Lessons From the Military

Tom Campbell

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Contents Chapter Page 1 Introduction 3 2 Qualities of a Good Instructor 7 3 First Principle of Good Instruction 16 4 Second Principle of Good Instruction 24 5 Lesson Planning 45 6 Third Principle of Good Instruction 62 7 First Technique of Good Instruction 65 8 Second Technique of Good Instruction 69 9 Summary 80 10 Alternative View of Education

Article 1 - Ownership, Relevance and flexibility 84

Article 2 – Pupil Choice 89

Article 3 - Supplying a Solution 91

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Introduction Teaching has to be amongst the most underrated and misunderstood professions of this century. In the past, teachers were held in esteem, demanded respect and were as high up the professional scale as doctors and lawyers. It was not so long ago that I was sat in a classroom with a group of Newly Qualified Teachers, talking about their initial experiences. One male in the group confessed that out of hours, he found it embarrassing being a teacher. It was the public preconception, he explained, that being a teacher is a cop-out, not a proper job, just playing with kids all day. Sadly, he was not alone in his opinion. I was flabbergasted. Being a teacher is to have a gift; the gift of being able to impart knowledge and experience and thus to mould the next generation. To possess the ability and the power to really make a difference to people’s lives on a day to day basis is something which many seek, but few possess. A dedicated teacher will gain respect of entire families, will be talked about in houses, in bars and restaurants. A good teacher is a celebrity, and they should be proud of it. Then people’s preconceptions will change. Then people will not be sneering behind your back, derogatory remarks, putting you down. Then, people will nudge their neighbour and say; “There’s that teacher I was talking about.” and they will shake you by the hand and buy you a drink for the efforts you made with their children. Your reputation will spread and you will become known in the community. You will have standing, respect, and an immense sense of pride and satisfaction. If that is not what you strive for, then read another book. Teaching is hard, hard work with long hours. It is easy to become complacent, to cut corners, to relieve the workload on yourself by putting in less effort to lesson planning, or classroom management. This book is written to help you. It is written by a teacher and former army officer, whose success in the classroom was due to a combination of humour, discipline and a structured approach, and an ability to think ‘outside of the box’; to apply initiative and inventiveness to teaching otherwise mundane lessons. The approach is based upon Methods of Instruction (MoI). MoI is an approach to teaching and instruction used and developed by the military. Civilian teachers will not have had access to these principles and techniques, and I am writing now, so that more teachers become aware, and that used to complement what you learn in teacher training college, it could provide you with some extra tools to do your job. In the military, whether in peace or war, there is always a complex plan of operations. The main Operations Room from where all manoeuvres are planned and monitored is situated way behind enemy lines, in a secure area, with access only permitted to those with special security clearance; Generals, Admirals, Air Marshals, Ministers and so on.

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A plan of who is to do what is then drawn up, and individual commanders at the next stage down the command structure are informed of what their particular role in the achievement of the overall plan is to be. In turn, these individuals then come up with their own plan, and disseminate tasks to those under them, and so on. Eventually, a lowly Platoon Commander in the field, possibly suffering from stress and exhaustion is given a set of Orders, which outline what it is that he and his men have to achieve in a particular timeframe. Our Platoon Commander will receive his orders and then work out how best he can achieve the tasks set him, in the allocated timeframe, with the resources given and in consideration of all relevant factors at the time. This is known as a Combat Appreciation. This is no different in education. The Operations Room with all the top brass and the privileged few, set well behind the front line in a secured area, is of course The Department of Education, The Government. The overall operational plan is the curriculum, and as the curriculum is passed from the planning desk to the Regional Centres to the Authorities and on to the Education Departments, the Regional Subject Departments, the Schools the Subject Heads, it finally arrives with you – the front line leader, the Platoon Commander – the one who’s responsibility it is to make the overall plan, so many stages above you, a success. You will need to do a combat appreciation of your own, and come up with a battle plan – a scheme of work made up of individual Lesson Plans. The purpose of this book is to offer suggestions to help guide you through that thought process and arrive at a lesson plan that can be used, reused and adapted to suit the different campaigns in which you will engage. Being in the military is not like having a job that you can leave behind at the end of a working day. There are no working hours. One doesn’t have to report to the office every day. There are is no overtime and there are no bonuses. It is a way of life, not a job. Teaching is the same. It is not a 0900 – 1530hrs job with 4 months holiday a year. Being a teacher is about planning ahead, preparing, rehearsing, using initiative and imagination to think of new and exciting approaches. It is a mind game, trying to figure out how to get through to people, how to improve their attainment, how to change their attitude. You can’t leave it behind; it is in the supermarket, on the street in the park. You meet new pupils, brothers and sisters, parents – you teach generations of families. You become known! This is a way of life. Within that life style, you have immense opportunity. If you embrace your position, understand your pupils’ needs, and work hard to help individuals achieve their best, then you will demand the respect and confidence of pupils, their carers and your colleagues. That respect will not fade. One of the great rewards of teaching, to my mind, is the certainty that for years to come, at any time you could be approached by someone, quite out of the blue, who says: “I remember you – you were my teacher”. “You were my teacher” – think about that for a while. In no other career will you achieve the same sense of pride. You have an influence on people’s lives. Even well

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after your retirement, people will remember you not by name, but as a teacher. You will be recognised as someone who has taught something. Moreover, you are not just a teacher; you are “my teacher”. I am sure that you have heard the old adage that; Those that can, do Those that can’t, teach, and the extension Those that can’t teach, teach teachers You will also be aware that in certain social spheres, teaching is perceived as an ‘opt out’ from the ‘real world’ of employment, and that the main considerations for choosing teaching as a career are the 9 O’clock to half-past 3 working day, and the ludicrously long holidays. If that were the case, then more the fool them for not becoming teachers! The reality of teaching is very long hours in lesson preparation, assessment and recording of results, increasing accountability, pressure of meeting requirements of local and national initiatives and of course, marking course work and report writing. So, why on earth would anyone want to be a teacher? In my opinion, all the above is simply the necessary baggage that comes with the job. The core function of a teacher, is being in front of a class of pupils, and helping them to learn, to gain confidence, to achieve. This is the challenge and reward of teaching. In one 45min session, for example, you could feel

• a sense of personal satisfaction in a lesson well managed, • a sense of achievement when the class show that they have understood, • you could experience a breakthrough with a particular pupil when the penny

finally drops, • you become energised and motivated by the feedback from the class, and most

important, • you develop relationships, through he rapport you build up.

Then, with the subject change, or a new class arriving, the forum is open again with a different lesson plan and a new approach, and once again, you have the opportunity to let your personality loose, and throw yourself into the lesson. Being a teacher is like being on a stage; you are the star billing and your audience is expecting a good show. You will not get applause – you probably won’t even get thanks, but at the end of the day, you should be able to sit down, worn and exhausted, but with a smile on your face, thinking back to the day, and being able to say: “That was fun!” Of course you won’t be able to find that fulfilment and satisfaction, and fully enjoy the challenge of teaching unless you are prepared to work for it – hence the necessary baggage. Your responsibilities outside the classroom should not be taken lightly. They are an essential part of your job. Without them you would not be fully effective as a teacher, and you would be missing out on the opportunity gain within the classroom. In other industries, hard work is generally rewarded with some materialistic advantage; a pay rise, added commission, a bonus, or a bonus in kind. Although an individual will naturally

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feel a sense of achievement, the motivating factor is one of material gain. Moreover, in any other industry, your sense of satisfaction and well-being survives only as long as the corporate environment allows it to. In no time, the appreciation diminishes, and once again, you begin to feel under pressure to achieve. Consider yourself lucky that as a teacher, you have the potential to feel satisfaction and achievement every day. You are constantly building people’s understanding of the world. Your motivation as a teacher is not material, it comes from the heart; you have devoted your life to helping the children in your care to become confident, happy and motivated young adults. The sense of satisfaction and pride that can be achieved in the pursuit of this ambition cannot be found in any other profession. Consider yourself one of the chosen few, and be proud of it.

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The Qualities of a Good Instructor In the army, there is an MoI Course – Methods of Instruction. On the course that I attended, our instructor asked us to decide upon the qualities of a good instructor, using a recipe printed in the accompanying pamphlet. The recipe read: “Take an exceptional amount of enthusiasm and mix it with great industry in preparation. To this mixture, add sufficient sense of purpose to make a clear objective. Simmer gently, stirring in a good measure of knowledge and experience. Add essence of imagination to ensure a spectacular presentation. Garnish with a pleasant manner to taste. Knead the mixture until it acquires a firm, fair and friendly attitude, and set it out to practice for three or four years.” Any good instructor will have stamped their personality on their particular method of delivering a lesson, and for some people, taking a lesson is simply being in one’s element. Nevertheless, every instructor / teacher should have a good grounding in a few basic essentials. These are:

• Confidence • Manner • Attitude • Diligence • Enthusiasm

Or, C-M-A-D-E

Confidence To continue the theme of cooking, confidence has 4 ingredients, not necessarily in this order

• Success and reward • Thorough knowledge of the subject matter • Experience • Meticulous planning & preparation

- the S-T-E-M of confidence The very first time I walked into a classroom full of pupils, I was quite literally shaking. My experience in the army that should have prepared me for anything, but here I was, in front of a class of 13 year olds in North East London, and my stomach was in knots. At that point, I could easily have said: “Nah! Not for me!”, and walked away. However, I had spent literally weeks preparing this one lesson on Biological Keys. I had all of my overhead viewfoils prepared (this was pre the computer age) I had made large

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models of different types of invertebrate, and I had hunted high and low and collected enough live examples of invertebrates to hand out to small groups. I had simple keys prepared as handouts, and a homework task neatly typed out and photocopied. More importantly, I had rehearsed and rehearsed and rehearsed in my North London flat to numerous imaginary audiences. I was determined to see it through. If I tried and things didn’t go to plan, then I would learn from my experience. If I walked away, then I would have failed. By the time I had started with the register I had already given the class cause for amusement, as I had a Northern accent. I had to stop mid-register and answer questions about did I live in Brookside? did I know the Beatles? had I been to Anfield? and is it better ‘up there’ or ‘down here’? Although I had been diverted from my task of taking the register, and my lesson plan was now in tatters, the pupils had inadvertently done me a favour; they had opened a dialogue with me. The ice had been broken, I felt more relaxed. I was able to regain control by a bit of rapid ‘on the hoof thinking’. Once I’d finished the register, we would carry on our question and answer session, but I was only willing to answer ‘Yes’, or ‘No’. Essentially, we played a ‘What am I?’ game. I opened the game up to the class, and in small groups they used their own choice of Pop Stars, Football Players and other such topics. One pupil had been collecting cards of football players, and I saw this as a great opportunity to gather the class around the front bench, and explain keys using the cards. Strictly speaking, I had not achieved my lesson Aim – but I think I had done a lot more besides; I had won over the class, and I had taught the concept of Biological keys. OK, I hadn’t used my invertebrates, or any of my models, but what a good follow up lesson they would make! At the end of the lesson, I was exhausted, yet elated. I had done a good lesson, and my confidence barrier was suddenly not quite so big. Confidence as illustrated above develops through a cycle of positive feedback:

Confidence Experience In other words, the more experience you have, the more confident you will become, and the more confident you become, the more willing you be to try and develop different, imaginative approaches to your teaching and enhance your professional development.

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There may be occasions when you may have a ‘bad’ experience. Don’t let it be a blow to your confidence – turn it into a strength. If life did not present challenges once in a while, then we would never be given the opportunity to better ourselves, or to learn different techniques. It is human nature to feel disappointed when you feel that something has not gone your way. You may even feel angry about the behaviour of a class or an individual, and even more angry at yourself for being drawn away from your lesson plan. It’s all part of a career. If, however, you find these experiences happening frequently, and they are having an effect on your motivation, then don’t be afraid to admit it

• to yourself • to your colleagues • to your friends • to your Family

Recognising areas of weakness in yourself is an enormous strength – if you then take action to do something about it!

• ask for advice from your line manager • observe other teachers with the same class / individual • ask for a co-operative teacher • ask that your line manager sits in on your lesson • look for In Service courses that address your particular needs • do an appreciation of the situation, and discuss your courses open to you • talk to the class / individual in a non-classroom setting – agree on a Code of

Conduct Whatever you do, do something. If you allow your bad experiences to mount up, your confidence barrier will begin to have serious repercussions on your attitude and your motivation, and you will develop into an ineffective teacher. If you do not

• recognise your weaknesses • admit your weaknesses, and subsequently • take action to overcome your weaknesses,

then it is time to look for an alternative career. The author Katherine Whitehorn once said that a career should be to Find out what you like doing best and get someone to pay you for doing it. Enjoyment breeds confidence, and vice versa. Manner In my opinion, this is this quality of good instructor that is absolutely paramount. It does not stand alone – it needs the background reinforcements of all the other principles and 9

techniques of instruction – but it is an individual’s manner that is a direct reflection of their professionalism, as it is always on show, and is always subject to judgement by colleagues, pupils, parents, and the general public. Ask a layperson to visualise a motivated, successful businessman in his office, or a doctor in their surgery, or a lawyer in their chambers. Then ask the same person to visualise a teacher in a classroom. If the image of the teacher stands out – ask them to describe the person they visualised. It is very unfortunate that the public perception of teaching as a second class profession has lingered on. I am delighted that in recent years, changes in terms and conditions of service have helped overcome the ignorance, and there are political initiatives to improve the status of teaching as a career. However, very little angers me more than a teacher who by having a poor manner, is not only letting themselves down, but is a public insult to the rest of a glorious profession. Manner has three components: Speaking Movement Appearance

• Speaking There is a difference between speaking and talking. Talking is what people do when in conversation. It is informal. There are no defined roles of those involved. Anyone may contribute at any time. Speaking, however is the formal delivery of information by one person to (usually) a group of others, who are the listeners. If you speak in a conversation, you will be perceived as being loud, bullish and even ignorant, because you will inevitably be talking over other people, and not listening to or answering to the contributions of others. More importantly, though, if during the delivery of a formal lesson, lecture or presentation, you try talking, then you will not command the audience become bored, tired of straining to hear and frustrated at the lack of structure. As a teacher, it is essential to recognise the difference, because during a lesson you will be alternating between a talking role and a speaking role. When speaking, your voice must not only be LOUD enough to be heard at the back of the class, but must be loud enough to sound authoritative. Your voice must be CLEAR and DISTINCT. You can achieve interest in your speaking by varying the RHYTHM, PITCH and SPEED of your voice. In other words, make your voice easy to listen to. It is much easier to listen to a tune being played on a piano than it is to listen to one note being banged out. I was very surprised to read in a national newspaper recently that in order to improve standards of teaching, the Government is intending to raise the entry level into the profession. Presumably the idea behind this is that the more qualifications someone has, then the better they will be at teaching. Dangerously false assumptions, made by those that have no clue about teaching. In order to teach children, you must speak in a

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language that the children understand, and be able to adjust the level of that language, depending upon the age and ability of the class at the time. A teacher I knew talked to an exam class in terms that were perfectly straightforward to him about reproduction in plants. He became extremely frustrated at being asked to repeat things and explain things over and over again. I sat in his class for a lesson, and the problem immediately became clear. He was talking about botany in graduate terms, to a class that needed to know the basics for their 16+ exam. His mistake was to try and impress his class with his knowledge, whereas in fact, he had alienated them. Finally you must keep EYE CONTACT with your class. Maintaining eye contact has the following advantages; It shows the class you are not afraid to look at them i.e. you have confidence. It allows you to monitor the reaction of the class to your speaking, and adjust accordingly If you are not keeping eye contact, then you are not speaking to the class; you are looking at something else (usually the black/white board or PC screen) and hoping that the class hears you. It is a very common mistake that teachers talk to the blackboard, or their PC, or their notes. This is dreadful practice. If you are doing something that makes it necessary to look away from the class, then stop speaking until you have regained eye contact.

• Movement I am a great believer in moving around the class, mixing with the pupils and weaving between the desks, workstations and benches. However, I only do this during informal, talking stages, confirmation stages, and whilst the class are on task. Whilst I am speaking during the instructional, formal parts of the lesson, I think it is important to remain at the front of the class, or at an alternative vantage point from which you are in full view. In such a position, the class does not have to twist and turn in their seats to follow your meanderings. However, it is a crime to stay stationary, unless doing a particular type of formal presentation to an adult audience. Do gesticulate to emphasise important points. Show emotions to illustrate your story. Use facial expressions, and move around in an area of no more than 12 feet (for a typically sized classroom). This has the effect of focussing the attention to one small part of the room, where you have centre stage. Put on your best performance!

• Appearance In all the time that I have spent with other teachers, nothing has disappointed, even angered me more than the apparent lack of professionalism of a small minority. ‘Apparent lack of professionalism’, because it is the way in which they appear to others. It is no reflection of their teaching capabilities, but it is the image they portray. Ask any image consultant – the way you appear has a large bearing on the way you are perceived, and therefore has an influence on the way people act towards you. To my mind, there are few jobs where this is more pertinent than that of a teacher. I am not being extreme, and encouraging the donning of dark suits, but simply advising that whatever a teacher chooses to wear, it should be neutral, smart, clean and should suggest success, confidence

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and pride in oneself. A shabbily dressed teacher gives the message that turning up shabbily dressed for work is quite alright. Obviously, there are professions that by the nature of the job, dictate the wearing of appropriate attire, because the work necessitates working in conditions that on a daily basis mean that an individual is working in a dirty / poisonous / hostile / infectious environment. Teaching does not fall into the same category. On this note, I have little sympathy for certain teachers of certain subjects who use their specialism as an excuse to appear dressed for work in dirty, paint-spattered attire. Wear a lab coat! If the pupils are having Art one particular day, are they permitted to turn up for school in dirty clothing? Teachers should dress according to the school code, and their own self-respect. If pupils are bound to a school code, then even more so, the teacher should be. Here I justify my exception to the rule; in P.E. lessons, pupils are required to wear appropriate sports kit. It follows therefore that a P.E. teacher should wear appropriate sports kit, and should not be expected to change in between lessons! As far as I am aware, in all other areas of the curriculum, the pupils are required to abide by whatever dress code the school dictates. So, therefore should the teachers. It is also a bad idea to wear insignia showing allegiance or member ship of any particular club or association, and particularly a bad idea to wear clothes from the current teenage trend; anything that attracts attention in this regard, will distract attention from teaching and learning. Similarly, do not overdo it; a 3-piece pinstripe, hand-made brogues ands a gold watch chain will do you as much damage as turning up for work in your swimming trunks! Attitude There is absolutely no question about it; you simply cannot survive as a teacher if you attitude is unhealthy. There is such a tremendous workload, that in order to get through it, it is necessary to have a positive frame of mind. Moreover, sooner or later your attitude will show through your teaching, and when your audience suspects that you aren’t giving them the positive approach that they deserve, your relationship with them will become irreparably damaged and your position becomes untenable. “Happy teachers make happy pupils” a highly respected, long serving teacher of PE once told me. Remember this when next you scan the staffroom. Look for the happy teachers, and the ones that look downtrodden and generally fed up with their lot. Then ask yourself whose class you would rather be in if you were a pupil. There will be periods of time when you do have difficulties; maybe you have a particular class (or classes) that really ruin your day. Perhaps the latest government initiative has created yet more workload. Perhaps your non-teaching periods have been spent covering for absent colleagues. This is all part and parcel, and no job anywhere is without its ups and downs. However, if you feel that you have lost the enjoyment of teaching, that you find it difficult to get excited about going to work, or that there is simply no pleasure left in the job anymore, then do be good to yourself and to your pupils, and investigate alternative careers. If you have a positive attitude, the rest is basic man management. Be Fair, Firm and Friendly.

