brought in the world wars. I began by

talking about its early discovering and how little by little the 13 colonies gained their independence, thus,

setting the premises for democracy.

The second chapter deals with the Americans strong belief that it is best if they do not interfere

in other nations politics or conflicts, a belief that was put to doubt when it was time to decide whether to

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enter the World War I or not. It is unquestionable that if the United States hesitated longer in

participating in the war, the faith of the world would have been much worse. Although it entered late in

the war, the few months the U.S. army fought were decisive for the course of the event. From a military

and political point of view, World War I assigned the United States as one of the leaders in the

community of nations. With an army that was experiencing for the first time the horrors of a war and witha visionary leader like Woodrow Wilson, the United States proved that it can fight as well as any other

European country and gain a well known respect for that. But all the sacrificed lives for the well being of

mankind were not enough; yet the decisions and agreements that the world powers made at the end of the

war brought even more resentment. Along with World War I, United States entered a new phase in its

evolution, becoming more aware of the fact that the stability of the world was to be dictated from then on

by the economic spheres. In the third chapter, the trigger of World War II increased the stake for the

U.S., as it was more difficult for it to face the rising power of the European countries, and yet respect its

neutrality.

After the Pearl Harbor attack, it became clear for the Americans that neutrality can no longer be

kept and they entered the war not only with the desire to get even but also to eradicate the ideological

concept of fascism that threatened to take over. The course of the war took a drastic turn once the

Americans decided to create and use the most deadly weapon ever: the atomic bomb. The fact that they

spent billions of dollars without knowing for sure if the weapon would even work in order to shorten the

effects of the war it is a matter that today, more than ever, questions whether it was necessary to use it or

not. Since then, the Unites States have been a changing country, a nation on the move and in a constantevolution, where democracy represents a path for a nation in search of a common ground.

I. The Beginnings of the New World

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1.1. Discovery of America and Forming the 13 Colonies

North America as we see it today represents a contrast of cultures, civilizations, beliefs and

religions. From the early stages of its discovery until today, North America has created a path towards

what is now called:the land of all possibilities. Although at first it was an isolated continent and thepopulation did not have contact with other civilizations for a long time, when the white man came to

America to colonize it, he came with centuries of European know-how behind him (Galateanu-Farnoaga,

2006, p.18), and managed to develop and use the land effectively. Many believe that it was Christopher

Columbus the first to have discovered America, but they are mistaken, because it was a Norse trader

called Bjarni Herjulfsson, but who did not land there.

Along time, North America became the settlement of many European colonists, who came mostly

from Britain and France. The French spread widely, but were not able to keep their possessions. So these

possessions were taken over by the British. They formedBritish colonies, and by the end of 18 century,

there were 13 colonies along the Atlantic Coast. Later on, they formed the American states. The colonies

are: Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New York,

New Jersey, Delaware, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia.

During the 18th century, the farmers and workers from the colonies work their way to establish a

society and a distinctive culture. They produced their own food, furniture, agricultural need, and they

lived in isolated areas and had little contact with the British government. Alongside white settlers, there

were the black people, who were brought from Africa to serve as servants. They were considered to be

inferior to white people and they were treated likewise. In time, laws have been passed, that made blacks

servants for life and slavery became a natural matter.

1.2. Breaking from the English Monarchy

During most of the colonial period, Britain did not pay the American colonies too much interest,

and the colonists had the opportunity and freedom to govern themselves as they wanted and even disobey

some British laws. But after the Seven Years war with France, Britains economy was strongly affected,

so the obvious way to reestablish the economy was by raising taxes in both Britain and in the colonies.

The colonists were obviously against such measure and also protested against the new trade regulations.

It all began in 1773, with what is known as: The Boston Tea Party, when a band of local

people disguised as Native Americans, boarded on 3 British ships that transported tea and dumped the tea

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into the water. They began to realize that their rights were not respected and they protested against the

taxation, on the grounds that they were not represented in the British Parliament. Theyre slogan was:

No taxation without Representation.

The British government reacted immediately, by imposing an increased control of British troops

in the colonies. In 1774, the colonies decided that it was time to put an end to all the British control andthat is why, 12 of the 13 colonies sent representatives to a meeting, which took place in Philadelphia, the

First Continental Congress. The spirit for independence grew and in the Second Continental Congress,

Richard H. Lee from Virginia, stated in his famous resolution that: these united colonies are, and ought

to be free and independent states. The Congress at a certain point began to assume the role of a national

government and in June 1775, the Congress established the Continental Army and a continental currency.

Gradually, the colonies cut the ties with Britain and the American ports were opened to commerce with

other nations.

The Congress has chosen a Committee, whose role was to write a Declaration of Independence.

The Committee of 5 was formed of: John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, Roger Sherman

and Robert Livingston. The actual writing of the declaration was made by Jefferson and the other

changes by Adams and Franklin. It took 18 days to write it. In the end, the Declaration was intended to

be an expression of the American mind, as Jefferson stated, and it was eventually adopted on July the 4th

1776. The Declaration offered a clear view for the Americans to realize that they were fighting for

independence and equal right for all men.

1.3. The Independence War and the Constitution

The Americans were lead in the war by George Washington. Because they were outnumbered by

the British army, Washington agreed upon short surprise attacks. One important battle was the one at

Saratoga, in October 17th 1777, won by the Americans. Soon after, in the help of the colonies came

France and Spain. The help of France turned the balance in favor of the colonies, due to the fact that the

French were blocking the harbor so that the British could not get supplies. With few resources andoutnumbered, the British troops, leaded by General Charles Cornwallis, surrendered on October 19 th

1781. At last, the United States of America became an independent nation.

In 1787, the representatives of the states met in Philadelphia, in order to draft the Constitution of

the United States, and to decide upon the government form. The representatives decided that George

Washington should be the leader of the nation, but he refused to be crowned king and decided that the

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nation needed a president, a leader who presides over the government for a limited period of time. By

June 1788, the Constitution of the Unites States had been accepted by 9 states, and became official. Not

all states accepted the Constitution due to the fact that it did not include protection for the citizens against

wrong use of power by government. This problem was solved, by adopting 10 amendments known as

The Bill of Rights. The First Amendment guarantees the freedom of speech, freedom of religion,freedom of press and the right of the people to petition the government for a redress of grievances.

Both the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution have developed and amplified the

democratic essence of the American society, the ideas of a young country about how a nation should live,

what government form should be adopted and which are the governments and citizens responsibilities

in order to guarantee freedom.

1.4. The Civil War

After the War for Independence, the so-called equal rights and freedoms for all people did not

come along with it. At first, only white male property owners could vote, the black slaves, largely in

South remained unfree, women could not vote and had little legal rights. The problem of slavery became

the major cause of the Civil war, because the North states did not agree with the situation of the blacks in

the South. They were exploited, and had no rights at all. The Souths economy was based on agriculture,

and depended on slaves for labor. The North states wanted to make slavery illegal, but the South did not

accept that others interfere in their laws and dictate how to treat people. From this point forward, the

Southern states broke from the Union and formed the Confederate States of America, or shorter, the

Confederacy. Their president was Jefferson Davis, the former secretary of war.

The war between North and South erupted, and the Confederate army led by Robert E. Lee,

managed to hold the Union army from taking the South for 4 years, during which 620.000 Americans

died fighting each other. The turning point of the war was in 1863 with the battle of Gettysburg, which

the Union army won, and after which, President Lincoln declared slavery illegal. On April 9, 1865, the

South surrendered and the North began to impose a series of strict and severe peace terms.The period after the war was called Reconstruction, during which the blacks claimed their rights

and the south economy was at its lowest level. The blacks better conditions did not last long and the

whites had taken over the southern states again, repressing the blacks even harder than before. The

blacks persecution lasted until the 1960s when the Civil Rights Movement activity took place, under the

leadership of Martin Luther King Jr.

