Lessons
Transcript of Lessons
Lesson 1 - Introduction to the Study of Western Religious Traditions Mary-Catherine Ciuba
Lesson Objectives
Successful completion of this lesson requires meeting specific learning goals. Before
going on to the next lesson, be sure that you can describe the academic approach to
the study of religion
distinguish in general terms between an orthopraxy and an orthodoxy
differentiate Western and Eastern religious groupings
describe characteristics of the religions of the Ancient Near East and the Greek and
Roman world
distinguish between and among monotheism, dualism, and polytheism
Reading Assignment
Oxtoby, pp. 1–9, 11–31
Discussion
Among other topics, the reading for this lesson deals with religions of the Ancient
Near East as well as the Greek and Roman world that are predecessors to the Western
traditions that we will take up in subsequent lessons.
Before turning to the study of any particular religions, it is important to consider what
is involved in the academic study of religion in general. So please examine the
section entitled "Insider and Outsider" in Oxtoby (pp. 2–4) attentively. The following
observations made by Gary E. Kessler in his book, Western Ways of Being Religious
(p. 3), should also be studied closely:
o The insider's view is that of someone who participates in a particular religious
tradition. This sort of study presupposes religious commitment and promotes
an understanding that will lead to greater commitment. It promotes the
interests and furthers the causes of a specific religious organization. The
academic study of religion is different from the insider's study. In the
academic study, the student stands outside all religious traditions and studies
religions from the viewpoint of the methods and standards associated with the
secular academy. The outsider's viewpoint does not presuppose any kind of
religious commitment, although it does presuppose a commitment to the
standards of the academy. Its goal is neither to increase nor to decrease an
individual's religious faith.
Regarding the three Western religions, while the upcoming lessons and your reading
in the Oxtoby text will focus your attention on details and data, it is important and
useful to have some way to make broad comparisons and contrasts, both between and
among the three traditions. One very helpful method to distinguish religions is to ask
whether a given religious system has a focus on belief or on action. While virtually all
religions feature elements of both belief and action, generally one of these receives
more emphasis. Often, scholars use the terms "orthopraxy" and "orthodoxy" to
distinguish the two types of emphasis. Each term has Greek roots: orthopraxy means
"correct practice," and orthodoxy means "correct doctrine." Orthopraxy is
characterized by a stress on a particular ritualized way of living. Orthodoxy, on the
other hand, is marked by doctrinal concerns expressed through creeds, dogmas, and
statements of belief. As we proceed through the lessons, we will learn more about
orthopraxy and orthodoxy, and we will use these terms to analyze the Western
religious traditions.
Key Terms and Concepts
There is no glossary of key terms for Chapter One in Oxtoby.
Reading Questions
East and West (pp. 4–6)
o What is meant by "Western" and "Eastern" religions?
It’s hard to differentiate West and East since both sides’ religions have
grown to the four corners of the Earth and do not have a common
thread among them. Only the West considers the divide between West
and East, but this divide makes sense only to Europeans with the
divide from the Orient travels.
The Greeks and Romans (pp. 12–13)
o What characterizes Greek and Roman religion? What are the general roles
played by the deities (i.e., gods and goddesses) in Greek and Roman religion?
The gods and goddesses’ stories were told to children in the homes and
the rituals at their shrines were carried out as a “duty” to those superior
beings. Many academic thinkers would either dismiss these stories as
just that, stories, or come up with reasoning to prove them rational.
The Ancient Near East (pp. 13–17)
o What are the major features of Mesopotamian religion? What are the major
features of Egyptian religion?
Mesopotamia religion was the first to construct a pantheon for all the
gods since it had so many in different levels of importance. It also
held a lot of weight in the practice of divination and the ritualistic side
of honoring the different gods. Egyptian religion was also polytheistic
and was greatly focused on death and what you had to do to move on
to the next life (mummifying).
Who Is God? (pp. 20–29)
o What is meant by the terms monotheism, dualism, and polytheism?
Monotheism is the belief in only one god, dualism is the belief in 2
beings (god and a devil figure) and polytheism is the belief in multiple
gods which can be good or bad gods or goddesses.
Written Assignment
In your own words, why is the insider's viewpoint inappropriate for the academic
study of religion?
o Studying religion as an insider is neither objective nor practical in the world
of academia. Objectivity is something ever academic subject strives to show,
including all the sides to every story. If one were to study religion as an
insider, he would assume that he knows everything about the subject and not
realize the “why” or the “how” behind these beliefs. Both of these facets of
religion are important to understand why a group of people believe what they
do and how it is appreciated among them. Objectivity is only achieved by an
outsider, who takes his own beliefs out of the equation to greater appreciate
what different people believe, the reason behind it and how their beliefs affect
everyday life.