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Fair. You must know your class; their ability, any prior knowledge, any special ability or disability. Armed with this background, you are then in a situation that enables you to make the correct demands of them as individuals. Don’t ask simple questions to the most gifted in the class, and conversely don’t embarrass a slower learner by asking advanced questions. Don’t show favouritism or animosity. Don’t use sarcasm, and at all costs, never exploit an individual’s weakness in order to gain a cheap laugh. Avoid bluffing, and admit your mistakes. Try not to jump to conclusions before asking a few questions to ascertain all the facts, and in exceptional cases should you treat the class as a whole. Common unfair practices that I have witnessed include:

• Keeping the class detained until an individual admitted responsibility for a misdemeanour

• Taking punitive measures on the entire class because of the behaviour of a minority

• Chastising an individual after a drop in performance without first consulting with their Tutor / Guidance teacher

• Publically ridiculing an individual’s work • Targeting an individual by asking copious and unnecessarily difficult

questions • Discussing personal matters in earshot of the rest of the class

Being fair is about being grown up and having a sense of decency towards your pupils. They will respect you for it. Firm: To be an effective teacher, you must command some authority. The pupils should respond to instructions, and be in no doubt that you are in charge. As much as individuals may wish to give the impression that they resent it, and occasionally rebel against it, children particularly want a commanding, authoritative figure in charge. It gives them a sense that they are being cared fro, that things are under control, that there is order, not chaos. Being in control of your pupils gives them a kind of psychological comfort blanket. Being firm does not mean being aggressive, nor does it require you to act like a bully. It means that are able to take control of a situation and steer it away from trouble. Make a decision, or give a instruction and stick to it. Insist on high standards of behaviour, apply them by being fair, yet firm, and maintain them by addressing any deviation from them with confidence. In the case of a non-conformist rebel, remember that you are part of a team. Avoid confrontation, and remove the disruptive element by either isolation within the classroom, or referral up the chain of command. Remember that children actually want you to be in control, and to apply effective and firm measures. You are not being fair to them if you don’t. Friendly: Being friendly means being approachable, in that pupils should not be afraid to ask you a question, or seek your advice. Pupils should not feel threatened or in any way worried about communicating with you. Being friendly in this respect most certainly does not mean making friends. Do not allow yourself to fall into the trap of giving the pupils the idea that you are their ‘pal’. This is very, very dangerous. Not only will the pupils lose all respect for you, you will leave yourself open to all manner of accusations, when the relationship turns sour. You will have lost your position as a teacher, because you have allowed the barrier between pupil and teacher to be broken down, and you will have no status as a figure of authority.

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At all costs, avoid one to one discussions with pupils of the opposite sex, unless you have absolute confidence in the pupil and the nature of the conversation. I have known a teacher who was professional in every way and utterly dedicated to his job to lose his job. He had unwittingly allowed a female pupil to attend his lab at lunchtimes for ‘extra tuition’. When it became apparent that extra tuition was not actually on the pupil’s agenda at all, he put a stop to the lunchtime sessions. By the end of the week, he had been asked for his resignation. He had been accused of ‘interfering’ with a pupil. To be ‘friendly’, encourage initiative, acknowledge achievement and make the class feel that their success is important to you. Diligence One of great joys of teaching is the achievement of a sense of pride and confidence in a lesson well taught. To experience this however takes a lot of hard work, as you will under ‘Appreciation’ and ‘Planning’ sections that follow. To prepare, plan and rehearse a lesson takes a lot of time. Perhaps, if you are new to the profession, getting a one hour lesson ready could take two or three hours. If a typical teaching timetable contains, say 26 hours of teaching time, you begin to realise the extent of the preparation, let alone the homework, the marking, the tutorials, the meetings and the extra-curricular activities. To be a successful teacher, you have to be committed to the job; you have to be prepared to put in some very long and gruelling hours. Set high standards for yourself, and train yourself in the self-discipline of not cutting corners at the expense of good instruction. Being a teacher is not having a 9 – 5 job. It becomes a way of life, and if you are not prepared to work at it, then you will not be living life to the full. Enthusiasm Of all the qualities of a good instructor, it is the enthusiasm of the teacher that the class will recognise and respond to most. Enthusiasm leads to rapport, innovative teaching and learning – and sheer good fun! If you are enthusiastic about your subject, then your subject will hold some kind of fascination for your class. They will want to know what it is about your subject that could possibly cause you to be so energetic and animated. Learning should be fun, but learning is voluntary – you cannot force your pupils to learn. What you can do is use your infectious enthusiasm to influence them to learn. Enthusiasm is the bedrock of good instruction; it shows to an audience that you are interested both in your subject, and in their capacity to learn it. A lack of enthusiasm makes for exceptionally dull and tedious lessons, inevitably resulting in low attainment levels and under achievement and poor discipline. Happy and enthusiastic teachers make for happy and enthusiastic pupils. Summary If you have the;

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Confidence Manner Attitude Diligence, and Enthusiasm Then you Can be MADE into an effective teacher.

The First (Master)Principle of Good Instruction 15

“The Promotion and Maintenance of the Desire to Learn” As any experienced teacher or parent will know, children cannot be forced to learn. If they are to progressively develop, then they need encouragement and praise, and an understanding of the reasons behind the learning. This may be a requirement for survival, such as learning to talk, or learning to walk, or it may be a requirement that needs to be met in order to gain a particular quality of life. Effective learning is a result of the stimulation of the Desire to Learn. This must always be borne in mind when planning any kind of instruction. If the child is not motivated to learn, then they won’t learn. It is the purposeful promotion and maintenance of this interest, thus securing the co-operation of the learner that creates effective learning. In the military, this recognition of the learner’s needs is reflected in what is known as the First (Master) Principle of Instruction: The Promotion and Maintenance of the Desire to Learn In a nutshell, this principle provides us with a definition of effective instruction / teaching. If you commit it to memory, understand fully what it means and plan your teaching around this principle, your career as a teacher will not go far wrong. PROMOTING THE DESIRE TO LEARN It is essential that you understand the learning process. Biology tells us that we have to learn to survive. In the natural world, what we learn are basic survival skills; from learning to suck milk from a mother’s breast when we first appear into the world, through to learning what is dangerous, and thus avoiding things that may put our health or our lives at risk. This is what we will call genetic, or evolutionary learning. Other learning, which is not essential to our survival, we will call voluntary learning. Voluntary, because possession of the knowledge in itself, will not affect our survival. In evolutionary terms, knowing the quadratic formula, for example, will not give any individual a selective advantage – any offspring will themselves have to relearn the formula from the beginning. It is this voluntary learning process that lies dormant in each of us, and as teachers / instructors, we must try to stimulate it. In some individuals, it is easier to stimulate than others, and to complicate matters, individuals respond to different stimuli. This is of course the basis of the promotion of ‘differentiated learning’ in a class of varying ability. Consider the voluntary learning process to be a reservoir, held back by a dam. If the water is released, then there will be a torrent rushing at speed down the sides of the mountain, bringing nourishment and new life to otherwise barren ground. However, the dam is depriving the ground of the water it needs. The dam is in fact a psychological barrier, created by the human instinct to always look for the easy way out. It is far easier not to do something than it is to apply the mind and get on with it; give any schoolchild the choice of doing homework or not… It is our job as teachers to break down that barrier, to change the frame of mind of our audience from not wanting to learn, because ‘it’s boring’, or it’s ‘too much like hard

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work’, or there are better, more enjoyable alternatives. We want them to look forward to our lessons, to enjoy them – in short, we have to make them want to learn. We have to awaken the Desire the Learn. To do this, we promote ourselves, our subjects, our lessons. It’s a sales and marketing job! By far the most effective way to promote interest in your subject, is to be enthusiastic about it yourself. Enjoy it – be a happy teacher, approachable, and show all the qualities of a good instructor as outlined in the previous chapter. A lively, humorous and energetic personality will get noticed. Similarly, a mysterious, confident personality will get noticed. Whatever approach suits you, adopt it and put it to effect not just in your classes, but on the corridors, in the playground – wherever and whenever you have contact with your pupils, be enthusiastic. Get them to like you, and they’ll get to like your subject. You can create interest in your lessons before they occur simply by keeping the class informed.

• Consider giving the pupils a copy of your programme of study, so that they know the subject of each lesson in advance.

• At the end of each lesson, create interest by promoting the next lesson (this will be elaborated upon in the chapter on lesson planning).

• Advertise on notice boards. Outside one of my labs, a teacher had covered a wall with countless signs stating that ‘Biology is Brill’, and interspersed amongst the signs were photographs he’d taken of practical classes in session.

• If you have an intranet, exploit it - publish photographs, make public any achievements, make interactive sites, include your lesson notes, have on-line quizzes, forums – go beserk!

• Get a regular slot in the school magazine • Start a departmental newsletter • Organise outings, lunchtime clubs, after school project groups

• Recommend programmes on the TV, films, interactive websites. Use examples

from everyday life to illustrate a point. In the lesson planning section, later on in this section, you will see that in the Beginning part of the lesson, you should plan on giving: An Objective – what you are going to achieve this lesson A Reason Why – why the lesson is important to the class An Incentive – Realistic benefit that the class will gain as a result of the lesson (not always possible) This is all part of breaking down the psychological barrier to learning, and therefore promoting the desire to learn. Having promoted the desire to learn, it is vital that you keep the momentum going, and build upon what you have achieved. This is known as ‘maintaining the desire to learn’. MAINTAINING THE DESIRE TO LEARN

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Put simply, promoting the desire to learn covers all the activities you should be considering to create interest outside the classroom. It may seen as the warm up, the build up to the lesson. Maintaining the desire to learn covers all the factors you should consider in order to make your lesson / scheme of work / subject live up to expectations. If you have done a good job in promoting the desire to learn, then you must be able to deliver, or your efforts in the future will not deserve credibility. Much of maintaining the desire to learn is covered within the section on lesson planning. Here we will provide a summary of the main factors. Senses The more senses that are involved with an activity, the more the brain is engaged in that activity. The more the brain is focussed, the more connections are made, and the more we learn. Logical deduction then, to apply the use of senses as much as is appropriate, relevant and meaningful. Sight; The centre of the pupils attention should be you, the teacher. Therefore, look like you are enjoying yourself; be enthusiastic, animate yourself – put on a show! Inevitably, the class will not looking at you al the time, so make sure the distractions in the room are relevant, and stimulating to the eye.

• Consider the use of; o relevant posters o graphic illustration, such as ClipArt, digital video, photographs o models o flipcharts

• Ensure any visual aids you use are attractive and interesting – we will elaborate on this in the latter part of this book.

• If the pupil are on task, make sure the kit looks professional, and that any instructions are clear, easily legible, and include illustrations.

• Ensure that you have differentiated work prepared. • Where possible, use film to give a visual description of your subject. A good

example of this is the use of the World War 1 footage to show conditions in the trenches.

Although not always true, it is a good rule of thumb to say that if you engage the eyes, you engage the pupil. (!) Sound. Crucially, it is your voice as the instructor that will be the biggest stimulus to the class’ hearing sense. Therefore, sound interesting; use intonation, speak clearly, and loudly enough to be heard without effort, but avoid shouting. Be rhythmical, and above all, talk in a language that the class will understand – do not try to impress with your command of the language, but rather speak so you can be understood. The way in which a primary school teacher addresses their class will be very different to the way in which a post-16 specialist would put their lesson across, for example. There are a great many other ways in which I have seen sound being used as an effective teaching medium. Recordings of the sound of artillery and machine gun fire to illustrate trench life, is a classic example. The sounds that different animals make, along with their associated photograph, is another. Then there are more bizarre examples, such as reading aloud the script from Henry V, the Agincourt scene, whilst having battlefield noises being played in the background.

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It is not uncommon for teachers to win over a class’s attention by allowing them to listen to a background radio whilst doing work. It does have it’s merits; if being allowed to listen to the radio provides a motivation to work well, then why not? The difficulty arises when listening to the radio becomes common practice, and is no longer a carrot. The class may expect to have the radio on and won’t work otherwise. Similarly, whilst apparently working well, their minds are actually focussed on the music and not concentrating on the task in hand. In this case, the use of sound is distracting from learning, not enhancing it. The use of sound and the form that it should take is a judgement call for the teacher on the ground. Touch. Those of you with young children will be familiar with the idea of ‘touch & feel’ books, whereby the reader looks at a picture of something (typically an article of clothing, or an animal) which has a patch on it of the kind of material that the article / animal is made from, so that the reader can get a feel for subject in question, as well as a visual impression. It’s a good idea – why not bring it into the classroom? Whenever you are describing something, bring it or something to represent it into the classroom, and give the class a ‘hands on’, so that as well as see the article they get an impression of the texture, the shape and the weight of the object, so that your description is brought to life. A maths teacher I know is also a body builder. He teaches weight by taking his class to the gym and essentially giving them all a good old work out on the weight machines. By the end of a couple of lessons, all his pupils know exactly how heavy a kilogram is, and how to balance weights. I am less keen on the biology teacher who passed a cockroach around the class, inviting the pupils to touch it and see how hard its exoskeleton was! Taste. Dodgy one, this. Gone are the days when we were able to place chemicals into our mouths to discover the taste, or when we were blindfolded and given samples of unknown food and asked to describe the taste. Health & Safety has taken hold, and unless you in the Home Economics department, I would steer clear of asking pupils to taste anything in your lessons. Smell. Like taste, the potential of the use of smell has been much reduced by legislation. Older readers may well remember the smell of the science corridor, after the previous class had been making Hydrogen Sulphide stink bombs, or extracting chlorine gas, or the smell of Formalin lingering on the biology benches after the rat dissection, or even the uplifting odours seeping down from the Art department after spray painting classes. In the modern, rather too sterile environment, give some thought, and check with your Health &Safety officer before you use smell to enhance learning. Activity In order to engage the pupils, you must strive for maximum activity. If you don’t, they’ll create some activity of their own. Keep them occupied and they’ll have no time for creating their own distractions. When teaching a factual lesson, try to use whatever means you can to engage the class. It may be the use of worksheets, or team quizzes, or the use of short lesson stages and therefore more confirmation stages (see lesson planning section). You could get audience participation by getting select pupils to teach part of your lesson, or preparing props in advance for use in your lesson. Anything you can think of to keep their mental activity to a maximum is worth consideration.

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When teaching a skills-based, or practical lesson, ensure that there is enough equipment to go around, so that there shouldn’t ever be anyone who is not engaged in something. If you are struggling for equipment, don’t ask the class to share, when you know that only half of the class will be doing anything at any one time. Rather plan your lesson so that whilst half the class are engaged in one task, the other half are engaged in another, and then have a rotation time. Also, apply some team management; if the class are working in groups of 2 or 3 or more, take steps to ensure that there is delegation of tasks, that the delegation is fair and that there is rotation within the group. Consider the appointment of a Team Leader and rotate the appointment over a period of time. The key to a good skills-based lesson is to strive for maximum activity for the maximum amount of people over the maximum period of time. Remember to include in your planning time for getting out and putting away of equipment. Variety It is always an important part of lesson planning to include as much variety as possible. A 45min period at 0900hrs is bearable, but to have to face 8 of them consecutively is asking rather a lot – particularly if there is no variation in the lesson format. By Lesson 8 in a typical school day, if there has been no variety of format, it is unreasonable to expect your class to be the ideal audience. The technological advances in recent years, along with changes in the education system itself have brought about a greater opportunity than ever before to bring variation into teaching techniques. The use of instructional aids is covered in detail later on in this book, but for the purpose of illustrating just how many types of resource are available to you, it is worth mentioning a few here; List A Blackboard Whiteboard Smartboard Activeboard Magnetic Board Digital Projector Overhead Projector Film Projector Slide Projector Blanket Board Flip Chart Posters Models Video recorders Tape recorders Computers The Internet Subject-specific software With all this at your disposal, it should be an easy task to introduce variety within a lesson, as well as variety between lessons.

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Variety is not just about using different of instructional aids, however, it is also about your teaching techniques. Don’t be predictable! There are numerous approaches you can adopt in your teaching – keep the class guessing what they are going to experience next! You may consider: List B Oral testing Written testing Investigation Practical Dictation Text book Work sheet Guest speaker Change of venue Indoor / outdoor Presentation Debate Drama Anything in List B may be implemented using the resources in List A. For example, written testing may be done individually using: Computer-specific software Pre-prepared computer document Posters Or as a class group using: Digital projector White Board Smart board ..and so on. Finally, remember the qualities of a good instructor? Keep variety in your voice, and the way you interact with the class. There are so many permutations, that with a little effort, variety should be a theme that permeates right through a scheme of work. Enthusiasm Enthusiasm has already been covered in the previous chapter. The fact that it is a recurring theme, should emphasise to you the importance of approaching your teaching with enthusiasm. You already have enthusiasm. As such, you will strive to do well, and most of this book will become second nature to you. If you didn’t have any enthusiasm, you wouldn’t have got this far with this book!

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Realism Sadly, for far too many people these days, school education is perceived as being ‘irrelevant’. They don’t mean that it is ‘irrelevant’ as such, just that they cannot relate it to their own lives. It has no place in their lives. This is a sad fact, and it has come about because teachers have not brought realism into their teaching. It is important to understand the environment and the social pressures that your class are growing up in. Once you understand that, you can adapt your teaching accordingly, so that the pupils can ‘relate to it’. This is as pertinent for well-to-do schools in affluent areas, as it is for inner city schools in deprived areas. Obviously, the facts (the curriculum) cannot be changed, but the way in which they are put across is open to the imagination. I once took part in a project to investigate differences between the state-funded education system and the independent system. At the time, I was Head of Biology in a state funded secondary school in Glasgow. The idea was to do a ‘changing places’ exercise with my counterpart from a very popular and well known Scottish independent school. After a very short time, I realised that I would have to adapt my teaching significantly in order to make it realistic (‘relevant’) to my new audience. As a simple example, in my usual school, I taught the effects of forces, being able to change speed, direction and shape by referring to football, and how players kicking the ball to each other were actually applying a force, and so on. In the school where I was temporarily posted, football was not played, but hockey and rugby were extremely popular, thus I adapted my lesson plan accordingly. Simplicity The Forces have a well known phrase, KISS; Keep It Simple, Stupid! There is no point whatsoever trying to impress your class with your academic brilliance. They will not relate to you personally, and will not understand your lesson. All that the lesson will achieve will be to alienate yourself from your pupils. Talk to your class in a way which they can understand. I don’t mean ‘dumbing down’ either yourself or your subject, but talk informally, casually. Don’t use ‘long words’ unnecessarily. At the same time, judge how much your subject material simple. The Generals in the Operations Room have applied a curriculum to age groups that their advisors have deemed to be at an appropriate level. Who are we to argue? Teach the material on the curriculum, ensuring that your scheme of work covers all the relevant points. Any more which you add is up to your judgement, based upon your assessment of the class capacity for further learning, either individually or as a group.

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Finally, keep your lesson plan simple. Use your imagination, your ingenuity and your personality, but stick to the same basic structure – the more complex the battle plan, the more opportunity there is for a disaster! Distractions to be avoided Your lesson is your show. You are the star performer. Ensure that you are the centre of attention by removing anything in your classroom that would cause the attention of the class to be diverted. In the next chapter, when we look at the Appreciation process, this subject will be covered in more detail, and towards the end of the book, you will be introduced to the techniques of using instructional aids. Suffice to say here, that as a rule of thumb you can avoid distractions by applying the following: Display your aid Describe your aid Teach the part of the lesson for which the aid has been brought out, and then Dispose of it – i.e. put it away, so as to avoid distraction. Summary The ability to motivate a class of pupils stems from having a knowledge of what it is that they require to maintain their interest and enthusiasm. Motivating the class and keeping them motivated is part of being a good instructor. S Senses A Activity V Variety E Enthusiasm R Realism S Simplicity D Distractions to be avoided To my mind, learning is infectious; the motivation to learn comes from the source of the information. Imagine two people, each tasked to learn a Shakespeare play. Both are placed in a classroom environment. One is told to put on headphones and listen to the play being read aloud. The second is given access to a computer with graphics, text, interactive tasks, video and sound, as well as background information and a supporting help file. The question is not who will learn the most, but who will enjoy learning the most. Interest has to be aroused, then built upon, then given an incentive to continue. I firmly believe that any topic can be made interesting. All it takes is a passion about your subject, a lively imagination, energy, innovation and a good helping of humour.