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The end of the Civil War was the beginning of a period of American prosperity, which led to the

first big growth of the national government. By the beginning of the twentieth century, the Unites States

went through a series of economical and social changes, that historians called industrialization. It was a

flourishing period, during which the investors had taken the opportunity to make money. The businesses

with oil, steel and railroads grew at a phenomenal pace, and the agricultural sector, due to the richness ofthe land, turned the United States in the worlds greatest food producer. The various industry branches

that a long time achieved prosperity needed of course workers. Many of these workers were among the

millions of immigrants that came to America between 1880 and 1910. They gathered in areas where jobs

were available, mostly in urban regions that were well served by the railroad. After the flourishing years

of industrialization, there came a turning point in the American and worlds history that changed the lives

of people and the map of the world. That is World War I.

II. United States at War

2.1. The Premises of the War

World War I, or The Great War, represents the first major political and military event of the

twentieth century. Although it was fought on several continents, most of the battles took place in Europe.6


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The war devastated most of Europe, and at the end of it, life was never going to be the same again. The

war could have been prevented, and so the lives and resources of the country. But most of the world

leaders thought the war was inevitable, and they encouraged men to go and fight for their freedom and

make the world a better and safer place. But while Europe was under siege, the Unites States, separated

from Europe by an ocean, was not that keen to enter the war and kept its neutrality until 1917.But what triggered the start of this world disaster? The great powers of Europe built up huge

armies and formed two alliances; one alliance included Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy, and was

called the Triple Alliance, and the other The Triple Entente, consisted of France, Russia and Great

Britain. Each country was fighting a war of its own, demanding recognition as world power, especially

Great Britain and Germany, which were in a constant race for the control of the seas. The tensions

between the countries grew, also because France, fearing the German military arsenal, hoped that Britain

will fight against Germany, if the latter attacked neutral Belgium, Frances neighbor. Still these factors

did not really engage the war.

The crisis began in June 1914, in Bosnia, a region in the Balkans, ruled by Austria-Hungary,

where Serbian patriots killed the Austrian-Hungarian heir to the throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, in

Sarajevo. Immediately, Germany, ally of Austria-Hungary, promised to help it, in order to punish Serbia.

The countries sent ultimatums to each other and began to mobilize for war. On August 28 th, Austria-

Hungary declared war against Serbia, and Russia, ally of Serbia, also entered the war, fighting against

Germany.

One event triggered the other, and France, which was bound by the treaty signed with Russia,found itself at war against Germany. Great Britain tried to remain neutral, but when Germany invaded

neutral Poland, in order to reach Paris by the shortest way, Britain declared war, being obliged to defend

Belgium by the terms of the Treaty of London, from 1839. Italy declared itself neutral. The invasion of

Belgium and the attack on France caught the Allies by surprise. The German plan was to overwhelm

France then turn its force on Russia.

There were two main battle fronts. The Western Front was the one where German and French

troops were engaged in a war where neither side could take down the enemy. On the Eastern Front,

Russian troops could not face the well prepared German army, and were massacred. At sea, Great Britain

was trying to block the German offensive, by cutting off the ships with food and supply for Germany. In

order to force its victory, Germany proclaimed unrestricted submarine warfare against every ship,

violating the traditional international law. The ships of neutral countries that were suspected carrying

supplies for the enemies were attacked and sunk by the German submarines. Germany was fully aware

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that this step might cause a break and a possible war with the United States, whose ships were also

targeted.

2.2. US-Neutrality and Diplomacy

In the period previous to World War I, the US president, Woodrow Wilson, was continuing the

reforms and laws that his predecessors initiated, and believed that the presidents duty was to look out

for the general interests of the whole country. When World War I burst in Europe, Wilson turned his

attention to the international events. He decided that the United States should remain neutral and not get

involved in a war that wasnt theirs. But the war began for the American corporations long before it did

for the people. American companies were producing military supplies for the British and the allies. The

more intense the battles, the more armament and supplies the Allies ordered from American companies,

and the more money they borrowed from American banks. In other words, the United States became the

creditor of the Allies and its prosperity depended on the results of the war.

In the meantime, Wilson talked more and more about neutrality, he was a thinker and a dreamer.

He dreamed of world peace and worked hard on keeping the United States out of the European conflict.

His ideals were shared by the so-called non-interventionists. From its early years, United States adopted a

policy of isolationism, that is, not to interfere in the affairs of other nations. During the American exports

of munitions and supplies, US congressmen opposed frenetically against these actions. One of them was

Texas Congressman James H. Davis, who accused governmental and industrial moguls of forming cabals

to force upon the country a stupendous program of military preparedness, hoping to put in the White

House a dictator to execute it. Other Congressmen called "a conspiracy to force our country into a war

with Germany".

Along with the Congressmen were many American activists, who protested against a war that

wasnt theirs and against the American Government which instigated American workers to go to war for

the sake of their country. Although overall, the Unites States was a prosperous country, many of its

people were facing poverty, unemployment and labor exploitation. American activists believed that thegovernment, by sending the people to war, was not defending the United States, but the interests of the

major corporations, the investors and also the American capital, due to the fact that the Unites States

economy depended on the result of the war. Many believed that this sacrifice would have been

understandable, if people would die for a country that assured them a decent living and respected them.

But it was not the case here. The American workers would go fight and die for other peoples country,

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other peoples sentiments, other peoples liberties and other peoples happiness (Zinn, Arnove, 2009, p.

287).

It was only in 1915, when a German submarine sank the British ocean liner Lusitania, which

carried more than 1200 of passengers, 128 of them being Americans, which raised among the Americans

the awareness of the war. For a while, it seemed that president Wilson would not change his positionregarding the war. He firmly continued to sustain Americas neutrality. He even decided to run for a

second term as president, which he won, in 1916, with the sloganHe kept us out of war! His reelection

reflected the wish of most Americans to stay out of what they still believed it was Europes war. Wilson

tried to avoid war by diplomatic means, sending a peaceful message to Germany, in which he offered his

help in order to reach an agreement that could lead to the end of the war and create a League of

Nations.

But when Germany declared unrestricted submarine warfare against all ships, President Wilson

protested against this action, and cut off the diplomatic relations with Germany. This was the final step in

declaring war. Another reason which led the United States into war was the conspiracy between Germany

and Mexico, which the British informed President Wilson about. In a telegram from Zimmermann to his

minister in Mexico, he asked the aid of Mexico, in case the United States entered the war against

Germany.

Also the news about the Bolshevik revolution that broke in Russia and the abdication of the Tsar

has precipitated Wilsons decision of involving US in the war. These represent the most important causes

that lead Unites States to war, but most people believed that it was inevitable for US to maintain itsneutrality, due to the huge Pro-British propagandas and the fact that the American economy would have

suffered badly if US did not take part in the action. It is believed that Winston Churchill, at that time, the

British Minister of Munitions, had a big influence in dragging US in the war, for hope of maintaining

British victory.

2.3. War Declaration and Propaganda

Only 90 days after the beginning of his second term, on April 2 nd 1917 President Wilson delivered a

speech before the Congress and asked to declare war against Germany. At the end of his speech, people

would cheer and ovate him, but Wilsons response to that was:My message today was a message of

death for our young men. How strange it seems they would cheer that". It represents one of the greatest

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ironies of the history, that President Wilson, who won the re-elections by promoting a peaceful attitude

and message, was the one that eventually decided to lead American in the war.

A major role in the decisions which got American in the war was played by the strong propagandas

and the public opinion about the significance and the liability of the democracy as a spirit of governing.

Most of America was divided due to the pros and cons of getting involved in the war, the Americanimmigrants being of European origins. There were 8 million German-Americans living in United States,

many understanding and taking the side of Germany, but most Americans had no connections with the

European conflict and were not interested in promoting the war.

Pacifists like Randolph Bourne, believed that in times like that, the State succeeds in convincing its

people that their loyalty towards the country and their patriotism are the utmost human values which will

bring unity and peace. People foolishly believe that the State ideals cannot be accomplished in other way

than by war. They have the perspective of the whole, which every person identifies herself with, the

activities of the society are centered on creating a military defense or military offensive, and above all

these the State becomes what in peace times does not even bother to be, that is a determinant of peoples

opinions, actions and attitudes. Many pacifists would have agreed with Bertrand Russell that "the greatest

difficulty was the purely psychological one of resisting mass suggestion, of which the force becomes

terrific when the whole nation is in a state of violent collective excitement."

Facing the lack of interest and unity from the people when the country entered the war, President

Wilson created the Committee of Public Information, in order to keep the American citizen informed

about the evolution of the war and also to promote the American goals outside the country. But with allthe propaganda and the promotion of nationalism and fighting for peace, the Americans were not

responding so well. Only 73.000 men out of 10 million had volunteered for the army. Unites States had

almost no army at all, but after the Selective Service Act was formed, more than 4 million men had been

recruited.

African American citizens saw an opportunity to win the respect of their white neighbors; they

viewed the conflict as an opportunity to prove their loyalty, patriotism, and worthiness for equal

treatment in the United States. The country was faced with an unprecedented situation, on one hand it

had to create and equip an army to send it across the Atlantic and on the other hand, to send war supplies

to the Allies.

Meanwhile, President Wilson set the American war aims, so that the world could know that It is a

fearful thing to lead this great peaceful people into war...but the right is more precious than peace, and we

shall fight for the things which we have always carried nearest our hearts, -- for democracy, for the right

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of those who submit to authority to have a voice in their own governments...for a universal dominion of

right by such a concert of free peoples as shall bring peace and safety to all nations and make the world

itself at last free.

While food and other goods were shipped across the Atlantic and the American men prepared for

the war, Wilson also prepared a powerful weapon, his Fourteen Points plan for peace. In his opinion,that was the only plan that could put an end to the war and reorganize the postwar world. The plan as

adopted by Wilson is:

I. Open covenants of peace, openly arrived at, after which there shall be no private international

understandings of any kind but diplomacy shall proceed always frankly and in the public view.

II. Absolute freedom of navigation upon the seas, outside territorial waters, alike in peace and in war,

except as the seas may be closed in whole or in part by international action for the enforcement of

international covenants.

III. The removal, as far as possible, of all economic barriers and the establishment of an equality of trade

conditions among all the nations consenting to the peace and associating themselves for its maintenance.

IV. Adequate guarantees given and taken that national armaments will be reduced to the lowest point

consistent with domestic safety.

V. A free, open-minded, and absolutely impartial adjustment of all colonial claims, based upon a strict

observance of the principle that in determining all such questions of sovereignty the interests of the

populations concerned must have equal weight with the equitable claims of the government whose title is

to be determined.VI. The evacuation of all Russian territory and such a settlement of all questions affecting Russia as will

secure the best and freest cooperation of the other nations of the world in obtaining for her an

unhampered and unembarrassed opportunity for the independent determination of her own political

development and national policy and assure her of a sincere welcome into the society of free nations

under institutions of her own choosing; and, more than a welcome, assistance also of every kind that she

may need and may herself desire. The treatment accorded Russia by her sister nations in the months to

come will be the acid test of their good will, of their comprehension of her needs as distinguished from

their own interests, and of their intelligent and unselfish sympathy.

VII. Belgium, the whole world will agree, must be evacuated and restored, without any attempt to limit

the sovereignty which she enjoys in common with all other free nations. No other single act will serve as

this will serve to restore confidence among the nations in the laws which they have themselves set and

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determined for the government of their relations with one another. Without this healing act the whole

structure and validity of international law is forever impaired.

VIII. All French territory should be freed and the invaded portions restored, and the wrong done to

France by Prussia in 1871 in the matter of Alsace-Lorraine, which has unsettled the peace of the world

for nearly fifty years, should be righted, in order that peace may once more be made secure in the interestof all.

IX. A readjustment of the frontiers of Italy should be effected along clearly recognizable lines of

nationality.

X. The peoples of Austria-Hungary, whose place among the nations we wish to see safeguarded and

assured, should be accorded the freest opportunity to autonomous development.

XI. Rumania, Serbia, and Montenegro should be evacuated; occupied territories restored; Serbia

accorded free and secure access to the sea; and the relations of the several Balkan states to one another

determined by friendly counsel along historically established lines of allegiance and nationality; and

international guarantees of the political and economic independence and territorial integrity of the several

Balkan states should be entered into.

XII. The Turkish portion of the present Ottoman Empire should be assured a secure sovereignty, but the

other nationalities which are now under Turkish rule should be assured an undoubted security of life and

an absolutely unmolested opportunity of autonomous development, and the Dardanelles should be

permanently opened as a free passage to the ships and commerce of all nations under international

guarantees.XIII. An independent Polish state should be erected which should include the territories inhabited by

indisputably Polish populations, which should be assured a free and secure access to the sea, and whose

political and economic independence and territorial integrity should be guaranteed by international

covenant.

XIV. A general association of nations must be formed under specific covenants for the purpose of

affording mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states

alike.

While from a political point of view the US was trying to consolidate the peace, the army was

preparing to take part in the operations in Europe, a Europe that was far from hoping a time of peace.

But the help that America could offer in 1917 was mostly a promise. The War Department decided to

collect the 16th, 18th, 26th and 28th Infantry Regiments and form them into the 1st Division, which was

going to be sent to France. Not until the spring of 1918 were the American troops ready to go overseas in

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great number. It was called The American Expeditionary Force, the first US army to fight across the

Atlantic and on the 4th of July a battalion of the 16th Infantry led by General Pershing, the commander of

the American troops overseas, marched through Paris. Their battle cry was: Lafayette, we are here! It

brought new life to the mostly exhausted French.

After that, the 1

st

Division went into intensive training at Gondrecourt, beginning not with trenchwarfare but with elementary training. Only after a few months, some of them were ready to be attached to

a French division to experience the war lines. Against an enemy like Germany, trained rigorously and

with years of Western Front experience, it was not enough to induct men and equip them. All soldiers

agreed that the American army would have to complete a systematic and thorough training program

before participating in the battles. The slow arrival of the Americans in France, due to the lack of ships as

well as training and supply problems, and their slow additional preparation once they arrived there,

increased the hopes of Germans that they could win the war with an offensive.

The American Expeditionary Force somehow gave United States the possibility to assert itself as

a world power. Now, United States was able to prove that in war it was as good as every other world

army and this period would mark several high points in the American Century. The battles in which the

US army was involved were: Battle of Seicheprey, Battle of Cantigy, Battle of Belleau Wood, Battle of

Chateau-Thierry, the offensive of St. Mihiel and the offensive of Meuse-Argonne.

2.4. Significant Battles

The American Expeditionary Force fought one of its earliest World War I engagements at the tiny

hamlet ofSeicheprey, France on April 20th, 1918. It was a surprise battle, at least as far as the Americans

were concerned. They werent expecting a fight when the Germans attacked from the north in the

morning. In front of the Germans was the US 26 th Infantry Division, which along with the 1st, 2nd and 42nd

Infantry Divisions, was one of the first four American divisions to reach France. American manpowerwas building up quickly and the Germans were no longer as strong as at the beginning of the war, but

they were still powerful and they were still over numbering the Americans in men and arms on the

Western Front. As far as the Germans were concerned, the attack on Seicheprey was simply a raid in

order to intimidate the Americans and show how weak and inexperienced they were compared to German

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troops. It would be good not only for morale among the German troops, but good for morale back home

and it would have an adverse affect on American troops and the American home front.

Seicheprey was located 26 kilometers by road north of Toul and between St. Mihiel 23 kilometers

by road to its west and Pont-a-Mousson 22 kilometers by road to its right. The area immediately

surrounding Seicheprey was wide open farmland other than to the immediate northeast which was hometo a thick forest called Foret de Mort Homme (Dead Mans Forest) that ran as far as the eye could see and

well beyond that. To the northwest, just a few thousand feet ahead of Seicheprey, the lines bulged

menacingly southeast toward the village. And it was probably from there that the attack was launched.