The Second Principle of Good instruction PREPARATION AND PLANNING

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Appreciation of the classroom environment As suggested in the previous chapter, one of the great joys of teaching is the potential to introduce so much variety. No two lessons could possibly be the same, as the handling will be dictated a number of variables (‘Factors’). For example:

• The classroom • The class • The subject area • The type of lesson – theoretical, practical, revision • Time of day • The mood of the teacher • The mood of the pupils

The purpose of this chapter is to give you a focus on a very general classroom environment, and allow you to have a better appreciation of the environment in which you work. By the end of this chapter, you will perhaps not take any classroom for granted again. Taking any lesson is a management task. The person responsible should know what it that they are trying to achieve, and have a series of steps to take by which to achieve it. I have met a great number of teachers, and the majority, and I should state that this mainly applies to experienced teachers, approach each lesson simply as part of the working day. The planning cycle (covered in later chapters) appears to have been either forgotten, or more typically, a lesson has been taught repeatedly over the years that it is now ‘all in the head’. The danger here is that complacency breeds boredom: boredom for the teachers, and boredom for the pupils. This is not a healthy platform for effective teaching and learning. There are a select few gifted teachers that are able to walk into a classroom, and deliver an inspiring lesson to a captivated audience. They are able to do this because they have not only the experience and subject knowledge, but crucially they have Confidence in their own ability Respect of (and for) their pupils A Sense of Humour, and Personality (The mnemonic is ironic, and yet easy to remember!) Teaching is about putting on a show; the classroom is the stage, and these individuals are well-practised stage-managers. As with most things, the key to a good performance lies in the planning. The military has a good mnemonic for this, which (adapted slightly!) is:

Prior Planning and Preparation Prevents a Pretty Poor Performance. Otherwise known as the ‘7 Ps’. Performing an Appreciation 24

An appreciation is a thought process, which we go through in order to assess the factors involved whilst coming up with a plan. We do it all the time subconsciously. For example: We don’t stop and go through a thought process in order to cross a road, but in fact we have considered the following factors before we set foot off the curb:

• Where we are • Where we want to be • The road as an obstacle • The speed of the traffic • The volume of traffic • An anticipation of a change in either of the above • Options open, finally resulting in that decisive moment, when you set foot on the

road. We are not aware that such a process has occurred, it is our ‘natural instinct’. In education, some teachers are described as being ‘gifted’, or a ‘born teacher’, or ‘a natural’. These lucky individuals have earned their reputation because they have learned the art of taking the thought processes that come naturally, and using them to arrive at a plan in the classroom. This is the art of ‘doing an appreciation’, and it is applicable in area walk of life, in any situation where a decision has to be reached. In the military, an appreciation has a simple structure: AIM FACTORS COURSES OPEN PLAN What follows are a few ideas of how this process can be adapted and used to create an effective learning environment. The Beginning - Establishing the Aim (Aim) The first stage in any management task to have it clear in your mind what it is that you are trying to achieve. This is known as The Selection and Maintenance of the Aim, (which you may be interested to know is also known as the Major Principle of War !) This is paramount. Without a clear aim, the lesson can become disjointed, and at the end it may be difficult to evaluate the lesson, as it won’t be clear what it is that has been achieved. As no lesson is taken in isolation, being written to meet the demands of the curriculum, the aim of each lesson should be planned well in advance in the form of a ‘Scheme of Work’ for a particular subject. However, a good Scheme of Work will always have in-built flexibility to anticipate the progress of the class, and as such, the Aim of the lesson may need reconsideration. This is the ongoing cyclical review and evaluation that makes for effective teaching.

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Cyclical Review and Evaluation is applicable in all areas of management in education, particularly in consideration of Departmental and Educational Development Planning. However, in terms of selecting the Aim of a lesson, it may be summarised as follows;

National Guidelines

Curriculum

Subject Targets

In order to establish the Aim of a lesson, the process should be that, as soon as the curriculum for a particular subject is known, then a Time Appreciation should take place. The purpose of this exercise is to assess how much time each part of the curriculum will take to teach, and to allocate lesson space accordingly. Obviously, in order to achieve this, it is necessary to have some idea of what topics you plan to cover in each lesson, but at this stage, it is important to keep things very general.

Selection of the Lesson Aim and

Time Appreciation

Evaluation Scheme of Work

Confirmation of the Aim Lesson Delivery and

Lesson Planning

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Once you have managed to allocate time slots for each requirement of the curriculum, you will be left with a basic Scheme of Work. The next stage is to fine-tune your plan. In other words, to decide upon exactly what you hope to achieve in each lesson. i.e. your ‘Learning Outcomes’. A Learning Outcome can best be described using the phrase “to be able to…” . Frequently, these are outlined broadly in the curriculum, but you must be able to drill down to further levels in order to meet those requirements. Your Learning Outcomes define your Aim. It is quite common that, at this stage, as you establish the Aims for each lesson, you may have to reconsider your Time Appreciation, and adjust your Scheme of Work accordingly. For example: The following is an extract from one particular Biology curriculum Examine the flowers (including pollen and ovules) of a wind pollinated and an insect pollinated flower.

• Describe the functions of the parts of flowers, ie sepal, petal, stamen, anther, stigma, ovary, nectary.

• Explain the structure of wind and insect-pollinated flowers in relation to sexual reproduction.

• Describe methods of pollination. • Describe the growth of the pollen tube and fusion of gametes. • Describe fertilisation and fruit formation.

I may look at this and consider the following:

• Flower structure is a practical lesson, and will easily take up one full period

• I will probably be able to cover differences between wind and insect pollinated flowers, and methods of pollination in a period.

• As a practical, growth of a pollen tube would be a full period, but if I just covered

the theory, I could probably cover this and fruit formation in the one period Therefore, my basic Scheme of Work is as follows: Lesson 1 – Practical on flower structure Lesson 2 – Different types of pollination Lesson 3 – Pollen tube / fertilisation / fruit formation

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Now, what am I trying to achieve – what are my Learning Outcomes? (NB these must cover all the criteria stated in the curriculum) Lesson 1 – to be able to name the different parts of the flower Lesson 2 – to understand the differences between wind and insect pollination Lesson 3 – to explain how fertilisation occurs, and how fruits are formed. On reflection, fruit formation is a complex process, and it would probably be worth spending some time in explaining the difference between pollination and fertilisation, as this is always an area of difficulty. If I allow a further period, I could demonstrate pollen tube growth as a full class activity, and that would allow a full period on fruit formation. I may be able to free up some time from another topic, if required. Scheme of Work now becomes Lesson 1 Practical – Dissection of a flower

Aim: To ensure the pupils understand the basic functions of the different parts of a flowers

Learning Outcomes: To be able to name the essential parts of a flower To be able to outline the function of the essential parts of a flower

Lesson 2 Theory – Differences between insect and wind pollination

Aim: To ensure that the pupils recognise and understand the differences between insect and wind pollinated flowers

Learning Outcomes: To be able to explain the differences in structure in plants in relation to the method of pollination

To be able to draw and explain the differences between different types of pollen grain

Lesson 3 Demonstration – Growth of a Pollen Tube, and fertilisation

Aim: To ensure the pupils understand of the events from pollination to fertilisation

Learning Outcomes: To be able to describe the growth of a pollen tube To be able to explain how fertilisation takes place To be able to show an understanding of the differences

between pollination and fertilisation Lesson 4 Theory – Fruit formation

Aim: To ensure the pupils understand how flowers develop into fruits

Learning Outcomes: To be able to name the different parts of fruits To be able to explain the origin of the fruit parts, in

relation to flower structure

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You are now in a position to start planning your lesson – enhancing it, making it fun – this is the key to effective teaching and learning It is a long process, but becomes much easier with practice. Moreover, a well thought out Scheme of Work, based upon calculated Lesson Aims will form the framework for your teaching. And, just when you have got the hang of it, you can bet your bottom dollar that the curriculum will change – just to grant you the opportunity to perfect your skills! Considering Other Factors (Factors) Having established the Aim, you now have to decide how best you can achieve it. This is the lesson plan, but before we start writing the lesson plan, we must take into account other considerations – we will call them Factors. A Factor is anything that could influence your lesson plan. Essentially, there are 5 Factors The Topic The Venue The Pupils The Teacher The Resources The Topic What kind of presentation does the topic of your lesson suggest? In other words, is it a practical lesson, a demonstration, a debate, a lecture, a revision period, an IT based period, an AV based period, or some other? It is always good practice to spare a couple of minutes thinking “How can I best achieve the Aim?” Generally, you will achieve your aim if you make your lesson Interesting Enjoyable This does not require a lot of work. In fact, it is something that we all naturally try to achieve without even thinking. For example – try to explain to a friend how to use a corkscrew, without using your hands, and without having a bottle or a corkscrew available. It is far better, far more effective to actually show the mechanics of a corkscrew in action. Far more effective still to let your friends do it themselves. Confucius, the famous Chinese philosopher (551-479 BC) is reputed to have said

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“I hear and I forget. I see and I remember. I do and I understand.” His point is that people who do things for themselves will learn far more effectively than if they have been told by someone else. In Chapter 5, we will examine this in a little more detail, when we address the use of senses in learning. As a rule of thumb, a theory lesson should never be taught when a practical lesson is indicated. If a practical is not possible (equipment not available / health & safety regulations / not manageable), then it would be in your best interest to find a next best solution. For example:

• Could you improvise? • Could you get the class to act it out? • Are there models available? • Could it be given as a mini-project? • Is there software available? • Are there resources available on-line? • Are there AV resources? • Could the practical aspects be demonstrated (“I see, I understand”) • Does it warrant a class trip to a place of relevant interest?

I don’t believe any lesson should be planned as pure theory. Even the most complex and difficult topics can be made fun. I once disrupted an entire schools’ lesson time by taking out a 1st year class into the playground to have a game of football. Not an unusual step, until you consider that I was at the time supposed to be teaching a physics lesson! I later explained myself to the Head Teacher by explaining that we were actually examining the effects of Forces. The Aim was to explain that Forces could change Speed, Direction and Shape. What better way to show this happening in a relevant and fun way, than to let the children put these concepts into action by observing these changes when a football is kicked about. The Head may not have completely agreed with me, but for a good few days afterwards, that class was the envy of the school, and they certainly understood about the effects of forces – as did their parents, as I was pleased to find out during the next parent’s night! Even learning vocabulary can be fun: a fellow teacher of mine used to teach French vocabulary along the lines of a pub quiz, to great effect. A primary school teacher I know taught addition and subtraction by telling hilarious stories of friends going to one another’s parties. The class had to keep a tally of how many friends were at the party at any one time, as guests came and went. There will be times when the pressure of time is on, and perhaps the most effective way in the circumstances would be to adopt a more traditional style. Certainly I am not suggesting that every lesson you give should become a carnival! The point is that with a little thought into how you could get the class participating, rather than just listening, or

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taking notes, you could over the years, build up a very valuable box of tricks that will make your classes easy to teach and make the learning process fun. Consider the topic; give some thought into how you could possibly make that topic

• Relevant • Fun

The Venue When you walk into an empty classroom, what is your immediate impression. Try it! Next time you go to work, just take a while to simply walk in to your own room, stop, look around and form an impression. Next, go into a colleague’s room, and carry out the same exercise. Some rooms are just classrooms – a physical space in which to store paperwork, and pupils. Other rooms are warm and welcoming and reflect by the very atmosphere, that pupil’s enjoy working in that particular environment. Pupils should feel comfortable in a classroom, and in the primary sector especially, the plan should be to encourage the class in developing a sense of ownership of ‘their’ room. There are so many ways in which to personalise your room, and promote interest in a particular topic / subject. I’m sure that numerous books have been written on the subject, and I certainly do not consider myself an expert. I was lucky enough, in my first teaching post to not only have my own room, but also to be a Form Tutor to a class of first year pupils (Y7 / S1). Moreover, the room opposite – another first year class- was also a tutor room. A very good humoured, and yet intense competition developed between the two classes, to create the best room in the school. It was very much a case of keeping up with the Jones’s, and the energy and enthusiasm (fuelled by the determination of the Tutors!) of the pupils was tremendous. Whatever they could do, we could do better. By the end of the year, I’m convinced that both rooms would have won an award for interior design! Wall displays To give an idea, some of the strategies employed to develop the rooms were as follows: Partitioning the walls into different areas, to cover specific topics such as: Display – of outstanding pupils’ work (based upon the pupil standard, not the class standard). This is often a contentious issue, and individual teachers will have own views on displaying pupils’ work. I would simply recommend is that you make the best use of the limited space available.

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For example, one large collage, containing different work from every pupil in the class is far more effective and team-building, than 30 individual posters all with the same theme. Moreover, I would think carefully about the value of putting up written work, such as essays / stories etc. Can they be seen from a distance / are they attractive to the eye? Be aware of the dangers of displaying individuals’ work – some pupils / parents may perceive it as favouritism or elitism. If you display one pupils’ work – why aren’t you displaying the others? Far better to put up collective work, such as a bar chart / pie chart of the class results of their latest experiment, or a mind-map type summary of the latest class discussion – anything which can have contributions from all class members, without belittling any of them. Interest – A section of the display area that would cover items such as: Charity events the class has been involved with Info on local clubs – Brownies / Cadets / Sports Clubs etc School news – School success stories / news of former pupils Newspaper Cuttings – as long as they are relevant, appropriate and current Achievements – The star spangled part of the wall, especially for pupil achievements outside school: Photographs are a must – you may even consider designing a personalised class certificate to display. Allowing pupils at any age to bring in and display achievements unrelated to school is a great way of building up pupils’ self esteem, and building those vital home – school bridges. Furthermore, it also provides an opening for pupils who, perhaps less academic, have a special talent elsewhere in society. I once taught a pupil who had emotional and behavioural difficulties in school, but who was also an extremely talented footballer, playing regularly for the junior team of a well-known North London club. The moment he began bringing in his medals, and news of his teams progress, his whole attitude seemed to change. It was as if he had mentally now found a way to compete on even terms with his peers, and he found a new sense of pride. It is quite true that we see people through different eyes as we learn more about them. Progress – I hated it as a pupil, when every test result we did, every exam we took was written on a class list and displayed for all to see; it was always the same names at the top (breeding resentment) and the same at the bottom (breeding demotivation). However, one particular school I worked had a superb way of encouraging team spirit and achievement, whilst at the same time allowing the opportunity for everyone to benefit. It was called the Rainbow System, and was absolutely key in motivating individual pupils, and whole class performance. The Rainbow System The Rainbow System was based upon a series of different coloured certificates: Orange was awarded to an individual pupil, and was worth 1 point. Any teacher could award it to any pupil.

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Yellow was awarded to an individual pupil and was worth 3 points. The Form Tutor generally awarded it, after a recommendation from another teacher. Blue was awarded either to an individual pupil, or a whole class. It was worth 5 points, (5 points to every pupil, if a whole class award) and was only awarded by the Head of Year. Red was awarded to an individual pupil, but more commonly it was a whole class award. It was worth 10 points, and could only be awarded by the Head Teacher (after much pleading, and justification by the Form Tutor!) The advantage of the system was that awards were given for anything that so deserved – not just a good test result, or a good piece of homework. Commonly, an orange may be awarded for making a special effort in a particular lesson, or for staying back to help tidy up. It was up to the teacher to decide which colour of award was most appropriate, but the point was that anyone could collect points – for anything that deserved it. A chart was displayed with the amount of points (represented by individual squares coloured appropriately – one point per square) against the pupils’ name. Any red award meant every pupil in the class receiving 10 red coloured squares. The chart was updated daily, and was the centre of attention before and after lesson time. A running class total was kept in lights. The rivalry between myself and my competitor (the fellow tutor across the corridor) was fierce! It was neck and neck throughout one particular term, and then he pulled a nasty trick and earned a red class award on the basis that his class were so well behaved during a ‘sleep-over’ trip to the Science Museum. With only a few weeks to go, and the pride of the class at stake, my class was awarded a red, because we had managed to adopt an elephant at London Zoo. We called her Gladys, and had a photograph of her blown up to poster size, and stuck on the front wall underneath our adopted classroom motto: “The Best”. I nearly lost our newly acquired lead after the Head had turned the class down for a second class red (we had made the newspapers for visiting the local old folks home at Christmas) on the basis that we should be doing it from the good of our hearts, not the need to beat our rival. It was a fair point, but I decided to play a joke on him, and whilst he was out of his office, I carefully positioned a number of cardboard elephant footprints all over the floor, and added a strategic ball of brown tissue paper between the back legs. I was summoned to his office, and told that he would have found my prank amusing, had it not been for the fact that when he opened the door, he was in the company of two irate parents at the time……!

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The Rainbow system is a superb way of motivating individuals and whole classes. It creates team spirit, and a common goal to strive for - and it is a great thing to have displayed on your class wall! Incidentally – we won! Noticeboard - I used a section of wall purely as a bulletin board, mainly for writing reminders about work deadlines, or times of parent’s nights, or hot off the press news. I also let my class have a section of it for posting notes to other pupils. Obviously, this is open to abuse, and should only be done with a class with which you have built up a trusting relationship. Ceilings and Floors It is not just the walls that make up a classroom – remember that you have a floor and a ceiling too, and these can also be used to enhance the learning environment. My competitor mentioned above hung a huge food web from his ceiling – so the next week, my class converted our ceiling into a solar system….. Floor space is a premium, and there is net very often any to spare. There should be enough floor space kept free for the pupils to be able to walk around the class safely, and without unnecessary obstruction. However, if you have spare floor space, it could be used to make a far more inviting environment. For example, a dark and boring corner could easily be hidden by something as simple as a carefully positioned cheese plant. Strategic Deployment Crucial to your floor space is the position and arrangement of the pupils work surfaces. I am still amazed, that whilst the education process has evolved over the years, and we are now into IT-driven lessons, digital projectors, the Internet, and virtual learning environments, it is still commonplace to find classrooms arranged with desks positioned in ordered rows facing the front, rather like a regiment of desks on parade. This arrangement does have it’s uses – some would argue that it is easier for control, and concentrates the attention towards the front of the class. Maybe so, but it impacts on the lesson plan, by limiting the potential for group work / team building / competition etc. I favour the idea of islands where tables are arranged so that the pupils are sat in small groups. Not only does this facilitate a far more dynamic / flexible approach to teaching, it is a more welcoming situation for the pupils, and aids learning by creating a situation in which ideas can easily be exchanged between pupils. We should remember that pupils are human beings, and communication is a vital part of the learning process. Stay in Charge This is where we have to be very careful about the modern IT driven learning processes. A knowledge of IT is essential in modern society, and it is right that it is recognised as a core subject. However, is it better to teach IT in a learning environment, or an IT environment. Let me illustrate the point;

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Typically, an IT classroom has computers laid out in rows around the sides of the room. This is worse than our regiment of desks, because it means that the pupils are not only less likely to interact – they are sitting with their backs to the teacher. In a former life, I had a job selling ‘network management’ software to the education industry. The purpose of this software was to allow the teacher to view pupils’ work from their own PC. It also allowed the teacher to hold conversations / send messages with pupils over the network. Very clever stuff, but from a classroom planning viewpoint, we have created a learning environment in which the pupils are working in isolation, with their backs to the teacher, and being monitored electronically. I may be old school, but I think that the human element in teaching is vital, and the extent of that human element can, to a large extent by controlled by the way your pupils’ learning surfaces are organised. Use your sense Having considered the physical aspects of your classroom, you may wish to think about the classroom atmosphere. The more senses you can engage, the better. I have found the use of a radio / tape recorder to be invaluable on occasion. It is a great tool for the teacher if used wisely. A number of different sources inform me that classical music, played as the pupils enter the classroom has a calming effect. I personally did not experiment with this strategy, on the basis that the majority of pupils I taught did not perhaps have the necessary appreciation. However, I did use the radio to great effect as a bargaining lever in order to gain the co-operation of select classes. For example, in a practical class, after all instructions had been issued, and the pupils were ‘on task’, I found that not only was the application of the pupils better, but the standard of work increased noticeably, both in quantity and quality. Some educationalists would disagree strongly with the use of radio in a classroom, and argue that it is a distraction that the pupils are not concentrating on their work when they are listening to the radio or that it is creating an artificial working environment that produces work solely for the purpose of an unrelated reward. Whilst I appreciate these opinions, I would urge you to remind yourselves that pupils are still human beings. Outside school, they are children, and the important things in a child’s life are football, fashion and pop music. If a child enjoys a lesson more because he or she has the opportunity to listen to background music on occasion, and if that child is more motivated to work because they can have the radio on, then not only are we encouraging the child to produce a better standard of work, but by bargaining with the pupils, we are treating them with respect as fellow human beings, and showing an appreciation of the child’s needs. It is up to the individual teachers to use their own judgement on the use of radio. A word of warning, however, which I learned through bitter experience; stick to the radio! Never allow the pupils to bring in their own CDs / tapes. In order to keep everyone happy, by playing selections from everyone that has brought in a CD, you rapidly become a disc jockey, and the classroom becomes a night club. Also, if one group of pupils don’t like the particular band that some unfortunate has brought in, then there is the potential for abuse. In this situation, a CD or tape player can destroy a lesson. Believe me! If you are considering the use of music – be cautious when and how you employ it, and keep it neutral – the local radio station is usually best.