At the vanguard of the German assault were Storm troopers. The Storm troopers were very small

infiltration units equipped with specialized tools such as flamethrowers. They were trained to get into

tricky spots, cause dramatic damage and then get out of the way for normal infantry troops to operate. In

all, 3200 Germans were on the attack. The 26ths nickname was the Yankee Division, owing it to its

formation in Boston and its component units being mostly from New England. There were two brigades

and four regiments, the 101st, 102nd, 103rd and 104th. Until that moment, the Americans were not by far

prepared for battle. In fact, that was the whole point of having them in the St. Mihiel area: it was known

as the quiet section of the Western Front. And a primary reason that the Americans had been positioned

there was that they could slowly accommodate themselves to warfare.

It is worth mentioning that there was another extremely significant reason. John J. Pershing

believed that it would be a perfect place to launch an attack on Germany once the Americans were

sufficient in number. But that was just a plan and in any case, such an attack was not going to happenuntil 1919. The Germans moved south, where they fought with the 102nd Regiment largely constituted of

brave young men from Connecticut. As the Storm troopers were advancing in and around Seicheprey, the

Americans fell back in, suffering many casualties. The fighting became heavier, from the 102nd Infantry

Regiment, practically everyone getting involved in the battle, including the cooks and the marching band.

Eventually the Americans counter-attacked and were able to regain Seicheprey.

The toll of the operation: among the Americans more than 100 were taken prisoners and over 650 who

were either dead or wounded. In exchange, the Americans were able to count 100 dead Germans lying

around them. But at least the Americans could be proud that they didnt lose ground.

As a result, the battle was declared a victory by the American press. But the village was left in

ruins with not a single building or tree left intact. Around 80 Americans of the 102nd Infantry were

buried in the village after the battle.

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The American Expeditionary Force fought its first World War I offensive at the tiny hamlet of

Cantigny, France, a canton of Montdidier, located six kilometers to its east. In the spring of 1918, the

population of Cantigny was of approximately 100 people. They ran a small number of businesses like a

caf and a grocery store and bakery. But it was mostly an agricultural village as were so many of the

small villages in France at that time. When the Germans invaded through Belgium into France inAugust, 1918, Cantigny fell on the last day of the month, August 31 st, left behind by the French Sixth

Army as the rest of the French Army and the British Expeditionary Force retreated from the

overwhelming German military forces. The Germans were too busy chasing their adversaries. They

moved forward leaving Cantigny behind and went south toward the Marne and toward Paris. And so

within a few weeks, there were no Germans left in Cantigny and the village found itself back in the hands

of the Allies.

Over the next few months there was the trace to the north and east of Cantigny. There would be

movement in some points across the Western Front, but in general Cantigny remained safe about 20

kilometers from the front lines from September, 1914 to February, 1917 when the Germans withdrew 35

miles, most notably away from the area right in front of Cantigny. By withdrawing, the Germans were

able to shorten their own lines and make better use of their manpower. But their tactics consisted in

destroying villages, poisoning wells, tearing up roads, and cutting down forests, leaving behind a

brutalized land. But then on March 21, 1918, the Germans unleashed Operation Michael and stroke

forward again. They destroyed much of the opposition in their way and soon arrived at Cantigny. The

Germans liked being there. Cantigny sat on a plateau a few hundred meters above the land around itgiving the Germans a straight view of the Allied lines.

The Americans was slowly gathering strength as ships transported army and air service units from

American ports to British and French ones. From the start both the British and the French did not claim

nor wanted the fresh Americans to be used as replacements for their own units. John J. Pershing promised

that he would only use the American Expeditionary Force as a unified army under his command. Now

with the Germans threatening Paris once again, he changed his mind. The new US 1st Infantry Division,

whose nickname was the "Big Red 1" in honor of the unit's shoulder patches, was inserted into the lines

of the French First Army right in front of Cantigny. The 1st Infantry Division might have been largely

untrained, but it was a big, solid American Expeditionary Force division with a total of about 27,000 men

including troops, officers and support staff.

There were two brigades, the 1st and 2nd Infantry Brigades. The 1st had the 16th and 18th

Regiments as well as the 2nd Machine Gun Battalion. The 2nd Infantry Brigade had the 26 th and 28th

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Regiments and the 3rd Machine Gun Battalion. The other divisional units were the 1 st Machine Gun

Battalion, 1st Engineers, 2nd Field Signal Battalion and the 1st Field Artillery Brigade made up of the 5th, 6th

and 7th Field Artillery units. The 5th had 155mm guns and the 6th and 7th had 75mm guns. The French had

also placed artillery battalions and batteries from nine regiments at the disposal of the 1st Infantry

Division. They were highly equipped, with 75mm guns, 155mm guns, and 220mm guns and even 280mmgiants. Rounding the French artillery were four batteries of trench mortars ranging from 58mm to

240mm.

On May 28th, at 4:45 am, the artillery units started firing their 75mm guns at Cantigny for

adjustment. At 5:45 am, the artillery unleashed a full bombardment blasting the German defenders in the

village and lighting up the village making it visible for miles. The 28 th Infantry Regiment, assigned to

lead this mission, moved forward at 6:45 am, and was accompanied by the French 5th Tank Battalion

which was made up of 12 French Schneider tanks, slow 14 ton six man leviathans with the reputation of

getting stuck while attempting to cross trenches. Several broke down though this was to be expected from

any tank at that time. But they moved forward and provided cover and fire with their machine guns and

solitary 75mm cannons, accomplishing their mission of stopping and removing the deadly German

machine gun posts.

By 7:20 am the attack was over and the Americans had taken Cantigny. What was absolutely

surprising is that all of the goals were achieved on time and with few losses. The Americans suffered less

than 100 casualties, but captured 350 German prisoners. The Germans counter-attacked, bombing up the

village with their own artillery. Cantigny was ruined, but the Americans reinforced their position withfresh troops, the 28th Regiment being attached to it. However, by that time the American casualties have

rose to a thousand men. German casualties remained unknown.

The Americans made their first offensive in Europe and won. Compared to all the circumstances

of World War I, Cantigny was a small battle, but it showed the Germans, the French, the British and even

themselves that American Expeditionary Force could fight and win.

The Battle of Chateau-Thierry and the Battle of Belleau Wood are two related actions, firstly

at Chateau-Thierry from 3-4 June and then at Belleau Wood from 6-26 June. In the Battle of Belleau

Wood, U.S. forces recaptured the wood on the Metz-Paris road taken at the end of May by German

Seventh Army forces arriving at the Marne River, and occupied by four divisions as part of the German

Aisne offensive. Chateau-Thierry represented a major obstacle towards Paris, some 50 miles south-

west. Defended by U.S. Second and Third Divisions dispatched at the orders of the French by AEF

Commander-in-Chief Jack Pershing, the Americans launched a counter-attack on 3-4 June with the

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assistance of the French Tenth Colonial Division, and together they succeeded in pushing the Germans

back across the Marne to Jaulgonne.

Encouraged by success first at Cantigny at the end of May and now at Chateau-Thierry, General

Bundy's Second Division forces were confronting two days later with the difficult exercise of capturing

Belleau Wood. Second Division's Marine Corps, under James Harbord, were assigned with the capturingof the wood. A consequence of the open nature on the advance on the wood, were the casualties on the

first day, 6 June, the highest in Marine Corps history. Strongly defended by the Germans, the wood was

first taken by the Marines and Third Infantry Brigade, then recaptured by the Germans, and again taken

by the U.S. forces six times before finally banishing the Germans. Also captured were the nearby

villages of Vaux and Bouresche.

The battle lasted from 6-26 June and at the end of it U.S. forces suffered 9,777 casualties, of

which 1,811 were dead. The number of German casualties is not known, although 1,600 troops were

taken prisoner. But eventually, the combined Chateau-Thierry and Belleau Wood action brought to an

end the last major German offensive of the war. Before the war, Chateau-Thierry had been a beautiful

town home of 15,000 people in the Marne River. Now it was only a ravaged city with caved walls, blown

off roofs, and bridges dropped in the Marne.

On August 30, 1918, Pershing was given responsibility for the St. Mihiel sector; the same day,

Foch and Pershing discussed plans for how to use the AEF next in St. Mihiel. Foch, Commander in Chief

of the Allied forces wanted to split up the American army. Pershing, Commander of the American

Expeditionary Force, wanted to keep the US Army intact, able to operate and throw its entire arsenalaround. They arrived to a compromise by committing the Americans to the Meuse-Argonne offensive

which was to start on September 26th, just two weeks after St. Mihiel was to start.

For the Americans, it was time to start planning offensives. That attack was launched on

September 12, 1918. On Thursday, September 12, 1918 thirteen American divisions of the US I, IV, V

Corps and eight largely French colonial divisions of the French II Colonial Corps launched a well-

prepared attack. The American divisions included the 26th division from the V Corps and the 1st, 42nd,

89th, 2nd, 5th and 90th fighting from the right, representing the IV and I Corps. In the middle were the

French. They numbered 264,000 American and French troops against 75,000 German and the only two

divisions of Austro-Hungarian troops on the Western Front.

The attack started with a four hour bombardment by 2,971 pieces of artillery destroying the four

year long silence of the "quiet" sector with a tremendous noise. The timing of the successful St. Mihiel

offensive was excellent: the Germans had been planning a withdrawal which made the advancement

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more easy and fast. Within 30 hours, the Allies had taken 13,250 prisoners and 460 enemy artillery pieces

in exchange for 8,000 casualties. It was a tremendous success that was good for American morale as well

as credibility with the other Allies.

On September 26, 1918 a series of offensives of the 92 British, Belgian, French and American

divisions submitted urgently forward the entire Western Front. Near the center of the offensive, 15American and 22 French divisions attacked front Rheims all the way to the Meuse River near Verdun.

The offensive would eventually get the name Meuse-Argonne, in honor of the river on the right and the

great forest on the left of the territory where the fight had taken place.

The Meuse, known as the Maas to the Dutch and the Germans, had defined much of the front

lines and for a very logical reason: it was a perfectly natural barrier. For the Americans, the Meuse-

Argonne was their third great offensive though it was actually part of a general attack across much of the

Western Front involving the other Allies. At the center just to the left of the Meuse River and Verdun was

the American First Army pointing north at the German Fifth Army. The First Army consisted of I, V

and III Corps running from west to east. The American divisions moving forward on the first day were,

from west to east, the 77th, 28th, 35th, 91st, 37th, 79th, 4th, 80th and 33nd divisions. The rest of the American

divisions were positioned behind them in reserve. On either side of the Americans were the French

Fourth Army and the French XVII Corps.

The following day, September 27th, the British Third Army with 15 divisions and the British First

Army with 12 divisions attacked around Arras in northern France. On the 28th, the British Second Army

with 10 divisions, the Belgian Army with 12 divisions and the French Sixth Army with six divisionsattacked north of Arras to the Belgian coast. For the troops it was like being in a slaughterhouse. Of the

29 American divisions that saw combat by the end of the war, all 29 were in combat in mid-October, and

they were possessing almost one quarter of the Western Front, which was just a little more than the

British, but less than the French. In all, approximately 1.2 million American soldiers fought in the Meuse-

Argonne offensive.

The Germans were falling back, and their numbers were starting to diminish with acceleration.

But they were hardly beaten, and even in retreat were able to cause heavy casualties among the

Americans. The Americans in their confidence made some of the same mistakes the other nations made

previously during the war such as charging at machine gun posts. Such tactics did not work for the others,

and it was no surprise that they did not work for the Americans either. In spite of such errors, the

Americans and their Allies were making excellent progress across the Western Front, and it was the first

time since the First Battle of the Marne that the Germans were retreating across such a broad front.

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2.5. Armistice and Peace Treaty

John J. Pershing wanted to keep fighting all the way to Berlin in order to force Germany to an

ultimate surrender. On the other hand there were the ideals of President Wilson, who wanted to treatGermany with gloves for the sake of reconciliation and putting an end to the acts of revenge. But there

were also the British and French realists who have been fighting the war for four years and wanted to end

all the brutalities and stop any further loss of lives and return to ordinary life. Of all the above

circumstances, the realists won. So in November 1918 German and French delegates met in a forest near

the city of Compiegne, in the French territory. It took three days of negotiations and on 11 November a

formal Armistice was signed. But there was still the need for an actual peace treaty.

In this war, Unites States learned how to mobilize its best strength into a fighting force. The war

acknowledged US as a leader in the community of nations, a role that was never challenged. Through

Woodrow Wilson, America was also given the moral leadership of the world, due to Wilsons promise

that this would be a war to end all wars. He sailed to France for the peace conference at Versailles,

where the main responsibility of establishing the terms of peace was determined by the Council of Four:

Wilson, President of US, the French president Clemenceau, the British Prime Minister Lloyd George and

the Italian Prime Minister Orlando. Wilsons dream was the establishment of a League of Nations that

could represent a guarantee of peace and also to promote his famous Fourteen Point which in his vision

represented a code of morality and ethics on which a democratic society should build its foreign politics.

The idealism of Woodrow Wilson was soon shadowed by the harsh practical spirit of his

European partners. After months of discussion and controversy, as the world was waiting anxiously by,

the Versailles Treaty was finally completed and signed by Germany in June 1919. Following the treaty,

four great empires dismembered: the German Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Russian Empire

and the Ottoman Empire. Instead of healing old wounds, the Treaty of Versailles only succeeded in

creating a new discontent. Wilson finally convinced the European leaders to build the League of Nations

and then returned to United States to ask the Senates approval.Wilson explained the role of the League in this way: My conception of the League of Nations is

just this, that it shall operate as the organized moral force of men throughout the world and that whenever

and wherever wrong and aggression are planned or contemplated, this searching light of conscience will

be turned upon them and men everywhere will ask, What are the purposes that you hold in your heart

against the fortunes of the world? Just a little exposure will settle most questions. If the Central Powers

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had dared to discuss the purpose of this war for a single fortnight, it never would have happened. But

the United States was returning to its usual policy of isolationism and wasnt yet prepared to assume the

role of world leadership that the war has trusted it with. So the Senate turned down Wilsons proposal of

forming the League.

Overall, the US intervention in the war in 1917 was more than a rational policy decision; it alsorepresented a culmination of historical experience and a revelation of basic faith. In the post war world

both their hard headed materialism and their open handed faith were to have important consequences for

the rest of the mankind. (Adams, 1967, p. 32)

III. World War II

3.1. Dictatorship and the Outbreak of the War

After World War I ended the political and economical situation in Europe, Asia and Africa

changed completely by the defeat of the Central Powers and the victory of Entente, which led to the

forming of new states due to the collapse of Austria-Hungary and Russian Empire. In the interwar period,

the democratic system of political organization went through a series of high crisis, illustrated by the

rebirth of old forms of authoritarianism and totalitarianism. In Italy, the fascism movement led by Benito

Mussolini abolished democracy by repressing political forces and supporting class conflict or liberalism.

It represented the promise of making Italy a world power.