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Classrooms smell! Usually of socks, sweat or the previous class. The classroom should be inviting. It should be pleasant to enter, and creating a pleasing odour can help to produce a calming ambience. I always kept a can of air freshener handy, and I appreciated having it in my tool kit as much as I appreciated having spare pencils. A teacher in my department took things a stage further, and started using different essential oils. One of her favourites for a particular second year class was Lavender, which she informed me was for the relief of anxiety and stress. Whether it was for her benefit, or that of the pupils is unimportant. The point was that she was creating a relaxing environment, and was engaging the pupil’s interest in something outside the usual curriculum. She was an immensely popular teacher, and had the respect of staff and pupils alike. The last I heard from her was a number of years back, and she was the Head Teacher of a large (and, doubtless, a very pleasant-smelling) primary school. Lighting & Heating Finally on the theme of appreciating your venue, consider the temperature and the lighting. I am sure that somewhere in the Schools Caretaker’s job description, there is some reference to ensuring that the central heating is on full in the summer, and breaks down in the winter. Monitor the temperature carefully. Before the lesson following lunchbreak, open the windows in order to drop the temperature. A warm classroom can be a sleepy classroom. Also use some common sense about the pupils’ clothing. I was educated in a school that decreed blazers should be worn at all times, (‘…..except when at Games’). It was ludicrous, but they were the rules, and woe betide anyone who should remove their blazer. It is not my intention to dabble in the murky waters that are School Rules, but a child will respond better, if they feel comfortable. Lighting is crucial in a classroom. The pupils must be able to see without straining their eyes. Ensure that whatever you are using as a visual aid is large enough, and well lit. We will cover this in much more detail later on, when we look at the Techniques of Good Instruction. Suffice to mention here that if your room is dully lit, then either get higher power bulbs, or bring in other light sources. Lighting in a classroom can be used very effectively, as can lack of lighting. With a little imagination (and a lot of co-operation from the caretaker) a boring, dull room may be transformed into a bright, vibrant (even colourful!) place of learning. Similarly, you may wish to persuade your Head to invest in blackout facilities – slide shows, digital presentations, planetariums, wave models, pin-hole cameras and scores of other applications are greatly enhanced by creating minimal light. In Summary There are experts on classroom strategy and planning. Here, I have barely scratched the surface. Nevertheless, maybe next time you walk into your classroom, you will look at it in a different light, and do a quick mental appreciation of how you could improve things. A little time and effort in planning a welcoming and friendly learning environment will reap huge dividends in standards of learning. The standard of teaching is up to you. The Teacher I have a particular bee in my bonnet about the perceived status of teachers, and the “Those that can…” thing! Ask anyone in industry what their job title is, and for a copy of their job description. They will be able to show clearly what their responsibility is, and what is required of them. They will have a good idea of the market place, and will be

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able to tell you what their particular challenges are for tomorrow, or even forecasting into next week. I challenge any authority to come up with a realistic and comprehensive job description for a teacher. It would be a vast document, complex in the extreme and full of indefinable roles and limits. Over the years as a classroom teacher, here are a few of the roles that I have had to fill: Football Team Manager Press Relations Officer Social Worker Counsellor Charity Worker Interior Designer Technician Events Organiser Presenter Administration Officer Educational Consultant Project Manager Team Leader Community Development Worker Strategic Planning Advisor Statistician Security Guard Reporting and Assessment Officer Oh, and helping hundreds of children to go through an 11 year programme, in order to help them acquire a knowledgebase large enough to enable them to gain academic qualifications…. Having a ‘job’ in industry is to fulfil some task in order to make money. Being a teacher requires a dedication to improve the opportunities of those children under your care. There is no meaningful job description, and if you are ‘in it for the money’, then you are in the wrong job! The point of this is that you should have immense pride in your profession. A colleague of mine, during a staff room conversation, once spoke out saying that he was embarrassed, when people asked what he did for living, to say that he was a teacher. I was surprised when, of the gathered company at the time, a number of people nodded their understanding of his situation. No-one asked him “why?”. I gave this some thought, and arrived at the following; education is always high on the political agenda. (The current Government put education as it’s top 3 priorities!). education generates huge public interest details of teacher’s salaries are readily available to the public there is public perception that a teachers job is an easy 32 hour week with more holidays than any other profession

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the press are very quick to publish stories about education’s shortfalls, and not it’s successes teachers make easy scapegoats In other words, by saying that you are a teacher, you are telling people how much you earn, that you have an easy job, that you in an industry in crisis, and that it is probably your fault! What if, for example, someone told you they were a Business Development Manager, or a Designer? What do you know about that person’s job without asking more questions? If you say “Teacher”, then immediately, in one word, you have given enough information for someone to form an opinion of you. How wrong they are to do that! Only someone who has been a teacher will understand the nature of being in education, and will have a different opinion of you than Joe Bloggs. The poor public image of teachers is based upon nothing more than the ignorance of the public. That is nothing to feel embarrassed about. Quite the contrary! That comment made by my colleague gave me a tool that made me a far better teacher. The tool was the awareness that the pupils in my class where also members of the public, and would also have their own opinions about teachers, and anyone who was a teacher. I made it an essential part of my lesson planning to use any opportunity in a class to explode any preconceptions about teachers. It became a mission for me to gain the respect of the pupils, not just as a person, but also as a teacher. There was no way that I was going to be embarrassed. I guess pupils start a class with a subconscious idea of what is going to happen; they have an opinion of that particular subject, that particular room and that particular teacher. It all becomes rather predictable and boring from their point of view. Do not allow this to happen to you – the only predictable thing about your lessons is that they are going to be enjoyable! Dare to be different! The Pupils It is the pupils that should be the focus of every activity you undertake as a teacher. They should be foremost in your mind when you are planning a lesson, marking a test, writing reports, in a meeting, at parents’ night, on playground duty, and all of the other tasks that are the essentials being a good teacher. If you think about things consciously as you go about your normal teaching day, you will find that to a very large extent you already do this – it’s a teacher thingy. However, here’s the challenge – do not think of the pupils collectively, but rather try and alter your attitude / behaviour / responses to suit individual pupils. Don’t think in terms of ‘a class’. Think in terms of ‘30 pupils’. In other words, try to deal with a situation according to your knowledge of the pupil. This is the whole essence of differentiation in the classroom. Unfortunately, the message of differentiation has not been completely learned. Yes, it means altering teaching methods to adapt to the learning capabilities and patterns of individual pupils, but it also a

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much broader concept. Every time you are either dealing with a pupil directly, for instance, a confrontation in a corridor, or indirectly, for instance marking a test, you should change your measuring stick to suit the subject pupil. To illustrate, consider 2 pupils who score the same result after a class test. Further consider that both results are very low down the scale, say, grade D on a scale of A-E. Furthermore, consider all the other pupils achieved grade C or above. If you adopted the ‘class’ approach, you may be disappointed with the result, perhaps even angry, and maybe you would want to ‘have a chat’ with each of the pupils involved, to find out the reasons why, after all the revision lessons and study periods they performed so badly. As far as you are concerned, there is really no excuse. The rest of the class managed to do well! However, if you adopt the pupil approach, there may be a very different scenario; pupil A may be a consistently high achiever up to this point, and this result is completely out of character. Alarm bells should ring in your head – is the pupil being bullied? Are there problems at home? Have you noticed other uncharacteristic behaviour, such as lateness, tiredness etc? Have other teachers in other classes commented on this sudden down turn in achievement? Maybe you should consider a careful, sympathetic approach. Likely you would want to involve the appropriate pastoral /guidance teacher. Certainly, demanding to know the reasons for a poor performance in these circumstances would not get to the route of the problem, and may well make matters a lot worse in the longer term. Alternatively, pupil B may be a child with learning difficulties, or may have recently returned from a long period of absence. The pupil may have emotional or behavioural difficulties, or quite simply they may be an idle pupil who has never made any effort, has never achieved anything above an E, and who doesn’t seem to care. Quite apart from questioning this individual, far better to privately, or quietly in the classroom, congratulate the person. Boost their ego and give them a sense of pride in their achievement. This could be start of an up turn in attainment for this individual. If the example used above is obvious to you, then that’s just fine – you may not have thought about it previously, but you are recognising in yourself some of the essential skills of effective pupil management:

• Empathy with the learner • Motivation of the learner • Communication with the learner • Recognition of key events

We will deal with managing pupils in more detail later, when we look at the principles of instruction, but for now lets add 3 more skills to your toolbox:

• Awareness of the facts • Awareness of the environment • Leadership

Think of yourself in any situation when you are dealing with non-curricular issues. You must take the time to do a quick mental appreciation of the background to the incident, and the environment you are currently situated. This will allow you to make a

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responsible decision about how best to handle the matter, and take appropriate action. An immediate reaction, could result in your saying the wrong thing to the wrong person in front of others, and making yourself, and even worse the pupil, look foolish. Stay calm, establish what has happened, decide what initial action should be taken and with whom. An awareness of your environment is equally as important, and is something, which needs proper appreciation before you proceed. This applies to any situation, which you may face. A classic example of not showing an appreciation of the environment is the teacher that shows a lengthy video in a hot classroom during the first period after lunchbreak, or the teacher that chooses to have a ‘private’ discussion with a pupil in front of the whole class. A good teacher, having appreciated the environment would either alter their approach to suit the environment, move to a different environment, or make arrangements to deal with the event a later stage. Obviously, in a classroom situation when you have a lesson to teach, there are times when you have to address ‘the class’. However, in your lesson plan wherever practical you should try to build in opportunities to make particular pupils feel that you understand them personally, so that they do not feel lost in a class of others. Not every lesson you plan is going to involve you addressing all of the class all of the time. Hopefully, your lesson plan will include some class input – either some group activity, or individual tasks or even something as straightforward as asking questions to the class. Question technique is dealt with later under Techniques of Good Instruction. In these situations, take the opportunity to wander around the class, talking to individuals. A quietly spoken “well done” or “that’s good” to an individual means so much more than a tick in the exercise book, and it shows the pupil that you are taking a personal interest in their progress. When asking questions, comment favourably to the answers of individuals, according to their ability i.e. encourage detailed answers from talented pupils and praise simple answers offered by pupils that are progressing more slowly. Take the time to sit with pupils whilst they are on task and chat to them. Pull up a chair. Ask them how their team did last night. Join in the task. Praise, encourage and move on to the next group, adjusting your approach accordingly. These times are the valuable ones, and to my mind, the real joy of teaching. It still makes my blood boil to see teachers who, having set the pupils on task, then take the time to sit at their desk and mark books. What a waste of opportunity! There are so many things wrong with doing this, but the harmful signals being sent out to the class could really do damage to the teacher’s relationship with the pupils. “this is a trivial task which has been created simply to give the teacher time to do their own work” “that teacher has no interest in me”, and predictably “the teacher isn’t bothering, so neither will I”

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and you will find yourself on a very slippery slope as the pupils’ opinion of you begins to roll downhill. It is an extremely dangerous situation to be in. It is easy to lose your pupils’ respect. Once lost, it is very difficult to regain. Children need attention to varying degrees. They hate being ignored! The simple message is; know your pupils as individual human beings, and treat them accordingly. If you find this is all rather mundane stuff, good – you are well on the way to creating a relationship and a reputation with pupils that will stick with you for years to come. The Resources A resource is anything available to you that will enhance your lesson, and there are a multitude of different resources available. The Internet Software packages Digital Projector Active Board Blackboard Whiteboard Blanket Board Flipchart Overhead Projector Slide Projector Models Posters Other people Audio tapes Video tapes Text books Etc Etc Etc A resource is only of any use if it is clear, attractive and relevant, and the principles involved are explained under the section about the techniques of good instruction. Beware the computer! I should mention once again the care needed when considering the use of IT in the classroom. Of course, a computer is a resource. It is a gateway to the worldwide library of video, graphics and any background information that a pupil may want. It is vital that if you have access to this resource, you think carefully how you are going to use it. If you simply envisage giving the class some web site addresses, or some task to complete,

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and then sitting them in front of a computer, what is it that you are actually teaching them? There is always a danger in my opinion that pupils concentrate far more on using a computer than actually learning from it. If you are using the Internet as a resource, you may wish to consider the use of a digital projector instead. Always remember that as the IT based element of a lesson increases, the human element decreases. Moreover, if the pupils’ learning experience is to be sat in front of a computer screen, is best use being made of the learning environment, as discussed earlier? For some, a Virtual Learning Environment may be of particular benefit, but only used with careful planning, and to be used effectively, it should only be implemented to enhance learning. As impressive as IT learning can be, I don’t believe that a virtual environment should replace the traditional classroom atmosphere, where human interaction is the key. So What? Hopefully by now, you are becoming attuned to the kind of things that should be taken into consideration when planning a lesson. Being aware of prevailing factors is vital for your understanding of the classroom environment, but it is being able to make decisions, based upon an assessment of the factors that makes the difference between a good theoretical teacher, and an effective, practical one. In order to achieve this, you simply draw conclusions from the factors involved by asking the question ‘So What?’ Here are 2 very simple examples: Factor: Time of Lesson Assessment: This is the first lesson after lunch So What?: The pupils will be tired from running around the playground Conclusion: Need to prevent drowsiness Action: Open windows / avoid lengthy videos / energy and participation required Factor: Large model skeleton in corner of classroom Assessment: Will attract pupils’ attention So What?: Skeleton is irrelevant to this lesson on flower structure Conclusion: If left in situ, it could become a distraction from this lesson Action: Remove / replace with a large diagram or model of a flower This may appear to you to be a laborious and completely impractical way of assessing factors in preparation for a lesson. However, it is likely that you already use this thought process. If you enter a classroom and you notice a scalpel left out on a pupils bench, one would hope that your immediate reaction is to remove it. Common sense maybe, but in fact you have gone through an appreciation of the fact that a scalpel has been left out. Factor: Scalpel left on bench Assessment: A scalpel is a very dangerous instrument So What?: If a pupil gets hold of it, they could cause serious injury Conclusion: Best to remove the danger Action: Put scalpel out of sight / report to teacher responsible.

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This approach to assessing factors is applicable to every situation you encounter, and is not restricted to lesson preparation. Indeed, military commanders throughout the world at all levels use this thought process to decide upon what action to take in a particular situation. Assessing your Options (Courses Open) Having established your aim, and given some consideration to all the factors involved, you are now in a position to decide upon the best approach to the lesson. In other words, what format is your lesson going to take? Largely, this will be determined after your consideration of the factors, but there may be a number of options still open to you. It is important that you decide upon a few options, and then systematically go through each of them, assessing the advantages and disadvantages of each in turn. Take a simple subject such as ‘Dissolving Salt in Water’, and a sample set of factors. A likely thought process may be: Aim: To help the pupils understand that salt dissolves faster in hot water than cold water (from curriculum) Factors Venue: Science room So What? Practical work a possibility Pupils:

Ability Mixed So What? Differentiate work? Easy topic - any need? Class size Max 20 So What? Enough equipment to work in pairs, but a demonstration also possible

Stage of day: Final lesson So What? Pupils clock-watching, eager to get home So What? Any unnecessary delays / demands may create animosity Time: 45mins So What? Very tight for full class practical Option 1 Copy out relevant pages from text book and answer questions at bottom of page. Advantages: Individual work - easy level of control No cleaning up of equipment Disadvantages:

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Lost opportunity for practical Pupils will not be impressed. No teaching – reduced learning Option 2 Go through instructions and organise class practical Advantages Pupils enjoy practical Hands-on approach for better learning – ‘I do, I understand’ Disadvantages Time pressure – lesson already short . Rush to put equipment away. No spare time for checking lesson assimilation Risk of breakages Health & Safety issue with hot water Option 3 Teacher demonstration of experiment Advantages Practical element – could involve some pupils Good learning experience Creates time for proper introduction and lesson assimilation Only one set of equipment to clean Disadvantages Doesn’t involve all pupils Pupils may feel cheated out of a practical Assessing the options, you may decide that in 1 and 2 above the disadvantages outweigh the advantages, and the decision is to go for option 3. Alternatively, you may consider that in option 3 the advantages outweigh the disadvantages far more so than in the other 2 options. The choice is for the individual teacher to make. There is no right or wrong – just a decision for an individual teacher, based upon an assessment of the relevant factors in this particular case.

The Lesson Plan (Plan) Having done your lesson appreciation, consisting of

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Establishment of the Aim Analysis of relevant Factors Assessment of the Options (Courses Open) You are now ready to write your Lesson Plan (Plan) The lesson plan is the single most important item in the teacher’s toolbox. Unless you are one of those unique, highly talented and experienced teachers, it should not be expected that you can deliver an effective lesson without some prior plan of how you intend to approach the task. All your ability, individual skills, experience and all the work you have done in your appreciation are nothing if you don’t use it al to make a plan. Imagine a cabinetmaker equipped with all the raw material, all the tools and all the skill, that doesn’t make a cabinet…. There is no doubt that compiling lesson plans on a day-to-day basis is very hard work, and very time consuming. This is work of the teacher that goes unnoticed by the general public, as it is necessarily done in the teacher’s own time (along with the report writing, marking and so on). However, after a couple of years investment, you will have your very own (big!) folder of lesson plans. Although no two lessons should be the same, these folders are an excellent resource for future lesson planning. Lesson Plans are by definition very personal. I cannot pick up somebody else’s plan and present it to a class, because how I would plan to deliver a lesson will be different from how someone else would plan it. An individual’s lesson plan is a reflection of their own personality, and will show the energy, imagination and effort that an individual teacher has put into it. I suppose that it would not be dissimilar to giving Clint Eastwood’s script to John Wayne! The latter would do a reasonable job, but it just wouldn’t be John Wayne, and the difference in performance would certainly show. The Structure of a Lesson Plan Having stated above that lesson plans are both individual and personal, they should all nevertheless be built upon the same scaffolding. It should be no surprise to learn that the scaffolding comes in three deliveries; The Beginning The Middle The End The Beginning Imagine you are having guests around to your house. You are all prepared and you are awaiting their arrival. You know what time they are expected, so do you;

a. Stand on the street, looking for them coming b. Wait for them to knock c. Wait for them to burst in the front door

Again, each teacher must decide what suits them best, but it is absolutely essential that right from the start, you obtain control of the class. The way in which the pupils are

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allowed to enter a classroom will set the tone for the rest of the lesson. Personally, I use different techniques for different classes. Generally, I found in secondary school that First Years would, if instructed, line up outside and knock. Hence option ‘b’. Second, Third and Fourth Years tended to display a little more ‘confidence’, and a tendency to ‘experiment’ with the boundaries of discipline and authority, and so option ‘a’ was the only choice. However, with senior pupils I tended to treat them more as young adults, and allow them the freedom to enter the room (within reason). If your school is a busy secondary school, and the corridors between lessons swarm with pupils, it is good practice that option ‘a’ is always adopted as a matter of school policy, so that on any one corridor, there may be 5 or 6 teachers keeping a watchful eye. In these circumstances, there must be an element of staff camaraderie and teamwork. If one or two members of staff decide not to brave the storm, then the harder it will rain on those that do venture out. One of the essentials of a happy school is staff teamwork – an issue we will return to later. Having decided on the method of entry, you must now impose your presence and leave the class in no doubt that this is your lesson. Take ownership; you have worked hard getting this lesson together, and you must ensure that things go according to plan. To do this, you need the co-operation of the class. You need to win them over. There have been books written on classroom management techniques, which you may wish to consider. Ultimately, though, you will do whatever suits your personality, and vary your approach according to how well you know the class. Personally, I have found that if you have a controlled entry into the room, and set routines for hanging up coats etc, then getting the attention of the class thereafter should follow naturally. It is far more difficult if a class of twenty-five 14 year olds are allowed to burst into the room, carrying on the games and conversations from the playground, than if you assert authority before the group has even entered the room. Having asserted your authority, the first task is to arouse the pupils’ interest in the lesson, and prepare them to receive the pearls of knowledge that you are about to impart. There are 5 steps that need to be taken: The Preliminaries First, there are the Preliminaries. The purpose of preliminaries is to clear up any administrative procedures that affect the whole class, thus avoiding distractions later on in the lesson. This covers items such as:

• Taking the Register • Class announcements • Checking equipment • Ensuring everyone has the correct books / writing materials etc • Reminding the class of any established routines, including question procedure. • Any other miscellaneous items which are better addressed when the whole class is

gathered. Just a note on taking the register. This is an extremely important part of the lesson, and is an essential part of imposing your authority. Generally, I do not insist on silence, but I make an exception for the register. It is your roll call. It establishes you as the teacher

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and the class as your pupils. It is essential that you know who is present, who arrived late etc. Imagine your emotions, if there was a fire, and you hadn’t taken the register properly. The register can provide a wealth information; patterns of attendance, frequency of illness, and if the reasons for absence are known, indicators for pastoral care / involvement of social services etc. In modern, computerised education, class registers are used as the source for national statistical analyses. Take them seriously. Some thought should be given to the manner in which you are answered. i.e. “Here”, or “Yes, Sir / Miss”. This will establish the nature of your relationship with the class. If you allow responses such as “Yeah”, or “What?”, or just a grunt, then you are giving a message that the standards in your classroom are low, and you accept a casual approach. If that suits your personality, and you can control it, fine. If not, you must have the confidence to tell the class what is acceptable, and what is not. The next stage is the Introduction or Revision stage. Introduction This is particularly important for secondary school teachers. Always remember that whereas you are enthusiastic about your subject, and are happy that your lesson has been well prepared, the pupils arriving at your classroom are going through a timetable of between 6 – 8 subjects daily. It is difficult for them to adjust their mind from one subject to another. To help them settle into your lesson, it is good practice to take a few minutes at the beginning to establish where the class is in their learning, and link the lesson you are about to deliver with the previous one. This may be done quite easily either through posing some simple revision questions to the class, or offering a refreshing narrative that will link the two lessons. If you are starting a new topic, introduce you topic wherever possible by creating interest, thus promoting the desire to learn. Such strategies may include

• Linking your topic to recent current events • Giving an historical backgrounds • Showing a brief video / slides / using other visual techniques • Putting the topic into the context of the local community

It is always worth showing the pupils whereabouts on the curriculum the new topic is, and giving them the timescale that you are working towards in order to complete the topic. In this way, you are keeping the pupils informed about their progress, and making them aware of the challenge that lies ahead. I have always found it useful to share my schemes of work with my classes. It allows the class to understand any adjustments in your methods, and appreciate that you asking them to do something for a reason. This is very valuable tool when arguing the toss with individual pupils, or explaining their progress to their parents/carers. It also serves as a way to provide praise to your class; “Well done! You’ve worked very well over the last ‘x’ number of lessons, and as you can see, we have earned ourselves a bit of time.” Or whatever is appropriate.

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The Objective Having given an introduction to the lesson/subject, carried out a brief revision task, put the lesson into context and made it relevant, you must now outline your objectives. In other words, tell the class that by the end of this lesson, they will have covered topics x,y and z. By doing this, you are letting the class know that your lesson has a structure, and within that structure, you have thought about definite targets that you have planned to achieve. Again, as well as providing a tool for the pupils to monitor their own progress, you are sharing your intentions, thus involving the pupils in the fabric of the lesson, and what they are familiar with, and what they understand, they are far more likely to accept. The Reason Why Having provided an objective for the lesson, explain to the class why it is important to them that they achieve the objective. This is known as the ‘Reason why’ and is usually given because it will provide some benefit to the pupil in the near future. When applicable, the reason why is a very powerful tool for motivating the class. It is not enough to say: “The reason why we are studying this today is because you have a test on it next week”. This is negative – it detracts from the enjoyment and fun that you are about to impart, because it creates pressure, and plants the seed in the pupils’ mind that the only reason for lessons is to pass exams. It also suggests to the class that you the teacher have not given any thought to the context of the lesson, other than to appreciate that there may be questions asked on this particular topic during an assessment. Rather than present your lesson in a mundane and predictable way, introduce it is a means to achieve something that would be of tangible and relevant benefit to your class. For example, if teaching an ICT-based topic, such as entering data into a spreadsheet, a reason why may be presented along the lines of: “Nearly every job that you might apply for in the future will, somewhere in it’s structure rely upon the use of a spreadsheet. Becoming able to manipulate a spreadsheet and produce reports and graphs from it may well be a requirement for any post you apply for. At the very least, it will look good on your CV!” Don’t try to force a Reason Why: they can sound contrived and half-hearted if not genuinely meant, and that defeats the purpose of motivating the class and promoting the desire to learn. The Incentive Finally, at this stage is the Incentive. This is not always appropriate and should only be given when there is a genuine goal to aim for. It is not enough to use success at exams. As with the ‘reason why’, this creates undue pressure and is not always an incentive to the pupils.

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An example of an incentive may be to offer, in return for an extra effort, some respite in a future lesson. “If you work hard today, and get as far as task 3, then next lesson, I’ll show you a video”. Or “Those of you who apply yourselves today will be considered for the spare places on the trip to the zoo”. This is not bribery. Bribery doesn’t work. You are merely stating fact: if you achieve ‘x’, then you will get ‘y’. If you don’t, ten you won’t. The ball is in their court. Do not fall into the trap of negotiating with your class over an incentive. If you have to do this, then the incentive is not genuine, and the pupils are gaining undue influence over your scheme of work. Remember, in the Beginning phase of the lesson, you should set the scene and prepare the class for what they are about to do. Include Preliminaries Introduction Revision Objective Reason Why (where applicable) Incentive (where applicable) You are now in a position to get into the meat of the lesson – the Middle The Middle This is the bit where you will achieve your aim. There are 2 parts that make up the middle of the lesson The Content The Structure The Content Whilst there exists an education system that is driven by the need to achieve academic results, the powers that be will tell the country’s schools: what subject areas should be covered what the content in those subject areas should be over what period of time the content should be covered how much content should be covered by a certain age the levels of difficulty To make things even more suffocating, they also decide how much of the content a pupil should know by a certain age, and then assess the pupil against this predetermination, and award the pupil a grade accordingly. Thus we don’t have people with an education, we have pupils who are Grade B in this or Grade C in that or Grade A in the other. The point

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is that the content of your lesson is largely dictated to you by something known as The Curriculum. Within the curriculum, there will be Guidelines that cover certain subject areas, and within the Guidelines, will be the content. A project I was working on recently, to investigate the incorporation of innovative learning and teaching techniques into a curriculum that covered pupils from age 5 to the age of 14 was constructed in such a way that, to my mind, the role of the teacher had been diminished to a regrettable extent. Teachers were simply churning out information as directed by the curriculum. In this example; The curriculum was sub divided into Subject Areas. The Subject Areas were sub divided into Learning Objectives. The Learning Objectives were sub divided into Attainment Outcomes. The Attainment Outcomes were sub-divided into Strands. Strands were sub divided into Attainment Targets. The Attainment Targets were based upon Themes. The Themes contained Levels of Attainment. The Levels of Attainment were graded from A to F. In other words, the pupil is being educated along the lines of: “if you can do x, y and z by the time you are 12 years old, you will be a Grade D”, and the teacher is being told: “this is what you teach, at this time, to them” For some pupils, this approach works, but in my personal opinion, the system is far to top-heavy, and there needs to be an alternative. (See Appendix 1) Whatever your school, or your system, there will be some form of curriculum, however prescriptive it may be, and within that curriculum will be some guidelines on what you should be teaching, to whom. It is up to you, using the given guidelines, to write your scheme of work and determine the Aim of each lesson, as mentioned in Chapter 2. Having established the Aim, it is up to your experience, your personality and your imagination to decide how you can achieve that aim in the given timescale in most enjoyable way possible. It may be that your lesson will be all theory, or all practical-based or given as a project, or computer-based. It is up to you as the teacher in charge of achieving the aim how best to do it. This is where the structure of your lesson will be determined. The Structure A practical-based lesson will have a different structure to a theory-based lesson, but the same principles apply:

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Split the middle lesson up into small stages, and confirm at the end of each stage that the lesson is being assimilated before moving on to the next stage. (a) The Theory Lesson If you were offered a whole elephant to eat, you would probably take one look at it at decline. However, if you were served up the elephant piece by palatable piece, it would at once appear far more attractive – and you might even enjoy it! This is the essence of a good theory lesson: take your lesson content, and divide it into a series of mini-lessons, with the breaks at logical stages. You, your timescale and the aim of the lesson determine the number of breaks you have. Example: Lesson: Telling the Time Aim: To give the pupils an understanding of the concept of the Hour Beginning:

Preliminaries Introduction Reason Why

Middle: Stage 1 Relate the numbers on the clock face to the minutes in an hour Confirm Stage 2 Describe the two halves of the clock face in terms of ‘past’ and ‘to’ Confirm Stage 3 Introduce the minute hand Confirm

Confirmation techniques that are covered in chapter X, but essentially it should be a 2-way dialogue, managed in non-threatening, yet tactical way. By adopting this approach, you are not only reassuring yourself that your lesson is getting through, but you are involving the pupils in their own education; they are gaining confidence, stage by stage that they are learning something. Furthermore, it enables you to isolate, or pin point areas of difficulty. You should be able to highlight where difficulties have arisen by examining between which stages of confirmation the breakdown in understanding started. In the example above, if the feedback from stage 1 is very positive, but the confirmation stage 2 reveals difficulty, then you know that the problem is with the concept of ‘past’ and ‘to’. This is far preferable to talking for 40 minutes, and then finding out at the end of the lesson that the class hasn’t understood.

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It is worth remembering that if a pupil hasn’t understood, then they probably won’t know exactly what it is they haven’t understood, and you will have to go back through the whole lesson to try and find the relevant part. It is up to you as the teacher – the expert in educating people- to be able to isolate areas of difficulty, and be able to tell an individual, or a class; “I know where your difficulty lies, and I will fix it for you”. They will respect you for that! If an individual, or small group of pupils fail to understand, whereas the rest of the class are ready to move on the next stage, it is your judgement call whether you: Deal the problem immediately Keep the individuals back and explain after the lesson This is dealt with in more detail in Chapter X. (b) The Practical Lesson The structure of a practical lesson is similar to that of a theory lesson in that there are definite, bite-size stages. However, the stages are organised somewhat differently. There are 4 stages to the middle phase of a practical lesson, and they are Explanation Demonstration Imitation Practice or ‘EDIP’. Explanation This covers any new facts that the class may need in order to gain a thorough understanding of the practical that they are about to do. It should be short and clear, and only covering information relevant to the successful completion of the experiment or task ahead. The sort of information given out at this time would include things like: Uses of the experiment Naming of new equipment Explanation of any new terms that will be used Reminder of the standard procedures for practicals Any particular aspects of safety On no account should the explanation phase be used to give the class a verbal account of what they are about to do. You are going to show them what to do during the next phase. Telling them would be akin to trying to explain how to change gear in a car. It is far more effective to show them. Demonstration It is at this point that your audience will witness at first hand just how professional a teacher you are, and how much prior planning and preparation you have done. You will either impress them, or give them cause for hilarity. Whether you are demonstrating a

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forward roll in PE, how to do a particular stitch in Home Economics, or setting up a distillation apparatus in Chemistry, your skills and reputation are very much in a shop window. You can set the standard and lead by example, or you could lose the respect of your class. There are a number of ways to deliver the Demonstration, and there are no rules; every teacher will have an individual approach that suits their own personality and style of delivery. Moreover, the nature of the skill that you are demonstrating will be a major factor in the way in which you carry out the exercise. If you feel that this might be an area of need for you, then the following guidelines have been tried and tested, and I never move very far from the format. Initially, go through the entire procedure from beginning to end without pausing. Then, go through it a second time. This time, go slowly; make sure that the pupils have seen what it is that you want them to see. Confirm with the class that everyone is clear on what you have just demonstrated before moving on to the next small stage. Repeat any difficult or tricky stages as many times as necessary so that the class understand. Once you have completed all the stages of the task, then go through the whole procedure again without breaks. These three steps of demonstration may be summarised as:

Show it to them Explain it to them

Confirm it with them There are additional factors that you should consider:

• Is the demonstration necessary? • Can all the audience clearly see the demonstration? • How much time can you plan for this stage of the lesson? • Do the pupils have the necessary skills to complete the task on the basis of a

demonstration? • Is additional training required (before or after the task)?

You should also use wherever necessary a little bit of common sense, mixed with a lot of imagination, and try to use the opportunity to put across your personality. Act it out! You are on stage – to me, demonstrations are one of the most enjoyable aspects of teaching – it is a chance to show off! To illustrate, when I was at teacher training college, I was asked to introduce a practical lesson that involved sticking small squares of blue paper onto a leaf. The idea is that the paper turns pink, indicating that water vapour is released from the leaves. I decided that demonstrating the procedure to a class of 32 fellow students would be completely impractical. This was a fiddly operation using tiny pieces of paper and a leaf. I thought about ways I could make the demonstration more meaningful, by projecting the leaf onto the wall, for example, or demonstrating to small groups in turn. In the end, I decided to use a model; I found a large cardboard box, flattened it out and then cut out

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the shape of a leaf. I cut out a piece of blue card, and a piece of pink card, to represent the paper, and put a blob of Blu-Tack on the back of each. Armed with my cardboard model, I was able to put on a performance that everyone could see, and understand. (My tutor later asked me to repeat the show so that he could video it and use it in future classes!) The point is that the purpose of a demonstration is to give the class an understanding of what is required of them, and you should think to yourself of what the most effective way would be to achieve that aim. Usually the best way is for you to show the class exactly what it is that they are required to do. But if equipment is too small, or the task too fiddly, or the audience too large, then you need to think of an alternative. These days, an easy answer is to use computer-based resources. If used properly, this a wonderfully stimulating way of demonstrating practical skills. However, don’t allow the internet, or software to be a substitute for the fun and rewarding interaction between you and your class that can be the result of a well planned and rehearsed demonstration performed by you. Having shown the pupils what they have to do, it is then time to give them ‘hands on’. This is the Imitation stage. Imitation The demonstration and imitation phases should really be treated as the same phase during instruction, as one is a part of the other. Having ensured that the class have seen what it is they are required to do, you then give them the opportunity to copy, so that the format is basically a cycle of: “Watch me………….now you do it” repeated according to how many phases you decide the task should be broken down into. However, there is certainly a clear distinction between the Imitation and the Practice phases. Practice This is the bit where you need to be on your toes! You are about to release your class to perform a new skill, possibly with new, dangerous, or fragile equipment. You should be in amongst your class, working with individuals or small groups to help then master the task. You should be proactive – helping people as they go, offering advice, giving tips etc. Do not wait for an accident to happen! Having confirmed that everyone is clear about what they are required to do, they now have the opportunity to try it out themselves. The transition from Imitation to Practice could be chaos, unless you have thought things through. Below is a checklist. Giving consideration to these factors beforehand could make your life so much more bearable over the immediate future.

• Will the pupils be working individually, or in pairs / small groups?

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• How big are the groups to be? • Is there enough equipment to go round? • Has the equipment been tested? • Are there spares available? • Is the equipment already laid out for the class, or do they have to collect it? • Do the class require written instructions? • Have all Health & Safety requirements been met? • What time has been allocated?

Once you feel that the class have confidence in their tasks, it is an idea to take a step back into a more supervisory role, and allow the pupils to develop their skills. Although this would be the ideal, it is not always appropriate. In science subjects, for example, you may only have a 90 minute slot to go through the Preliminaries, the Introduction the Explanation the Demonstration and the Imitation phases of a particular experiment before you release the class to get on with it and achieve a set of results. Any good practical scientist will tell you that the best set of results is one that has been calculated as the average from a number of ‘run throughs’, but in a classroom situation, the average may be determined from the mean of the whole class results. There is probably no opportunity for individuals to have their own period of ‘practice’, before they attempt the ‘real thing’. However, in Physical Education, where the mechanics of a forward role are being taught, for example, or in Home Economics in which the method of sewing on a button may be the Aim, the lesson may well lend itself to allowing pupils time to go over the techniques a number of times on their own in order to perfect the art. In these instances, the teacher should adopt a more supervisory role, and allow the pupils to try in their own time to achieve the task. This is Practice. Too much teacher involvement changes Practice into Instruction. As a teacher in a supervisory role during this phase of the lesson, you should allow for mistakes, and moreover, allow time for the pupils to resolve their difficulties on their own. At what stage you intervene, is down to your individual professional judgement. A final note on Practice, with regard to classroom management. As previously discussed, one of the qualities of effective teaching is the ability to form valuable and trusting relationships with all the individuals who make up your class. The Practice phase of a lesson is a perfect time to offer one to one advice to particular individuals that may need extra support; in other words, one of the techniques for raising attainment of individuals, is to put the rest of the class on task in a Practice phase, and use that time to offer individual help to those in need. Practical lessons are great fun; they can be challenging and exciting. They offer a hands-on experience to the pupils, and there is visible evidence of achievement at the end. Moreover, they offer valuable opportunity to the teacher to mingle with the class, and build a more human relationship with the pupils. Practicals aid learning, as they can demand more of the pupils attention, more use of senses, and psychologically, for the duration of the practical, the pupil is taking control of their individual progress through the lesson. Whenever a practical exercise is; Relevant (to the scheme of work) Achievable (in the timescale) Realistic (in terms of skills requirement)

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Practical (in terms of equipment, technician support, health & safety) then every effort should be made to incorporate it into your lesson plan. Don’t be a cheat! Don’t use practical lessons to buy yourself some false extra time To often I have come across teachers that set the class up in the Practice phases and then settle themselves down to catch up on some marking, or to write reports, or in one particularly appalling example, to join in a radio phone-in quiz show! Quite apart from the obvious dangers of pupils being left unsupervised, to use practical tasks as a means to cheat the pupils out of your time is very damaging to their learning. They will simply use the time to address issues from their own agenda. The Flexibility of EDIP How long you spend on each of the stages of EDIP will be determined once you have done your time appreciation, as described earlier. It is important that whilst doing your time appreciation, you establish how many stages the practical task involves. To use a simple example; as a computer teacher, the aim of the lesson is to give the pupils the knowledge and skills required to insert and format a text box in a word document. You may consider there to be 2 stages:

1. The insertion of the text box 2. The format of the text box

Of course, there are plenty of examples from across the curriculum where practical tasks may be broken down into any number of stages. The point is that EDIP is flexible enough to cater for different styles of learning and teaching. Remember that each stage of a lesson, whether theory or practice requires confirmation that the lesson is being assimilated, in other words, that the class is keeping pace with you. Furthermore, at the end of the lesson, there needs to be a final confirmation. In the diagrams below, we have used the following abbreviations: E Explanation D Demonstration I Imitation P Practice SC Stage Confirmation LC Lesson Confirmation For a single stage lesson, your sequence of events may be as simple as

E D I P

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LC

You may be a believer that the more things are repeated, the more likely they are to be assimilated, in which case, your sequence becomes:

E E E D D D I I I

P LC

Or you may think that one explanation is enough, devoting more time to practical work, and your sequence planning may look like:

E D D D I I I

P LC

More likely though, you will want to break down any practical skill into small, manageable stages, and teach a stage at a time. Thus your sequence of events could be repeating cycles of :

E E E D D D D I I or I I P P P PSC SC SC SC LC LC

THE END Of all the lessons I have observed, without question, it is the end part of the lesson that has been least well addressed. It is almost as if there is an idea that once the subject material has been taught, the job is done, and all that is required is that we wait patiently for the bell. Alternatively, all too often I have witnessed teachers paying scant regard to the planning of the end section. The Middle phase is frequently given more importance, and as such, is often allowed to run over into the end phase time, resulting in a panic at the very end of the lesson, with everyone in huge rush to get things finished in time for the bell. In both of these scenarios, the effectiveness of the lesson is lost, and it is far less likely that the aim will have been achieved. The end phase is certainly as important as the middle, and it should be accorded every respect. Contrary to popular practice as described above, it is essential that a proper time appreciation is done for the end phase, and that it is adhered to. If your middle phase is running over, then do not sacrifice the end phase – cut the middle phase short instead.