Fascism became popular among people disappointed by the democratic government and who felt

the need of a change. Also in Germany, the Nazi Party conducted by Adolf Hitler began to establish a20


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same regime, being encouraged by the economic depression that the world was going through. The

economic boom from 1922-1928 gave humanity reasons to be optimistic and trustful. Social stability and

prosperity seemed to be installing for a long time. The shock produced by the economic crisis in 1929

was the stronger. Gradually, the crisis included all the economic domains, and although it was considered

finished in 1933, its repercussions would be felt until the Second World War.In the United States, the republicans were leading and president Hoover refused to take measures

against the crisis, believing that it will be solved through economic mechanisms. After the elections form

1932, when the democrats came to governing, United States became a model of binding the politics with

the economics. The democratic president, Franklin Roosevelt, developed a coherent plan, the New Deal,

which proposed the increase of the states role in economy and the development of an American

democracy. The New Deal brought new hope and optimism to Americans and imposed the recovery of

the economy. Around the Second World War, Roosevelt demanded the increase of expenditures for

weapons and led a politics deliberated by budget deficit, ensuring the US a social equilibrium and an

efficient mechanism of state intervention in case of imbalance.

The origins of the Second World War must be searched in the system created at Versailles in

1919-1920. The treaties imposed Germany and other defeated countries certain restrictions, but they

didnt provide the means for constraining the countries to respect these restrictions. Forming the new

fascist regimes in Europe, especially the Nazi, was one of the major causes that triggered the Second

World War. Hitler, now chancellor, promised to the German people that he will break the hand-cuffs of

Versailles. He violated the treaties by secretly remilitarizing Germany in the mid 1930s and signedmilitary alliances with Italy and Japan. In their turn, the Russians, unsatisfied that they lost their state as

world power, were eager to regain the territories lost in 1918, and to do so, they secretly signed the

Nonaggression Pact with Germany in 1939. With the pact Stalin bought time to build up his strength to

the prejudice of Britain and France, and Hitler gained a free hand to deal with Poland.

All these operations should have worried the other European powers a lot more. It was

presumably that Germany would want to regain the title world power, and France and Great Britain

should have opposed. But there were many contradictions and tensions between the winners, and the

result was, especially from Great Britain, a conciliatory attitude towards Germany. There were also

contradictions between the Great Powers on one side, and the smaller states, on the other side. Some of

these smaller countries had been victims of the French-British conciliationism of the First World War.

All of these exposed the weakness of the League of Nations as a force to maintain peace. The United

States, concerned with events in Europe and Asia, passed the Neutrality Act in August.

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As Poland refused to give up a territory claimed by Germany, that is East Prussia, gave Hitler he

reason to declare war. On September 1st, the German army invaded Poland, and that was the beginning of

Hitlers strategic plans of a blitz Krieg, which had to ensure him immediate victories, obtained by using

the aviation, armored and motorized units. A few days later, the Soviet Union and Germany signed a

friendship pact through which they shared Poland. France and Britain, which offered Poland guarantees,immediately declared war to Germany on September 3 rd, 1939. But afterwards, they ensured Poland with

a financial help only and the occupation of the Maginon line. The subsequent period of the invasion, was

known as the Phony War. Nothing happened to indicate that World War II would differ significantly in

style or tempo from World War I.

It was the period of lost chances, because Germany didnt have to fight on two fronts and had the

time to clear Poland. That lasted until 1940, when Italy declared war on both France and the United

Kingdom, and when twelve days later, France surrendered; Great Britain was facing alone a war that

became unequal. All this time, the neutral United States took measures to help the Western Allies, and

offered Great Britain financial, naval and moral help. The Congress adopted the Cash and Carry law,

which brought improvements in the payment system and stated that war materials and food should be

delivered to the nations whose defense represented a vital importance for the protection of American

interests. The quick defeat of France and the imminent collapse of Britain accelerated defense

preparations.

President Roosevelt ordered the transfer of large stocks of World War I munitions to France and

Britain in the spring of 1940 and in September, he agreed to the transfer of fifty over-age destroyers toBritain in exchange for bases in the Atlantic and Caribbean. Still, a large number of American people

continued to oppose any involvement in the war. President Franklin D. Roosevelt launched a

preparedness campaign. The power of the Army Air Corps increased; Army and Navy leaders designed a

new series of war plans to deal with the international situation. The focus of military policy changed from

continental to hemisphere defense. The isolationists considered that Roosevelts premature policy will

lead to the premature entrance of the United States in the war and believed that the country would gain a

lot more if they kept neutrality in that time.

Meanwhile, at the beginning of 1941, Germany controlled most of Europe, although the war with

Great Britain had not ended. The new German order sustained by the Nazi propaganda, underlined the

obligation and honor of some countries to work and sacrifice for the great German nation, which

belonged to a superior race. The Non Aggression Treaty signed with the Soviet Union represented only a

maneuver to gain the necessary time for occupying the Western Europe. On June 22 nd 1941, Germany

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along with the Axis Powers attacked Soviet Union in the Operation Barbarossa, and in a couple of month

a vast Soviet territory was occupied. Now Great Britain was not facing alone anymore the Axis Powers

and immediately UK and Soviet Union formed an alliance against Germany.

Shortly after, President Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Churchill signed the Atlantic

Charter, a document that represented a meaningful declaration by the American leader that was stillofficially non belligerent. German successes in Europe encouraged Japan to increase pressure on

European governments in south-east Asia. Japan planned to rapidly seize European colonies in Asia to

create a large defensive perimeter stretching into the Central Pacific and also, considered at the British

and U.S. positions in the Far East.

To prevent American intervention while securing the perimeter, Japan planned to neutralize the

United States Pacific Fleet from the beginning. On December 7, 1941, while German armies were

freezing before Moscow, Japan suddenly pushed the United States into the war by attacking the

American naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. Four days later Hitler declared war on the United States.

President Roosevelt called on Congress for immediate and massive extension of the armed forces.

3.2.Pearl Harbor attack and the US entering the war

It's not surprising that a country founded by fugitives from European oppressions would refuse to

interfere in Europes problems and affairs. This was true after World War One, when that kind of

interfering cost 57,400 American lives and was seen as an awful mistake. By 1939, many American

organizations discussed over America's role in the new European conflict. The majority of them didnt

want America to assume a role at all. Roosevelt seemed to agree, telling parents in the 1940 election that

"Your boys are not going to be sent into any foreign wars." But shortly after, Roosevelt created the

Cash and Carry law, providing Britain and eventually the Soviet Union with desperately needed

munitions and supplies. And he found other ways to support his future allies and deceive isolationist

legislation. The Unites States, which possessed a powerful fleet, interfered more and more in the Asianproblems, becoming a dangerous rival.

After occupying Manchuria, Japans plans of strengthening its domination in the Far East became

clear. In order to do so, she had to eliminate the Allies from Asia, fact which was possible due to

Frances surrender and the problems Great Britain was facing. In 1941 President Roosevelt placed fifty

B17 bombers in the Philippines, standing between the Japanese and Dutch East Indian oil fields they

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needed desperately in order to prevent the American oil embargo. Roosevelt also placed the U.S. Fleet in

the Pacific. On December 2nd, 1941, Hawaii received a message from Washington that began, "This is a

war warning." By deciphering the Japanese code, the U.S. knew Japan was planning a Pacific attack, but

not when nor where. No one thought it would be Pearl Harbor.

Pearl Harbor before the attack

War came to America at 7:55 a.m. in the morning of December 7th, at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. The

base on Oahu Island was the home of the United States Pacific Fleet and about 50,000 American troops.

At Pearl Harbor was the largest concentration of U.S. forces in the Pacific. A fleet of six Japanese aircraft

carriers and escort ships placed itself at 230 miles of Oahu and launched in the first stage 183 fighters,bombers, and torpedo planes. Their mission was to cause as much damage on the fleet as they could and

especially destroy the eight U.S. battleships and two U.S. carriers. They also had to destroy the aircraft on

the ground. The first wave of Japanese bombers destroyed plenty of American arsenal. About 200

American ships and smaller craft were anchored in the harbor, and hundreds of warplanes were parked on

the airfields.