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There are 4 stages to the end phase to account for in your appreciation and lesson planning:

• Final Confirmation • Pack up kit • Summary • Look Forward

Final Confirmation This is the proof of the pudding; have you achieved your aim? Has the lesson been assimilated? You must find out before the class leave. If after questioning, it becomes apparent that there are still difficulties, don’t assume this to be a failure on your part, and certainly not on the pupils’ part. Simply do an appreciation of which areas need to be re-addressed, and how you intend to address them. Your conclusions will form an important part of your planning for the next lesson, and depending upon the extent of the situation, may even form the Aim of your next lesson. see Chapter - ‘Establishing the Aim’. Whether in a theory lesson, or a practical, it is important that your approach to this stage of the lesson is such that the pupils are acutely aware that this is their last chance this lesson to clear up any difficulties, and that they are being tested by you to ascertain how much they have learned. Therefore, there needs to be a definite, recognisable punctuation by you that signals the arrival of the End Phase. This may be in the form of: An abrupt, commanding raise in volume: “Right…!”, A preliminary instruction: “Let’s just finish what we’re doing…” A statement of awareness: “15 minutes to the bell…”, or (if you have an understanding and responsive audience) a familiar action, such as moving to the front of the class and waiting for silence. The final confirmation has two stages. The first stage should always be to allow the class input and to clear up any difficulties they may have. This is essential for them, but also gives you the confidence that you have allowed them every opportunity to ask questions. If there are no questions, or when the questions have all been asked, then you go into the second stage. This stage is your opportunity to confirm that the lesson has been assimilated, by testing the class, either by asking questions or actually going through a written or verbal test / competition / quiz. ‘Confirmation that the lesson has been assimilated’ is the third principle of good instruction and is covered at the end of this chapter. Pack up kit It will depend upon

• your unique style of teaching, • the type of lesson

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• the quantity of kit involved, and • the logistics of packing the kit away

when you plan to pack away the kit. Essentially, you need to decide whether you are going to do it before or after the Final Confirmation. As a rule of thumb, if the aim of your lesson is to teach a practical skill, then your Final Confirmation stage should be to check if the pupils can do that skill, therefore your packing up stage will out of necessity follow your Final Confirmation stage. Otherwise, it is idea to get all activity finished before you finally settle the class down, and packing up kit is certainly an activity, therefore packing up should come before the Final Confirmation. Just a word of warning – allow enough time for packing up kit. Inevitably there will be breakages, accidents, and most commonly, missing apparatus. Missing pencils following an Art class is a very common occurrence, but more serious is not being able to account for dangerous implements: needles from Home Economics, scalpels from Science, knives from Technical Subjects and the balls from mice in Computing Studies are particular favourites. Allow time to do a thorough check. Summary Here you should emphasise the main teaching points. Remind the class what the Aim of the lesson was and briefly refresh their memories of the steps you have taken in order to achieve that aim. Two common traps to avoid:

1. DO NOT re-teach the entire lesson at lightning speed. 2. DO NOT introduce any new material.

I have found that the most effective method of summarising a lesson is to have a single slide prepared beforehand. Show the slide, and remain silent whilst the pupils read it. ‘The Use of Instructional Aids is a technique of good instruction, covered later in Chapter The summary is important, it makes the lesson a whole, nothing is left dangling or messy. It marks the end of a procedure, and the lesson on it’s own becomes a small identifiable package and the pupils will find a lesson far easier to absorb and remember if it is presented as a piece of work in it’s own right, rather than yet more bits of a puzzle. If you think back to the stages of the lesson, we can now describe them with a little more clarity: The Beginning – An introduction of what you are trying to achieve and why The Middle – When the subject matter is taught The End – Where the lesson is summarised In whatever walk of life you settle, whether you have to do presentations, hold debates, chair business meetings, or if you stay in teaching, your audiences will respect you as an effective communicator if you plan your piece with the following in mind:

“Tell ‘em what you’re about to tell ‘em Tell ‘em

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Tell ‘em what you’ve just told ‘em” Look Forward Remember the Master Principle of Instruction; ‘The Promotion and Maintenance of the Desire to Learn’. You have just given a wonderful lesson. You know it and your pupils know it. You feel an enormous sense of satisfaction because you know that your pupils have learned something, and have enjoyed themselves into the bargain. All in all, you feel pretty pleased with yourself. Now is the time to exploit your success; to build upon it. This is what the Promotion and Maintenance of the Desire to Learn is all about. In short, at the end of your current lesson, promote your next one, thus creating expectation and maintaining that feel-good factor in your pupils. Give them something to look forward to in their next lesson. In this way, you are building on their sense of ownership, and involving them directly with your lesson planning. By promoting your classes, you are maintaining your pupils’ desire to learn. This is known as the ‘Look Forward’. It can take any number of different forms, from a simple statement of fact: “in the next lesson we will be……”, or setting a task “before next lesson I want you to…..”, or a continuation “next lesson we’ll build on this by….”, and in some exceptional circumstances, advertising a particular lesson in advance using posters etc. Giving the class something to look forward to reflects upon your enthusiasm as a teacher. It is tremendously satisfying feeling knowing that pupils actually look forward to your classes, and are able to tell their parents not only what they did in your class today, but what they will be doing in your class the next time. The Look Forward provides the link between your lessons; it makes your subject fluent and logical. A series of lessons without links is a simply a series of lessons. Linking together using the Look Forward turns a series of lessons into a programme of study. Keep your plan Flexible Clauswitz once said: “No battle plan survives first contact with the enemy.” The same is true in teaching. You may have prepared the perfect plan on paper, but on the day, something could (and probably will!) happen that means you have to think rapidly on your feet. You will need to do a snap appreciation of the new situation and come up with another plan – in front of a class of pupils who would like nothing better than to see you falter. You cannot be expected to plan for every eventuality. If you try, then someone will think of something new. You must be able to adapt and overcome. Flexibility is the fourth dimension of perfect planning – as they say in the forces.

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THE STRUCTURE OF A LESSON PLAN – SUMMARY BEGINNING Preliminaries Introduction Revision Objective Reason Why MIDDLE MIDDLE Theory Lesson Practical Lesson Stage 1 - Confirm Phase 1 – Explanation Stage 2 - Confirm Phase 2 – Demonstration Stage 3 - Confirm Phase 3 – Imitation Stage 4 – Confirm Phase 4 – Practice

END Final Confirmation Pack up kit Summary Look Forward

The Third Principle of Good Instruction Confirmation that the lesson has been assimilated

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Imagine that you were learning to drive a car. The lesson was delivered in a number of stages, but the instructor didn’t stop to ascertain whether or not you had understood a particular stage, before he moved on to the next. At the end, you felt confident that you could turn the ignition, steer, indicate, brake and accelerate, but you didn’t grasp the bit about gear changing. Would you feel comfortable in taking a car out onto a road? Has the instruction been effective? The example is a little dramatic, I know, but it illustrates a point; if the class hasn’t understood the structure of a question in French, you cannot expect them to do the exercise on ‘shopping’. Similarly, you could not expect a pupil to format a text document, if they have not understood the role of the Font function. It is duty of the teacher to have clearly defined stages in the lesson plan (as described previously), and one of purposes of this is to allow time for stage confirmation. At the end of the lesson there needs to be time put aside to establish if the Aim has been achieved. Confirming at stages during the lesson has 4 very important purposes:

1. It allows the teacher to check that the pupils are learning. 2. It allows time for the pupils to clear up any doubts that they may have. 3. It delivers a sense of achievement, and provides an opportunity for re-

establishing the motivation to learn. 4. It breaks the lesson up into bite-size pieces.

Confirmation can take place at any time, according to

• the response of the class, • the lesson plan, and • the individual teacher’s policy on asking questions

However, there should be definite, recognisable stages to the lesson, as described earlier, and one of the key ways in which to let the pupils realise that they are moving on to another stage is to introduce a formal period for questions and answers at the stage interface. In the formal lesson plan the set times for confirmation are

• At the beginning – as revision of the previous lesson, or as introduction to the current one.

• In the middle of the lesson – at the end of every stage. • At the end of the lesson –as final confirmation that the Aim has been achieved.

However, there may be cause for unplanned periods of confirmation and it is equally as important that you are aware of the body language and response of your class both individually and as a group. 62

It may be that you spot individuals who are showing a certain lack of interest, frustration or submission. This may be due to a number of factors, and your knowledge of that individual will determine your best course of action. If the occasion arises however, when a normally well-behaved pupil of average ability appears blank, or restless, then it may be time to check the ‘learning status’ of the class, with a few questions. If you spot a pupil of above average ability, who appears blank, then you have missed the early warning signs from the majority of the class, and you may have to retrace your steps. Hence the importance of ‘Flexibility’ in lesson plans. Whenever you decide to confirm the learning status, you must have some prior idea of how you are going to do it. More often than not, time constraints dictate that an oral test be the most appropriate method. Question Technique and Dealing with Questions is an in instructional skill, and will be covered in a later chapter. However, there may be occasions when you feel a written test would be more suitable. At such times, remember that you will have allow for time in clearing away notes, handing out the test, completing the test, and time for collecting in. Such a procedure to be considered in your lesson planning. If you are confirming by a written test, take some time to ensure that the task you are asking the class to perform is appropriate to the lesson you have taught. Remember that tests are not examinations; they are a tool to monitor learning. Unless you consider there to be a good reason therefore, obey a basic rule of thumb that a written test as part of a lesson should last no more than 10 mins. Such activities could include: Multiple Choice Matching Pairs Missing Words Brief phrase answers So that the class maintain interest in the confirmation procedure, it is important that you try to introduce as much variety as possible in the testing. Any of the above methods of assessing learning can be with some thought packaged to encourage the class to ‘buy into’ it some more. With the luxury of time, it is worthwhile investing in a little in confirmation, and it could even be used to motivate the desire to learn, by using; A game show A debate A competition as an incentive to come well prepared for the next lesson. Finally, to emphasise that the confirmation method used should always be appropriate to the lesson taught, you should not, unless in exceptional circumstances ever use a verbal or written task to test a practical skill. If you wish to check that a pupil has learned a particular skill, then ask the pupil to perform that skill! Explaining or writing how to perform a practical task is far more difficult than actually demonstrating it. Moreover, it is a pointless exercise assessing the ability to carry out tasks by marking a piece of written work.

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Consider that you had spent time teaching pupils how to wire a plug. There is far more to it than knowing where the individual wires go. There is the wire stripping, the twisting of the wire strands, the manipulation of the screws and pins, the removal (possibly) of the fuse, and the cord grip etc. It is a different task entirely to describe the process verbally, or in writing than it is actually performing the task. If you are testing a skill, then ask for a skill. SUMMARY Maybe now you will have some idea of how much work goes into the preparation of a lesson – even if your audience doesn’t! However, you are not finished yet; you must rehearse – as many times as it takes so that you are comfortable both with the content and your method of delivery. Only by rehearsing will you be able to identify any possible pitfalls, and then take action to avoid them. Your preparations are now COMPLETE. Remember always to be COMPLETE before taking a lesson; it’s a reminder of the factors and processes that you should have considered: C Class O Objective M Material P Props L Lesson Plan E Environment T Try it – rehearse it, time it, test it E Edit it – make changes and rehearse again Only in a few circumstances will your lesson go to plan – don’t worry. If you have gone through all the processes outlined, you will find yourself able to adapt and improvise ‘on the hoof’. It’s a challenge, it’s good fun – it’s the joy of teaching!

The First Technique of Good Instruction Question Technique

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In the first part of this book, we dealt with the Principles of Good Instruction. These are:

• The Promotion and Maintenance of the Desire to Learn • Lesson Planning and Preparation • Confirmation that the lesson has been assimilated

A technique may be defined as: A systematic procedure by which a complex task is accomplished. There a few more complex tasks than teaching a lesson to a class of 30 children of mixed ability. The professional teacher will have, over a period of years, developed techniques in all aspects of their trade in order to be more effective in their lesson delivery. Techniques developed in teaching are developed to help manage the entire range of disciplines that a teacher must master. In these next chapters, we will focus on only 2, which a formally known as the Techniques of Good Instruction.

• Question Technique • The Selection and Use of Instructional Aids

Asking and answering questions is a way of confirming that the lesson has been assimilated. It follows therefore that the instructor must understand the technique of asking questions if lesson planning in the future is to be effective. Thorough subject knowledge is obviously a prerequisite. There are really 3 areas that need to be understood:

1. Why questions are asked to the class 2. How questions are asked to the class 3. How to deal with questions from the class.

The Purpose of asking questions This depends upon when the question is asked. Questions in the beginning phase of the lesson plan may serve as a revision of the previous lesson, or may even be used to assess the class’ subject knowledge of the lesson you are about to deliver. Asking questions during the course of the lesson is sometimes a technique used to encourage the class to try and think things out for themselves, which is a far better way of learning than having been simply told so. As mentioned in previous chapters, questions at the end of the lesson should serve to confirm that the lesson has been assimilated. Nontheless, as general guidance, questions are asked for four reasons:

1. To test that your teaching has been effective. i.e. that the subject matter has been understood by the pupils (“what colour is chlorophyll?)

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2. To teach the pupils. i.e. based upon the background knowledge already given, asking pupils to work out a problem (“what do you think would happen if….?)

3. To create mental activity in the class. Questions are a tool to involve the audience, to make them feel part of the lesson.

4. To open up dialogue. Asking questions is often a beginning to a rapport, and rapport between teacher and pupils is very valuable in learning.

Test Teach Mental Activity Dialogue

TT MAD

How to ask Questions The most effective procedure for asking questions is as follows:

Ask the question as a general one to the entire class. At this stage, no-one knows who the question is directed at, so that all the class is thinking of the answer. If you name your student first, in the manner ; “John, could you tell me…”, then the tendency for the rest of the class is to breath a sigh of relief, and switch off to the question as it is not their problem.

Wait for a few seconds. Look around the class, get eye contact, give them time to

clarify the answer in their own heads. Look for those who seem uncomfortable, or cocky, and decide upon your victim carefully.

Nominate a student to answer the question.

You may remember this procedure, by using the phrase:

Pose – Pause – Pounce Pose the question. Pause for effect. Pounce upon your selected student! Dealing with answers from the class. Put simply, answers are either correct, incorrect or unknown. A correct answer should be praised, thus rewarding the individual, and encouraging the rest of the class. An incorrect answer should be passed on to another student. If the second student offers a correct answer, then it should be referred back to the original student to confirm that they have understood. If 2 or more students offer an incorrect answer, then it should be assumed that the answer is unknown.

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On no account should a student be ridiculed for getting an answer wrong. On the contrary, praise should be offered to the student for trying. (“I can understand why you said that, but it’s not what I’m looking for.” Or “That is a good answer, but I’m looking for something different”. Or “That’s a very good answer, but not to this question!”) If the answer to a question is unknown, then you should be prepared to accept responsibility, and re-teach that particular part of the lesson. There’s no point in carrying on until the difficulty is cleared up. In the last two cases – incorrect or unknown answers – you should make a point of asking the same question again at a later stage in the lesson, to confirm that the point has been learned. Summary: DO make sure that the questions clear. It should be unambiguous and have only the answer that you require. DO praise an individual for getting a question right. DO confirm that the question and answer is understood by everybody before moving on. DON’T ridicule pupils for getting answers wrong. DON’T ask questions that have a 50/50 answer. (“Is this correct or not?”) DON’T ask a question to test a practical skill. (“Describe how to set up a bunsen burner”) Dealing with questions from the class Any question from the class should be perceived as a good thing – no matter how obscure or distracting it may appear. Questions from the class are an indication that the class is actually recognising your presence, and feels comfortable in involving you in dialogue, whatever the subject! Ideally, questions from the class during a lesson should be relevant to the subject matter being taught. When this happens, you as the teacher should feel a certain sense of pride and achievement. It shows that you have gained the interest of at least an individual! If the question asked covers material that has already been taught, then it is a good idea to bounce the question back to the class, in the manner: “Good question from Ayeshia. She asked what the formula is to calculate the volume of a cylinder. Can anyone help her?” Hopefully, this will clear up the doubt, but if it doesn’t, be prepared to think on your feet. An omission, or area of weakness may have been revealed, and you may have to adjust your lesson plan ‘on the hoof’, in order to readdress the subject. Even better, a student may ask a question about material that has yet to be taught. If this occurs, then you should commend the pupil concerned for their interest and attention. Such a question shows that your teaching is being understood, and thought about. However, be careful not to be side tracked. Answering such a question at this stage could disrupt your scheme of work. As a general rule, thank the pupil for the question, and explain that they are well ahead of you. The answer to the question will be covered in a future lesson. (Depending on your knowledge of that individual, you may offer to answer their question on a one to one basis, either during a period when the class is ’on task’, or during a break between lessons.)

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Frequently, you may be asked a question which is not entirely relevant to the subject matter. These questions come in two guises: genuine, or disruptive. A genuinely irrelevant question should be dealt with constructively. The pupil should be encouraged, but care should be taken not to waste time in giving an answer. As a general rule of thumb, genuinely irrelevant questions should be answered very briefly at the time, with some sort of offering to the pupil concerned. i.e. “if you want more detail on that, look up this website.” Or “I can expand on that if you want to join us at the next after school study period”. Remember – short now, long later. A disruptive, irrelevant question may be blatant, or disguised. Blatantly disruptive questions can be used to your advantage. It is not always the best idea to take a heavy handed approach and chastise the pupil. When I first moved from Liverpool to Glasgow, I was for a short while a figure of particular interest for the pupils, and their curiosity was focussed far more upon me, than on the subject I was teaching. It was common to all year groups, that I was asked in the middle of a lesson; “What team do you support?”, or “Where are you from?”, or “Are you married?” To ignore these questions would have been a mistake. The pupils genuinely wanted to know, and I saw no harm in having a brief dialogue with them, before returning to the subject matter. The classroom should be relaxed and informal, and the pupils should be encouraged to have dialogue. Also, by answering these questions immediately and confidently may well take the wind out of the sails of the pupil asking, if they had done so to embarrass you. The trick is to know when to stop and how to get them back on track. I often found that answering one blatantly disruptive question led to a torrent of others, and so I would put the dam up by saying “I am happy to talk with you more about this if we have time at the end, but it’s important that we cover this first”, or similar. Thereafter, the class knows that you are not embarrassed by their questions, you have built up a rapport, and any more blatantly irrelevant questions that lessons can be stamped on immediately, as you have made the class clear where they stand. It is the disguised disruptive question that causes problems. These are questions which are relevant to the topic in hand, but are being asked usually to cause embarrassment to the teacher or someone else in the class. It is most likely that the pupil asking such questions already knows the answer, but it using the classroom situation to make a sensitive or controversial point in public. This is where your personality, your confidence and your judgment will come to the fore; first, you have to recognise the question as being disruptive and controversial. Second, you have to deal with the question, and not ignore it. Thirdly, you have to leave the pupil in no uncertainty that you are unhappy with the question, that it wasting everybody’s time, that you are not embarrassed, that a note has been made of their particular contribution, and that any further disruption will result in action being taken against that pupil. Finally, you will get relevant questions to which you do not know the answer. The key here is to be open. You do not know everything. Admit it! You will gain far more

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respect by admitting you do not know an answer than by trying to bluff your way through it. Moreover, it lets the class know that you are after all, human! The way to deal with such questions is to praise the pupil concerned; “that is a very good question indeed!” and then admit you don’t know; “Even I do not know the answer to that!” Lastly, give the pupil a challenge; “your task is to find out that answer, and let me know before the next lesson” Alternatively, depending upon your judgement of the pupil, you may offer yourself: “I don’t know the answer to that question, but if you wait behind at the end, I’ll find out for you”. In summary – questions are great – they are the tools of learning, and they should be encouraged as much as possible. They are the key to getting to know your class, and a means for the class to get to know you. Welcome questions!

The Second Technique of Good Instruction

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The Selection and Use of Instructional Aids The key to the use of instructional aids is to appreciate that they exist to enhance teaching – not to replace it! Their misuse can be detrimental to learning. When I was an undergraduate, the overhead projector had just come to the fore, and our lecturers certainly made the most of it. The phrase ‘Death by Viewfoil’ was attributed I’m sure by university lecturers throughout the World. Everything was done on the overhead screen. One viewfoil simply replaced another, and that was it. One of the worst practitioners I have ever come across was a Professor of biochemistry. He stood at the front of the lecture hall, and scribbled down on the screen everything he was saying out loud. Not once did he look up, and not once did his pen leave the acetate roll. He simply scribbled his illegible scrawl as he delivered his monotone, barely audible sermon. He would have been far better off in his darkened office, playing with his molecule kit, and referring us to the relevant chapters in the next book instead. It was horrendous; all we achieved form that part of the course was writer’s cramp, as we desperately tried to copy down the main points from the acetate before he took it off the screen, which he did without thought or confirmation. I have also witnessed the use of video to fill a gap in a lesson. Video is a powerful tool, but when it’s used to excess, it is no longer an instructional aid; it is an excuse not to teach, or a tool to keep the class quiet, or even worse, a bargaining chip with the pupils. If the class are expected to sit and watch video for a 45 minute period, then all they are doing is watching television; a programme of the teacher’s choice in which they have little interest. It is not enhancing anything, because there is nothing to enhance. They may as well be watching the latest soap opera. There are so many instructional aids currently available, but there is a key to their effective use; When selecting an instructional aid, you should first ask yourself; ‘is it necessary?’ In other words; will it genuinely make the lesson easier to understand, or is it just a gimmick, or a new toy that the Head of Department has asked you to use? If it does not support your lesson plan, then it is a waste of time and effort, and will end up being a distraction to the class. Secondly, the aid should be interesting. This may be stating the obvious, but if you are trying to draw the attention of your class to something in particular, then make it eye-catching in it’s display, it’s colour, it’s layout and it’s realism. When you are introducing your aid, have a build up, consider the use of humour. Make a big deal about your aid, which you have taken time in planning and preparing. Gain interest before you even show it, and keep interest by making it attractive. Next, is the aid simple to use? Is it coherent? Is it pitched at the right level for the class? An effective aid should only contain the essential teaching points, and should not be clouded by unnecessary and complicated detail. A detailed cut-away model of a plant, for example, that shows all the transport systems and protein arrangements, may be an ideal aid to use in post-16 education, but to use the same model in a junior class that only needs to know the major external parts of a plant is defeating the object; it will just cause confusion, and prompt the brighter more inquisitive pupils to ask questions. If a simple

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aid is not readily available, then use your imagination; improvise, build one, or in the example above, use a real plant! Finally, ask yourself if the aid will be effective; can it be easily seen by the entire class? If not, is there anything you can do about it? Consider raising it higher, making a larger projection, or even repositioning the class, if you think it worthwhile. If audio is involved, is it clear enough and loud enough? Will everyone understand the language used? If not, what can you do about it? In summary; Aids are an enhancement to teaching, not a replacement for it. Aids should be:

Necessary Interesting Coherent Effective

Effective Use of Instructional Aids Having selected your instructional aid, and made sure that it is NICE, you need to make the most of it, by using it in such a way that you appear professional, and the maximum benefit is gained from the use of the aid. As with most things in teaching, the key to this is to rehearse. Rehearse over and over again until you are absolutely fluent in how you intend to use it. If your presentation of an aid goes ‘pear shaped’, then you have lost the initiative, you have lost time and unless you are very good at bluffing your way out of a hole, you will look like a lemon in front of your audience. Your build up of anticipation and interest will all have been for nothing if your aid doesn’t work when required. Common problems that I have witnessed that could easily have been prevented include:

The bulb in a projector not working No ignition source for a bunsen burner No chalk for the blackboard Dry markers run out of ink Pull down screen doesn’t stay down Parts of models missing or broken Incompatible software

Rehearse – anticipate what could possibly go wrong and prepare accordingly. Rehearsal should highlight any problems that you may encounter, and it also is a great way of building up your confidence. The next trick is to keep your aid hidden until it’s time to use it. In this way, you are preventing it from being a distraction form other parts of the lesson, when it is not necessary to have it on view, but also you are making an impact. If your aid is going to be visible to the class as they enter the room, there is no element of surprise when you

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come to use it; the class has already seen it, and probably disregarded it. When you come to use your aid, there is nothing special about it. In some instances, the revealing of the aid can be quite theatrical, and offers an opportunity for humour. I have used fellow colleagues, blustering in to my lesson on cue with kit that I had ‘left in the staffroom’. I have introduced apparatus to a fanfare of trumpets, I have feigned power cuts, and on getting the light back, the apparatus has miraculously appeared. Even simple techniques like hiding the aid somewhere in the classroom, and asking one of the pupils to fetch it seem to work. Anything that will make a difference, and make the class sit up and take note is a good way to make an entrance for your aid. Having got your piece on show, do not fall into the trap of immediately using it to teach. You must, no matter what it is, describe it to your audience. For example;

Highlight any new vocabulary, Explain what any colours mean, Offer a (positive) professional opinion on the quality of the aid Describe how it works Give an overview of what it is that you are trying to demonstrate

Once the class have understood the equipment, it will be far easier for them to understand what it is you are trying to demonstrate with it, and the easier and more enjoyable will be your input. So, having rehearsed with your aid, displayed and described it, you now ready to employ it to enhance your teaching. Make a big show of it! Finally, it is as important to dispose of your aid properly when you have finished with it, as it is to keep it out of sight prior to its use. Not only does this enhance the use of the aid, but as before, it prevents needless distractions later on. Don’t make a big song and dance at this part of the lesson, simply cover it up, or put it under the bench, or arrange for it to be taken away. There are occasions when it would be beneficial to leave the aid on view, and this would be written in to your lesson plan. Don’t just leave some elaborate apparatus sitting on the front desk if it is no longer of benefit, and if you decide to leave it on view, make sure that it is easily accessible and visible, otherwise it just becomes an obstacle cluttering up the teaching area. It may be that you wish to dispose of the aid temporarily, and bring it out at a later stage for confirmation. Whatever it is that you decide to do, have a reason for your actions. In Summary: Rehearse Display Describe Teach Dispose. Tips for effective use of Overhead Projectors

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An OHP should always be set up in advance of a lesson, and spare bulbs located so that they are readily available. The positioning of the projector and screen is all-important. The following are suggested guidelines: Position the screen in the corner of the room, at 450 to the class. The OHP should be positioned facing the screen, at a distance so that the image fills the whole screen (as far as practically possible) Ideally, the screen should be raised so that the bottom of the screen is at the head height of the class, and the screen tilted forward in order to overcome the keystone effect. When preparing your viewfoils, consider the following: Pre-prepared viewfoils should really only be used to emphasise, or to summarise. As such they should only contain a few bullet points of information, or a summary diagram. A viewfoil cluttered with information is very off-putting to the audience. Always write using block capitals; not only does this produce a far neater viewfoil, it makes your work more legible to the viewer. Writing should be large enough to see clearly from the back of the class. Do not fall into the trap of cramming everything onto one viewfoil. It is far more effective to break up a list (for example) and divide it between a number of viewfoils. Introduce colour. Black writing can become very monotonous and boring, especially of there is a lot of viewfoils in the lesson. Colour and variation is a little more pleasing to the eye. However, two ‘rules’ apply to the use of colour: Don’t use more than 2 colours on the same viewfoil Apply Le Curier’s rules of legibility (below) Always use a ruler (or similar technique) to ensure that your writing is straight. Any error in preparing your viewfoil will be magnified when it is projected. Basic techniques for using the OHP: Whilst the projector is off, place the slide on the glass plate, being careful about positioning, and then turn the projector on. Use the viewfoil for your teaching, and then turn the projector off before removing the viewfoil. Place the next viewfoil on the glass plate, and then turn the projector on again. In this way, the only time that the projector is on, is when it is displaying information. It is unprofessional (and frankly, lazy) to simply remove one viewfoil and then place another one whilst the OHP is still projecting. First, it is not a good idea to let the class see you shuffling through viewfoil and adjusting them on-screen. Second, the period of time involved with changing the viewfoil means that the class will be looking at nothing more than a bright white, blank screen, which in my mind detracts from the effect of an OHP. There are numerous ways in which to prepare your viewfoils. Common good practice is the use of :

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Flip-strip technique, where parts of a viewfoil are covered up, and only revealed when necessary, by the use of strips of card attached at one end to the viewfoil. Overlay, where a bigger picture is gradually built up from smaller components by the use of simply placing one viefoil directly on top of another. Gradual revelation, where a piece of card is attached so that it is able to slide up and down the viewfoil, revealing information as necessary. Other uses of an OHP Note roll; where a roll of acetate is stretched across the screen and acts as a continuous notepad, as it is rolled down. The advantage of this is that there is no break in continuity, and the class can easily refer back to a particular point by simply rolling back. This function of the OHP should really only be used during explanation or elaboration, where quick free-hand diagrams, or jotted notes will help reinforce the lesson. Do not be tempted to simply stand in front of your OHP, and write down in handwriting everything you are saying, and expect the class to copy it all out. This is the worst kind of instruction, and shows no effort in preparation on the part of the teacher. Modelling; I have seen OHPs used to great effect when they have been used to demonstrate practical effects. For example, in Science, the use of iron filings and magnets placed directly onto the glass plate, to show magnetic fields. In Technology, showing the shapes of different nails / screws by placing them directly on to the glass plate. Basically, any 2-dimensional model that can be demonstrated in silhouette may be worth consideration in this regard. An overhead projector is a very useful and versatile piece of the teaching toolkit, and with imagination preparation and rehearsal, can bring a new dimension to your teaching. In my teaching years, the OHP and the blackboard were the main assets in a classroom. In more modern times, much of the OHP role has now been superceded by the advent of the computer. Tips for effective use of PowerPoint presentations Love it or loath it, the digital era is here to stay, and it has made nothing short of a dramatic, evolutionary change to the way in which we learn, and the way we must adapt our teaching skills. To me, the biggest impact on classroom teaching is in the use of Power Point presentations. The advent of laptops and digital projectors has made the OHP as a presentation machine largely redundant, and in many ways provides a means of producing so much more professional material with so much less effort. The scope of power point to link to other files and the internet provides a means to bring such a valuable variety of learning material to any topic. Colour, graphic illustration, audio and video are all only a click away, embedded in a presentation. One of your main responsibilities as a teacher is to become fluent with PowerPoint, and to investigate all of it’s potential. Once you’ve got the hang of it, you’ll love it! However, a few words of caution;

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Don’t become obsessed; as exciting as PowerPoint is, it’s novelty will quickly wear off with the pupils – especially if every subject teacher is using it. A change to traditional ways will be a welcome and worthwhile change once in a while. Don’t plan your entire lesson on PowerPoint. It is easily done to incorporate video clips, worksheets and all manner of digital material into your presentation. But you must remember that you are delivering a lesson to school children. You are not delivering presentation to business people. Your pupils still need the human input. They need dialogue, and would much rather see you writing on the board than tapping a keyboard. PowerPoint is a tool for teaching – not a replacement for it. Don’t edit on-screen. If your presentation needs ‘live editing’, then turn off the projector first. When the projector is turned on, the first thing the class should see is the first slide, and you should plan the presentation so that the last thing they see is your last slide. Don’t let them see your desktop, and see you clicking on things in order to get to where you want to be. This is the digital version of turning off the OHP between slides. Care and thought should go into the preparation of your slides. Don’t get carried away with tremendous colour and custom animation. It is unprofessional and shows a certain naivety to have an audio effect for every line that you bring in. A few general rules, Don’t use audio effects for text Don’t overuse animation on entry and exit – it becomes irritating and tiresome and loses it’s effect rapidly. If you are using animation, select one type of and stick to it throughout the presentation. Don’t change the type of animation in your presentation and certainly not on the same slide.When preparing your slides, the same rules apply for the use of colour as they did with the OHP slides. However with PowerPoint, the background and text may be changed so easily, that it essential you remember Le Curier’s rules of legibility, as illustrated below;

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LeCurier’s Legibility Table

BLACK

GREEN

Decreasing legibility

RED

BLUE

WHITE

BLACK

YELLOW

WHITE

WHITE

WHITE RED GREEN RED Tips for effective use of slide shows As impressive a PowerPoint is, I still think that an old-fashioned slide projector brings a certain something to a classroom. Moreover, it is increasingly more unlikely that typical pupils have actually encountered the slide projector, and it will present a different experience for them. When putting together your slides, make sure that you rehearse. The most common fault with presenting traditional slides is that the image appears on the screen back to front, or upside down. There is really no excuse for this – it shows lack of preparation. Also, as with an OHP, have a spare bulb on hand. Particularly in older models, the slightest knock of the projector will cause the bulb to blow. The projector will have to be placed in position before the start of class. Ensure that the screen can be seen clearly, and that the image is clearly visible. It is likely that you will have to consider a reduction in light. The position of the projector will most likely be in the middle of the class, in order to project the largest possible image. From a health and safety perspective, be sure that the mains cable is properly taped down to the floor (if

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necessary), and reinforce to the class that whilst the show is on, they must remain in the seats. Be aware that some slides will warp (and even melt!) if overheated, so it is important to keep an eye on the image. It is likely that the only images you show using a slide projector will be photographs. It is often useful to provide a drawing or diagram of the subject you are showing, and asking the class to make relationships between the drawing and the ‘real thing’. On a similar note, it is often a good idea to provide a class sheet immediately prior to the show. The worksheet should have copies / drawings of the slides down one side and a facility to annotate / label the picture, so that the pupils have their own record of the show. Tips for effective use of black / white boards I have lost count of the number of times a lesson has begun with the teacher cleaning the board from the previous lesson. The signal being sent to the pupils is that the lesson is not prepared, and that they are impostors in someone else’s room, someone else’s lesson. There is always enough time to clean the board before the pupils enter. If you are moving to another room to teach after a lesson – have some consideration for your fellow teacher who may be coming to your room to teach. Another bug-bear for me are teachers that write copious notes on a board, and because their lesson isn’t finished in time, they draw a box around their notes, and write ‘Please Leave’. Do not indulge in this practice – it is selfish. If you are using a blackboard in such a way that you have to leave your work on the board, you are using the wrong resource; consider worksheets, handouts or an electronic version that can be stored. When using a black or white board, the first precaution is to always have a supply of chalk / pens at hand. I have witnessed teachers trying to continue writing their notes by rubbing their fingers in the chalk dust, and on an even more bizarre occasion, one teacher using a white board as his marker pen extinguished, asked the class if he could borrow a felt tip pen from somebody…! Historically, the blackboard was the teaching medium; there wasn’t much else. As such, it was used for diagrams, note taking and explanations – everything. In the modern classroom, however, the blackboard’s role has very much become that of a scribble pad, a note pad, a jotter. It is used ‘live’, and the appearance of the blackboard therefore becomes dynamic. Moreover, it can be interactive. Just give a class of under-12s free rein of a classroom, and they will head for the blackboard, to draw, write their name or simply just doodle. The blackboard is great fun, and it will ba a shame when it eventually disappears, to be replaced by (ironically) tablets – portable, digital scribble pads that connect wirelessly to a projector. Nevertheless, whilst they are still here, there are some simple (perhaps obvious) rules that apply to black / white boards: Unless you have neat handwriting, always write in block capitals Write large enough for the class Have the lesson title written on the board before the class enter Remember that on a blackboard, white and yellow are your colours of choice, and on a whiteboard, green, red and blue should be your colours of choice (Le Curier)

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Write in straight lines – if practical, use a straight edge. Consider partitioning the board; maybe one half for formal notes or diagrams, and the other for explanations, or any other divisions that suit. Always clean the board at the end of your lesson, as part of your lesson routine. Tips for effective use of video To my mind, video is a double-edged sword. A picture paints a thousand words, and a moving picture with sound engages more senses still. Video is a great tool for enhancing learning; it can show graphically any subject which would otherwise be extremely difficult to convey. A classic example often used, is the use of video to convey the atmosphere of trench warfare. To get the best from a video clip, build up expectation in the class. Create an eagerness and a sense of anticipation. You may do this in the lesson previous by asking the class to do some background research as homework, for example, or advertising the video on the subject noticeboard. This should by now be second nature to you, if you have understood the master principle of instruction; the promotion and maintenance of the desire to learn. During the video lesson, don’t ask the class to simply sit and watch; make the session interactive. A few suggested ways to do this are; Highlight specific points to look out for Issue a task that the class will have to complete, based upon the video Issue a question sheet for completion during the video (pausing the video at the relevant stages) Have regular frequent breaks, to summarise and ask questions However, there are pitfalls: You may have a long video that you feel would be beneficial to show in its entirety. In this case, divide the video up into bite-sized chunks, and show it over a number of lessons. A 30 minute video may only have 10 minutes of relevant material, in which case you need to do some prior video editing. The video may use unfamiliar vocabulary, in which case you need to prepare the class accordingly. Finally, do not commit a cardinal educational sin by using video as a way of buying yourself time to get on with something else. All too often, I have witnessed teachers setting up a video for their class, and then disappearing behind their desks in order to get on with some marking. Unforgiveable! If you desperately need to manage some extra time within a lesson (and there are occasions where this may be so), then use the situation to get the class on-side. If you are going off-lesson, then you shouldn’t expect you class to carry on diligently working. As long as your scheme of work is up to date, and you are happy with the progress of your

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class, why not give them a break? You are asking them to give you time without interference, so give them something in return that will benefit you both; show them a video that will interest them, or entertain them for the time period that you require. (obviously, applying professional common sense in your choice of entertainment). Employed infrequently, this technique can pay dividends, as your class will respect you for it. Applied too often, though it can cause irreparable damage; I knew a teacher that tried to motivate his class during the week by promising them an ‘extra-curricula’ film every Friday. I visited his class one day, and the main topic of discussion was what the film that week was going to be. The unfortunate teacher, with the best will in the World found himself floundering as the class bargained with him about which video he should bring in that Friday. It was no longer the ‘carrot’; it had become an albatross around his neck, and his only way to redeem the situation was to take a heavy handed approach, which achieved exactly the opposite effect that he had hoped for. Whatever teaching and learning material you wish to use in your lesson; plan its use carefully. Make sure that it will benefit teaching and learning, and not be wasted as a time-filler, or a tool to give you a break.