A second wave of 170 Japanese aircraft followed and found the harbor surrounded by black

smoke and antiaircraft fire. During this wave, the Japanese lost 19 aircraft from the American fighters

that managed to get into the air. The entire attack lasted about two hours. But it was enough to kill 2400

Americans and injure another 1200. 21 ships anchored were sunk or badly damaged, including eight

battleships. Almost 200 American planes were destroyed, and another 150 damaged. On a short term, the

Japanese accomplished their objective. They removed the United States Pacific Fleet out of their way, but

for how long, it was not certain. Besides Pearl Harbor, the Philippines and other American installations

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were attacked the same day. The Japanese believed that by destroying the American fleet, they would

dominate the Pacific, but Japanese mistakes contributed to their eventual defeat.

The American aircraft carriers were not damaged because they were off delivering planes to

Midway and Wake Islands; they also failed to destroy Hawaiian shore facilities, including oil storage

deposits that would be vital to the American war effort. Perhaps the biggest mistake was to attack in thefirst place. Yamamoto, the admiral of Japanese fleet admitted himself that: "I fear we will awaken a

sleeping giant." Twelve hours later after the attack on Pearl Harbor, Japan succeeded to catch another US

base by surprise: the aircraft in the Philippines under the command of General Douglas McArthur was

attacked just as they were preparing to attack the Japanese ships.

Battleship USS Arizona sunk Burning ships in Pearl Harbor dry docks

On December 8th, America was feeling more vengeful than ever. Roosevelt, for whom the

previous day was a date which will live in infamy, declared war on Japan, and Japan only, but onDecember 11, Hitler made a badly mistake by declaring war on the United States, although his agreement

with the Japanese didn't require him to do that. That made it easier for Roosevelt to keep his secret

promise to Winston Churchill that when the Americans entered the war, they would first defeat Germany.

Japans intervention and the entrance of the Unites States in the war had transformed the conflict in a war

truly global. The war also had an ideological nature, because two different concepts were facing: one

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represented by the European fascism and Japanese militarism, according to which the world was divided

into superior races that were to dominate, and other races and people that were destined to be ruled, and

the other one antifascist, based on the principle of equality of all people and the right to freedom.

Military leaders in Washington worked very hard to create headquarters that would conduct a war

effort in training the inexperienced ground and air units into viable fighting forces. In early 1942 theChiefs of Staff regrouped as a committee of the nation's military leaders to advise the President and to

conduct the strategies with the British. In March the War Department General Staff was reorganized and

the Army divided into three major commands: the Air Forces, Ground Forces, and Service Forces.

Thirty-seven Army divisions were in some state of training, but only one was fully trained, equipped, and

could have been sent by January 1942. It was estimated that victory would require an army of almost 9

million men, organized into 215 combat divisions, estimates that proved to be exact regarding the total

manpower but too ambitious for the 90 divisions that were eventually established.

3.3. Pacific War Theater

On April 18, 1942, sixteen B25 bombers, with 80 volunteers commanded by Lieutenant Colonel

James Doolittle, took off from the aircraft carrier Hornet. Their mission was to drop the first bombs on

Tokyo, Nagoya and Yokohama. All bombs reached their target successfully, while Japanese did not

respond. Then, low on fuel, fifteen of the planes crashed or were abandoned in China. The Japanese

would eventually execute 250,000 Chinese for helping the American escape. Two of the raiders came

down in enemy territory and three crewmen were executed.

But 71 men eventually came home. This episode was done in order to raise the moral of American

public, after the defeats suffered. The damage caused by the operation was minor, but the Japanese

confidence in their security zone was shaken and the Emperors safety was threatened directly. Admiral

Yamamoto, wanted immediate revenge so he developed plans for a major naval battle that he believed it

would assure Japanese victory in the war. After much debate, he chose to attack Midway Island, 1000

miles from Honolulu. It represented the greatest Air Craft carrier battle in history.Like at Pearl Harbor Japan was relying on a surprising attack, not knowing that the Japanese code

had been broken. "AF" was code for the target name, but Americans did not know which possible target

was AF. By issuing a false report about a Midway fresh water deficit, Admiral Nimitz, the commander of

the bases there, knew Yamamoto's intentions, and began gathering his forces. To begin with, Midway,

like Pearl Harbor, demonstrates the role of intelligence.

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By ingenious methods and persistence, U.S. Navy intelligence deciphered a Japanese code that

indicated movements of the Japanese fleets. This allowed U.S. naval officers to send out the U.S. fleet,

which was significantly smaller than the Japanese one, to destroy the Japanese and prevent the conquest

of the island. Once the American and Japanese fleets met each other and the battle began, Midway

became a human story, one emphasizing qualities such as honor, moral choice, and in which, the chanceplayed an important role.

The U.S. attack on the Japanese fleet began with a courageous but sacrificial assault by American

torpedo aircraft. Despite the personal heroism of their pilots, this assault failed to cause any damage to

the Japanese ships. However, the U.S. torpedo effort did succeed in drawing down to a low altitude the

Japanese fighters which were protecting those ships. It was at this point that chance played its decisive

role. As a result of a set of two or three coincidences, U.S. dive bombers arrived in the scene at the exact

moment when the Japanese carriers were most vulnerable. In the dive-bomber assault, three Japanese

carriers, the most part of the force, were sunk, offering the Americans an amazing victory. U.S. forces

didn't confront another major Japanese fleet until the end of 1944. But by then, as a result of the battle of

attrition, the Japanese had been effectively defeated.

In July 1942, the combatants in the Pacific were in a deadlock. The Japanese advance had been

slowed at Midway, but they held a temporary numerical and tactical advantage. Nimitz knew that he

could not support an advance for at least another year. Likewise, Yamamoto did not want to advance on

Australia or Hawaii because he did not have the necessary bases he wasnt able to obtain in the Coral Sea

and Midway operations. That month the Imperial Japanese Navy began construction on a small airstripin the former British Solomons, now the Japanese-possessed Solomons.

Guadalcanal was a 90-mile long island in the South. It was in close proximity to Tulagi, a much

smaller island with a seaplane base. Photographic reconnaissance located the area, and a decision was

made to occupy the base. With the airfield in Japanese hands, this didnt seem as a mission of long term

occupancy. The Naval Battle of Guadalcanal, sometimes referred to as the Third and Fourth Battles of

Savo Island, the Battle of the Solomons, The Battle of Friday the 13th, took place between November 12

and November 15, 1942, and was the decisive engagement in a series of naval battles between Allied,

primarily United States, and Imperial Japanese forces during the long months of Guadalcanal campaign

in the Solomon Islands during World War II.

The action consisted of combined air and sea battles during four days, most near Guadalcanal and

all related to a Japanese effort to reestablish land forces on the island. The battle is especially important

due to the deaths of the United States Navy's only two admirals that were killed in action during a surface

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battle in the war. Allied forces, mostly from the U.S., had landed on Guadalcanal on August 7th, 1942 and

took possession of an airfield, later named Henderson Field that was under construction by the Japanese

military.

Several attempts of the Imperial Japanese Army and Navy, using reinforcements sent to

Guadalcanal by ship, to regain the airfield were useless. In early November 1942, the Japanese organizeda transport with 7,000 infantry troops and their equipment to Guadalcanal to attempt once again to retake

the airfield. Several Japanese warship forces were sent on a mission to bombard Henderson Field with the

goal of destroying Allied aircraft which represented a threat. Learning of the Japanese reinforcement

effort, U.S. forces launched aircraft and warship attacks.

The six-month Guadalcanal campaign began on August 7, 1942, when Allied forces, mostly U.S.,

landed on Guadalcanal, Tulagi, and the Florida Islands in the Solomon Islands, at that time a colonial

possession of the United Kingdom. The purpose of the landings was to discourage the Japanese to use

the islands as bases to threaten the supply lines between U.S. and Australia, and also to implement here a

campaign in order to neutralize the major Japanese military base at Rabaul and help the Allied New

Guinea campaign.