Summary 79

There is no correct way to teach. One teacher’s methods will vary from another’s, and it is just as well, or the learning experience would be interminably boring for the pupil! One definition of teaching may be: to educate pupils in a particular subject area (or areas) in as comprehensive (i.e covering all the points on the curriculum) way as possible, so that they are successful at passing their particular examination. There is little about that definition that could be argued. It is cold, and to the point. And depressing. What makes a good teacher stand out though, is that whilst carrying out the objectives laid out above, they add a large injection of fun, variety and enthusiasm. How you do that is up to you and your unique personality. In this book, I am merely offering a framework which you may build upon, rearrange, or just ignore completely. If your pupils are happy, if you are on schedule with your scheme of work, if the pupils are achieving to the best of their ability – and if you are happy, then whatever it is you are doing, you must have a winning formula and I congratulate you and admire you. You should all stand in a ring and give yourselves a very large pat on the back! The Master Principle of Instruction The Promotion and Maintenance of the Desire to Learn Maintaining the Desire to Learn S Senses A Activity V Variety E Enthusiasm R Realism S Simplicity D Distractions to be avoided Simplicity K Keep I It S Simple, S Stupid The Principles of Good Instruction Motivation

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Preparation and Plannning Confirmation The Techniques of Good Instruction Question technique The Selection and Use of Instructional Aids The Qualities of a Good Instructor: C Confidence M Manner A Attitude D Diligence E Enthusiasm The Components of Confidence S Success and Reward T Thorough knowledge of the subject E Experience M Meticulous planning and preparation Addressing your Manner S Speaking A Appearance M Movement Description of a Gifted Teacher C Confidence R Respect A A sense of humour P Personality Appreciation Aim Factors Courses Open Plan The Theory Lesson - Lesson Plan Middle

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Stage 1 – confirm – test Stage 2 – confirm – test …etc End Final confirmation

Pack up Test

Summary Look forward The Practical Lesson – Lesson Plan Beginning Preliminaries Introduction Objective Reason Why Incentive Middle Phase 1 E Explanation Phase 2 D Demonstration Phase 3 I Imitation Phase 4 P Practice End Final confirmation

Pack up Test

Summary Look forward Lesson Planning C Class O Objective M Material P Props L Lesson Plan E Environment T Try it (rehearse it – time it - test it) E Editing Reasons for asking Questions T Test T Teach MA Mental Activity D Dialogue Question Technique P Pose

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P Pause P Pounce Principles of using instructional Aids N Necessary I Interesting C Coherent E Effective Use of Instructional Aids R Rehearse D Display D Describe T Teach D Dispose

An Alternative View of Education

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As good as your teaching skills are, you may find (as I did) that you are restricted by the constraints of the curriculum and the regime of your employing authority. I found myself questioning more and more the need to measure educational success, based upon examination. I became frustrated and angry at the attitude of certain members of staff who knew just exactly how difficult it was to sack a teacher, and used the career as a means for an ‘easy life’, with no thought or effort for the pupils in their charge. I was disappointed in the ways that the need for authority and red-tape procedures got in the way of common sense and progress. I loved being a teacher. I had an idea of how education should be, but unfortunately the system was a dinosaur, steeped in delays, procedures and committees. What follows is a couple of articles to give you an insight of how I imagined the future of education. Take them or leave them.

OWNERSHIP, RELEVANCE AND FLEXIBILITY Education for the Future

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I have long since questioned the relevance of the current education system in a modern society, and I suggest that a significant number of employers, parents – and most importantly pupils, have been doing the same. “Like it or not”, I was once told by a key person, influential in the writing of educational policy, “the current system exists, and we have to work within it”. This, I suggest is the root of the problem, and the reason why education will always be playing catch-up with modern society. Take a large, industrial city, with typical social pressures and the usual spattering of unemployment, crime and drug abuse. Take a comprehensive school in the city centre, and impose upon the pupils a 32.5-hour week. Then demand that on an hourly basis, the pupils are required to change the room in which they are sitting. Moreover, expect these pupils to listen to 7 or 8 different speakers in a day, imparting knowledge about 7 or 8 different subjects. Now tell them to wear a uniform, and behave according to a code, against which they are judged, and punished should they falter. Just to round it off, set them work to do in their own private time, and drop frequent reminders that if they do not accept these terms and conditions, then you will involve their parents and / or social workers, and in extreme circumstances, use the threat that their parents could be sent to prison. Now add to the pressure cooker by requiring these pupils to sit written examinations in subjects that may seem completely irrelevant to them. In fact, assess an entire 11 years’ education in one or two hours. Then, here’s a good idea - get a complete stranger to mark the paper using a marking scheme decided upon by an organisation which the pupil has possibly never heard of, and then use the results of these exams to determine their future. Hmmm… bit of a raw deal for a 16-year old? Is it any wonder that some pupils cannot cope, some rebel and some just say “No”? It is not to suggest that these children are ignorant, or backward in any way. On the contrary, they are merely expressing in a variety of ways that they do not accept being part of the mincemeat maker. They may have talent in areas for which the current system does not cater, and they feel alienated. Our answer to this, under ‘modern’ arrangements is to label them as having Special Educational Needs, or suffering from Educational and Behavioural Difficulties. It seems to me that pupils in modern schools have the odds stacked them. The only survivors are those who keep quiet, do what they’re told and get good examination results. But what then for our model pupil? Being an academic success could enable immediate employment, and the start of a career path, earning a wage at the age of 16 or 18. The alternative being to opt for a further dose of education that whilst not offering any guarantee of a higher qualification, will guarantee that you end up in significant debt as soon as you start your new career. We need to offer an alternative for post-14 education if we are to really prepare our children for work. Take the same school in the same city, and throw away the curriculum. Do not put the pupils in any ‘classes’ or ‘forms’ or ‘tutor groups’. Do not segregate pupils according to age. Extend the school so that it caters for anyone who wishes to apply for a place. Introduce a nursery. Do away with homework. Banish uniform. Don’t have teachers,

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abandon external examinations and finally, don’t call it a school. It’s a Learning Centre, and it is the future of education, setting a World standard for those that have the courage to grasp the bull by the horns. The essence of the idea builds upon the preconception that by adolescence whilst some young people have an idea of what they want to do with their life, the majority need guidance and advice to prepare them for careers straight from school. The Learning Centre will offer a series of projects, which are designed to break down the compartmentalisation of the old post-14 curriculum. Thus a project on Light, for example would encompass the behaviour of light (‘physics’) the eye (‘biology’) and the use of light (‘creative arts’ / ‘design’). Every project would have a strong emphasis on practical work, and would include some form of work in the local community. In this case, a week in a school for the blind, perhaps. Each project is co-ordinated by a Project Leader, (probably a former ‘teacher’) whose responsibility it is to ensure that all the necessary resources are made available. Apart from the obvious issue of availability of learning material, the Project Leader is also responsible for establishing relevant links with the community. In the example of the Light project, the local optician / photographer / stage manager are all relevant examples that spring to mind. The range of projects would be designed to give the learner’s skills and experience relevant to an employer. Moreover, the learner will have a certain control over which project they take on; at the end of the curriculum up to age14, a pupil, and their carer would sit down a Senior Project Leader (probably a former Head of Department) and a member of the local Careers Advisory Service, and hold an open discussion. During that initial discussion, an agreement would be made between all parties, outlining the structure and responsibilities of the next 2 years education. The agreement would be made based upon; The student’s ambitions The carer’s opinion Past performance Professional advice And would include an Individual Plan of Education outlining what projects the student should aim to complete, and over what timescale. If at any stage the student decides that they want to move in a different direction, then the arrangements would be that they must finish the current project, and another case discussion is arranged. Thus the student is given the responsibility for their own education, and is far more likely to accept the arrangements. Moreover, the student feels that their Education Plan is an individual plan, made especially for them to be relevant to society, and to their own career aspirations, whatever they may be. With the in-built element of flexibility, the pupils should develop a real sense of ownership. In practice, the project instructions provide a framework of tasks to be achieved, and guidance on how to achieve them, as well as lists of and resources and useful contacts. There would also be a timetable of compulsory key events, such as weekly review meetings, presentations, formal instruction sessions etc, and finally a timeline against

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which the student must work in order to achieve the targets agreed in the Education Plan. Above this, the students take ownership of their own projects. The onus is on them to actively seek out the information required, advice and guidance from sources available, and arranging meetings, securing work placements etc through liaison with their Project Managers. At the end of a particular project, the student will have compiled a folder containing all the work they have done against all the targets and the timeline. In addition, the folder will contain written reports from the review meetings, reports from work placements and community projects, and a final written report by the Project Manager. At the end of compulsory education, a student will have built up a portfolio of reports acquired over the last 2 years, a final written report by a Senior Project Manager, a Curriculum Vitae and a standard letter of application. There is no need for any assessment. The folder provides all the information that a potential employer needs to know, and portrays a far truer picture of an individual than a list of grades by subject currently does. The intrinsic beauty of this approach is that an employer is able to assess a candidate as an individual, based genuinely upon how much effort has been put in over the life of the projects. Therefore, because there is no outside qualification to be concerned about, the project frameworks are relevant to anyone wishing to enrol, the extent of the project being dependent on the depth and commitment that an individual is prepared to show. Thus adults may be encouraged to enrol, and because there is no segregation by age, would be mixing freely with younger people, being able to offer advice and exchange ideas, and act as a controlling influence regarding discipline. To ensure standards and consistency, there would need to a be a central control office, based within the education authority that would sample work at frequent, random times by holding Senior Project Manager meetings, taking examples of written work across projects, obtaining feedback from local industry and community organisations, and visiting the Centres without prior notice. I have met very few pupils and parents that consider the role of the school to be the preparation of our children for a modern society. More commonly, the purpose of education is perceived to be the achievement of exam results. It is apparent that we are damaging our children’s attitude to education, and I suggest that the reason for it is that our eye has moved from the ball. The key priority in education should be the pupils, and the responsibility we have to provide individual guidance and support. I alluded once to this project-driven, individualised approach to preparation for life in modern society during a discussion with certain influential educationalists, only to be told that my ideas are “too radical”. If we maintain the fear of change expressed by these educationalists, and the person mentioned at the start of this passage, then we will not move on. Changes for the better have occurred over recent years, but the changes have been driven by a need to get the best from a system which, in my opinion, is flawed. To really make a difference that will impact across society, we need to change the system. We should not have to “like it or not”. If there is a better way, let’s do it.

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It strikes me that an attitude exists in education, whereby if the system were to be given the means to invest in a hi-tech, top-of-the range sports car, it would use money to change the radio in their current, out-dated vehicle, and perhaps change the paintwork, whilst using the majority to produce as much paperwork as possible to show their benefactor what a good job they’ve done.

PUPIL CHOICE

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A MODEL FOR OWNERSHIP, FLEXIBILITY AND RELEVANCE IN THE POST-14 CURRICULUM

I was delighted to read the Scottish Executive’s response to the National Debate on Education, and whole-heartedly agree with the Framework for Improvement described in ‘Educating for Excellence'. The current system is inherently weak because its architecture has come from a ‘one size fits all’ blueprint. It is a good design for success aimed at pupils who can easily adapt to a disciplined regime in which the criterion for success is the attainment of examination results. It is an effective vehicle to carry people on into further education for those who wish to use it. It does not prepare people to gain employment and take a responsible role in society by the age of l6. For some young people, a school environment is simply not appropriate. There are those who have clear-cut career ambitions that do not demand the expanse of the school curriculum. There are those who have unique skills that are not catered for by the curriculum, and there are those that will just not fit into school environment. As there is no real alternative, these individuals are trapped in a system that is loaded against them. It is unreasonable to expect these people to sit for 5 hours every weekday, and listen to 6 or 8 different teachers talking about 6 or 8 different subjects that they consider to be irrelevant in their life. There is an underlying lack of motivation that, if not addressed will possibly lead to disruptive behaviour and subsequent under-achievement. It is not the fault of the pupils but because the system is not providing an alternative. In order to prepare these pupils for a place in society we must recognise their ambitions, and give them ownership and responsibility for their own education. We must provide motivation and offer a learning environment that is non-threatening, where pupils are perceived individually, not just as names on a class register. In short, we need an alternative to school. It is essential to recognise the purpose of creating choice is not to create an ‘academic class system’. It is means of providing the most suitable educational environment for all our young people, based upon their dispositions and their aspirations. Any pupil may opt to stay at school and follow the traditional route, but equally, the new alternative would be open to all. There would be no threshold of attainment, against which an individual’s performance dictates their educational future. The laissez-faire perception may be that offering pupils a choice is the creation of a two-tier system. The reality is that it is the creation of an essential, non-discriminatory option for any individual, which has the pupil’s best interests at heart, whatever their ability or background. Imagine an educational establishment where there is no curriculum, no uniform, no external assessment, no segregation and no teachers. Classrooms are replaced by large scale, open plan computer rooms, designed in a similar fashion to a modern sales room or call centre. The establishment is open for use during normal office hours, and attendance is monitored using swipe cards. Learning in such places is based around the completion of projects. The number and nature of projects that an individual takes on, and over what timescale, would be

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determined initially during a discussion involving a senior project manager, a careers advisor, the individual and the individual’s carer. The extent and depth of the projects undertaken would be agreed by all parties after consideration of the individual’s prior attainment, and would take the form of a written, individualised programme of study. Any project may be offered to any student at any stage, regardless of age, so that the pace and extent of learning is no longer restricted by a rigid curriculum. The projects cover topics of relevance, not academic subjects, and are designed to give a much broader approach than the current curriculum. Moreover, the package of projects is designed to be relevant not only to the pupil’s aspirations and skills, but also to potential employers. A key aspect of the projects, is that they contain some requirement to undertake work placement with a local industry and wherever applicable, to gain experience with care in the community initiatives Each project comes with a guidance pack that directs the student regarding project content, learning objectives, available resources, useful contacts, website addresses and a study timeline. Tutorials, discussion groups, guest presentations would be programmed in to a broad timetable of study, but beyond this, the onus is upon the student to achieve the objectives in the timeframe agreed. Each project is directed and co-ordinated by a specialist project manager, who in turn is supported by a senior project manager that would take responsibility for a broad range of projects*. Students’ progress would be monitored through weekly project meetings, both collectively and individually. Should an individual wish to change direction at any stage, a review meeting would be arranged with the same group. Thus the system has in-built flexibility, maximising career opportunity and allowing the individual to direct the course of their own learning. At the end of a project, a student will have compiled a project folder that contains all their work, measured against the agreed learning objectives, reports from their work placements, a record of progress meetings with the project manager, and an agreed end of project statement. The individual is also required to write an executive summary. There is therefore no need to sit any kind of formally assessed written examination. In this project-driven approach, an external exam is not applicable and goes against the ethos of learning. The whole point is that the individual has ownership, and is not answerable to any external body concerning their individual educational achievement. Moreover, an executive summary of the projects an individual has studied, tasks undertaken and achievements, along with a project manager’s report is arguably of far more use to an employer than a list of grades achieved in examinations. Furthermore, there is no reason why access to these establishments should be restricted to any age group. Young adults and parents may also wish to study a particular project, and the whole community would therefore derive benefit.

Supplying a Solution

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I was disappointed to read in the TESS recently an article by a teacher who expressed her bitter disappointment at the way she was being treated whilst ‘on supply’. She has my sympathy. Unfortunately, she, like so many others has twice fallen victim; once, to a system that clutches on to central ownership, and in stark contrast to the ethos of flexibility and progress that is permeating through other areas of the system, and twice, because of the attitudes of permanent staff to those brought in on short-term temporary contracts. I’m sure that the following scenario rings true for most teachers that have experienced supply work; the horror starts with the offer of work for ‘a day or two’ at a school which is an unknown quantity. Duly, at the appointed time our teacher waits outside in the corridor whilst the Depute deals with matters of urgency before the morning bell. During a quick break in the chaos, our teacher is handed a timetable covering a diverse range of subjects and then given directions to the first lesson. On arrival at the particular department, there is the usual greeting of “Oh, hello – are you the supply?” followed by the frantic rush to see if the usual teacher has left work, and the location of the books. For the duration of the lesson, the class will inevitably use the opportunity of a teacher-just-passing-through to test the elasticity of the human condition. Our teacher having been told to tell the class simply to ‘copy out pages 15-20, and answer the questions at the bottom of the page’, has instantly had a degree of command and control removed, and has not been given any opportunity to impose themselves upon the class through a demonstration of teaching ability It is the same story of mismanagement and lack of appreciation from lesson to lesson throughout the day. To illustrate the situation using a real example; I was once ‘on supply’ in a Glasgow school, covering a timetable that was predominantly Religious Education. I am a Biology and Science specialist. At the same time, a Needlework specialist was covering a Science timetable, and a Religion teacher was covering Needlework! There is no thought or respect for ‘the supply’; not by the pupils, the staff or the senior management team. In the article referred to above, the author requests that a school information pack be prepared for incoming teachers. I would venture to suggest that in order to improve the working conditions for teachers on supply, there has to be a more fundamental change to the whole system of supply teacher management. Any teacher looking for work in Scotland has to be registered with the GTC. In other words, the GTC holds a database of all registered teachers. This is the starting point of our solution. With simple database management, anyone with a basic knowledge who had access to the database could establish which teachers are looking for supply work, and filter them by subject speciality and councils. In other words, when a teacher registers with the GTC, there should also be a requirement to stipulate the councils in which they would like to be registered for work. Instantly, we are maximising the potential of councils to recruit available teachers. Moreover, the teachers are categorised by subject speciality. Imagine the following sequence of events;

1. A school has a need for a Biology teacher. 2. The school sends a request form on-line to the council 3. The council accesses that part of the GTC database to which they have been

given rights, and checks availability

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4. Ideally, a subject specialist is located and an offer of work made 5. On acceptance of the work, the council then sends a profile of the teacher,

with a photograph, on a standard form back to the school. 6. The school replies with a timetable and list of contacts, which is forwarded to

the teacher. 7. The teacher arrives at the school prepared to teach, and is recognised and

greeted by name upon arrival 8. Someone in each department has specific responsibility for the management

and welfare of the new temporary member of staff. Obviously, this paints a rosy picture. The point is that there is no need for the mismanagement and belittling of teachers on supply. On the contrary; at the end of a day, or a placement, the school would fill out a simple tick sheet, designed to give very broad and none-specific feedback to the council, essentially giving the school an opportunity to pass comment upon the teacher’s performance. If positive, then this would be reflected in the profile of the teacher. In this way, good practice is rewarded, and an element of motivation is introduced to supply teaching. The commonly used ‘permanent pool of supply’ model is flawed; it relies upon individual teachers registering their interest with the council. Not every available teacher is likely to register with every accessible council, and the system is immediately inefficient. By expressing council preferences as part of GTC registration, there is maximum potential for councils and maximum opportunity for teachers. The system is further flawed because the emphasis seems to be on placing of teachers at schools, on the basis that they are getting paid anyway. Surely, it would be far more beneficial to the pupils, if the emphasis shifted to subject matching and ability. Like most things in education, just a little effort can make life so much more pleasant.

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