The Japanese had occupied Tulagi in May 1942 and began constructing an airfield on

Guadalcanal in June 1942. By the night of August 8th, the 11,000 Allied troops secured Tulagi, the nearby

small islands, and a Japanese airfield under construction at Lunga Point on Guadalcanal (later renamed

Henderson Field). Allied aircraft operating out of Henderson were called the "Cactus Air Force" (CAF)

after the code name for Guadalcanal.To protect the airfield, the US Marines implemented a perimeter defense around Lunga Point. In

the next two months the US troops were reinforced with more than 20,000 men. In response, the Japanese

Imperial General Headquarters assigned the Imperial Japanese Army's 17th Army, a corps-sized

command based at Rabaul and under the command of Lieutenant-General Harukichi Hyakutake, with the

mission of retaking Guadalcanal. Units of the 17th Army began to arrive on Guadalcanal on August 19th

to drive away the Allied forces from the island. Because the CAF aircraft based at Henderson Field

represented a threat, the Japanese were not able to use large transport ships to deliver troops and supplies

to the island.

The first Japanese attempt to recapture Henderson Field failed when a force of 917 men was

defeated on August 21 in the Battle of the Tenaru. The next attempt took place from September 12 to

September 14th, and ended in the defeat of the 6,000 men under the command of Major General Kiyotake

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Kawaguchi at the Battle of Edson's Ridge. On October 14th, a nighttime bombardment of Henderson Field

allowed the approach of a Japanese transport convoy.

The consequences of this fact were visible: the heavily damaged runways of the airfield, the

destruction of half of the CAF aircraft and the loss of the available aviation fuel. Considering the overall

damage, the people on the Henderson Field managed to restore the runways and replace the fuel. Thenext Japanese attempt to retake the island with the newly arrived troops took place from October 20 to

October 26 and was defeated with many losses in theBattle for Henderson Field.

At the same time, Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, the commander of the Japanese Combined Fleet,

defeated U.S. naval forces in the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands, driving them away from the area.

Because of the constant threat of Japanese aircraft and warships, it was difficult for Allied forces to

resupply their forces on Guadalcanal that were often attacked by Japanese land and sea forces. In

November 1942, Allied intelligence found out that the Japanese were preparing again an attempt to retake

Henderson Field.

On November 11, the U.S. sent to Guadalcanal the Task Force 67, a major reinforcement and

resupply convoy, divided into two groups and commanded by Rear Admiral Richmond K . Turner. The

supply ships were protected by two task groups, commanded by Rear Admirals Daniel J . Callaghan and

Norman Scott, and aircraft from Henderson Field on Guadalcanal.

The transport ships were attacked many times on November 11 and November 12 near

Guadalcanal by Japanese aircraft based at Buin, Bougainville, in the Solomons, but most of them were

not loaded and suffered little damage. Twelve Japanese aircraft were shot down by anti - aircraft fire fromthe U.S. ships or byfighter aircraft flying from Henderson Field. On November 13 th, U.S. reconnaissance

aircraft observed the approach of the Japanese ships and gave a warning to the Allied command. So

warned, Turner had ordered all combat ships to protect the troops on the shore from the expected

Japanese naval attack and troop landing, and ordered the supply ships at Guadalcanal to leave by early

evening on November 12th.

Callaghan was placed in overall command. Callaghan prepared his force to counterattack the

Japanese that night. His force consisted of two heavy cruisers (San Francisco and Portland), three light

cruisers(Helena, Juneau, and Atlanta), and eight destroyers: Cushing, Laffey, Sterett, O'Bannon, Aaron

Ward, Barton, Monssen, and Fletcher. Admiral Callaghan commanded from San Francisco. On

November 13th, the ships of the Japanese force prepared to bombard Henderson Field and several U.S.

ships detected them on radar, but had trouble in communicating the information to Callaghan.

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A few minutes later, the two forces met but both Callaghan and Japanese Admiral Hiroaki Abe,

hesitated to order the ships to attack one another. Apparently, Abe was surprised by the proximity of the

U.S. ships and he was not decided whether to continue forward or not. He eventually decided to proceed

forward. On the other side, Admiral Callaghan confused by the incomplete information he received, he

gave several confusing orders for the ship movements.The U.S. ship formation began to fall apart, delaying Callaghan's order to start fire, because he

first tried to realign the locations of the ships. As the ships from the two sides interfered, they fought each

other in a completely confused and chaotic way, being very close to one another. Among the U.S. ships

bombarded was San Francisco, which war severely damaged, killing Admiral Callaghan and most of the

bridge staff.

The ship however, managed to get away from the confrontation without sinking. After almost 40

minutes of heavy fighting, the two sides ceased fire after Admiral Abe and Captain Gilbert Hoover, the

captain of Helena and senior surviving U.S. officer at that point, ordered their forces to stop fighting.

Admiral Abe had at the end of this battle, one battleship (Kirishima), one light cruiser (Nagara), and four

destroyers (Asagumo, Teruzuki, Yukikaze, and Harusame) with slightly damaged and four destroyers

(Inazuma, Ikazuchi, Murasame, and Samidare) with little damage. The U.S. had only one light cruiser

(Helena) and one destroyer (Fletcher) that were still capable to resist.

This balance gave Japanese advantage and a clear way to bombard Henderson Field and finish

with the United States naval forces. But in the end Admiral Abe decided to abandon the mission and

leave the area. At this crucial moment, the fact that much of the bombardment ammunition had been usedin the battle and that Abes injuries and the loss of his staff, may have been the causes of Japanese retreat.

Because of the confused nature of the battle, the U.S. believed that they had sunk seven Japanese ships.

This, plus the Japanese retreat, made the U.S. to believe at that time that they had won a significant

victory.

It was only after the war that the U.S. found out that they suffered a tactical defeat. Nonetheless,

most historians agree that Abe's decision to retreat turned this tactical defeat into a strategic victory for

the U.S. On Henderson Field attack aircraft remained ready to discourage the slow Japanese transports

to approach to Guadalcanal with their cargoes. Plus, the Japanese lost the opportunity to eliminate the

U.S. naval forces.

Shortly after, Admiral Yamamoto ordered Vice Admiral Nobutake Kondo, commanding the

Second Fleet at Truk, to form a new bombardment unit and attack Henderson Field on the night of

November 1415. This second attempt failed as well, because the U.S. naval forces managed to prevent

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most of the Japanese troops and supplies from launching another offensive. Because of the continuing

threat from Allied aircraft based at Henderson Field, and the U.S. aircraft carriers, the Japanese had to

continue to rely on warship deliveries from Tokyo. However, these supplies and replacements were not

enough to support Japanese troops on the island, and on December 12, the Japanese Navy proposed that

Guadalcanal should be abandoned. Despite initial opposition from Japanese Army leaders, who stillhoped that Guadalcanal could eventually be regained from the Allies, Japan's Imperial General

Headquarters, with approval from the Emperor, on December 31st, 1942, agreed to the evacuation of all

Japanese forces from the island.

After the successful strategic victory of Guadalcanal which put an end to Japans expansion in the

Pacific, the United States had to struggle to win two of the most deadly battles of the American history:

the battles of Iwo Jima and Okinawa. When many Americans thought that the war was nearly over, the

7000 U.S. fatalities at Iowa Jima and 12500 at Okinawa came as a shock and represented an example of

how costly the Pacific war was, when U.S. forces finally undertook the invasion of the home islands of

Japan. The Battle of Iwo Jima took place in February 1945. The capture of Iwo Jima was part of a plan

the Americans had for winning the war in the Far East. By 1944, America and her allies had the influence

over the Pacific War. By attacking Iwo Jima, United States wanted to finally destroy Japans merchant

fleet. Despite its small size, Iwo Jima was considered to be of a great tactical importance.

There were two airfields on the island controlled by Japan which could be used by Japanese

fighter planes to attack American bombers on their flights to Japan. If they were controlled by the

Americans, the airfields could be used as emergency landing bases for da

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