In broad terms, what characterizes an orthopraxy and an orthodoxy?
o An orthopraxy is a religion based on practices and living out a life according
to principles lined out in a certain religion. Orthodoxy is a religion based off
of correct documents and holding a belief throughout life that is in accordance
with those principles.
On what basis can Judaism, Christianity, and Islam be grouped together as "Western
religions"?
o Judaism, Christianity and Islamic beliefs are drastically different than those
beliefs from the other surrounding religions. Their beliefs were completely
different and the practicing of these beliefs came gradually throughout history.
Contrast the concept of a pantheon with the concept of monotheism.
o A pantheon is a construct used to groups gods and goddesses of a religion to
make it easier for the believers. A pantheon is not necessary for a religion that
is monotheistic because this religion believes in only one superior being, not
multiple beings.
Lesson 2 - The Jewish Tradition: The Early Period Mary-Catherine Ciuba
Lesson Objectives
Successful completion of this lesson requires meeting specific learning goals. Before
going on to the next lesson, be sure that you can
o describe in outline form the history and development of Jewish religion from
its biblical beginnings through the Hellenistic Period to Rabbinic Judaism
o describe the centrality of the covenant concept in Jewish religion
o identify the three divisions of the Hebrew Bible and distinguish among them
o distinguish the literature of Rabbinic Judaism, including the Mishnah,
Gemarah, Talmud, and midrash
Reading Assignment
Oxtoby, pp. 32–91
Discussion
Most people would recognize that Jewish religion has had a long history, but its
periods of development are not widely known. Some people presume that the beliefs
and practices of Jews in the modern world have always characterized Jewish religion.
Others assume that the description of Jewish religion in the Bible applies directly to
Judaism today. There are problems associated with each of these views. Jewish
religion has had some major turning points when it altered significantly. You will find
that Judaism has a rich history of religious developments and a varied but interlinked
religious literature. As to the latter, in the Oxtoby text the term "Hebrew Bible" is
sometimes used to refer to what Jews call the Tanakh. The Tanakh or Hebrew Bible is
very similar to the Christian Old Testament. There are, however, a few differences in
regard to overall length and arrangement. In addition, the Catholic Old Testament
includes some books not found in either the Tanakh or the Protestant Old Testament.
But for our purposes, you can consider the Hebrew Bible roughly equivalent to the
Old Testament.
You will recall that we will be using the terms orthopraxy and orthodoxy to
investigate Judaism, Christianity, and Islam as religious systems. (If you need to
review these terms, please go back and look at the discussion in Lesson 1 now before
continuing.) You will be able to spot fairly early on in your reading that, while
matters of doctrine and belief are certainly not foreign to Judaism, Jewish religious
tradition has had an emphasis on orthopraxy. Alan F. Segal in the Oxtoby text (p. 36)
writes:
o For understanding Judaism it is significant that its major divisions are based
more on ritual and practice than on belief or doctrine. This contrasts with
Christianity, where theology and creed are the crucial defining issues between
denominations.
In a biblical story you may already know and that is mentioned in the Oxtoby text
(see p. 44), Moses ascends Mt. Sinai to receive instructions from God (Exodus 19:1–
8). God commands Moses that the people he is leading should be "a holy people."
When Moses informs the elders of the people, they respond: "All that the Lord has
spoken we will do!" (Note the wording carefully: it is "we will do" and not "we will
believe.") Over the course of the next several biblical chapters, indeed over the course
of the next several biblical books, Moses lays out the lifestyle, marked by specific
commandments, that God demands of "a holy people." Throughout this account,
orthopraxy, i.e., the notion of a correct lifestyle, is emphasized.
This orthopraxic emphasis continued past the biblical period and is also the major
stress of rabbinic and modern Judaism. For instance, one extensive rabbinic
discussion is largely concerned with determining exactly how and when one satisfies
the biblical commandment to "be fruitful and multiply," which is interpreted as a
commandment to have children. In Jewish tradition, the instruction to have children is
considered to be the very first commandment given in the Bible. And since it is given
to Adam and Eve, it is in effect given to all people because, according to the Bible,
we all descend from these two figures. The rabbis debated various questions, such as
how many children it takes to satisfy this commandment, and what role gender plays
in the fulfillment of the commandment. Try to find examples as you read the Oxtoby
text that demonstrate that Jewish religion is primarily orthopraxic.
Key Terms and Concepts
Berith – Hebrew for covenant. This words means along the same lines as contract
today…a contract between man and God.
Diaspora – from the greek “sowing of the seed” or “dispersal”. It explained Judaism
*Exile – when the Judean kingdom fell to the Babylonians. This point in time
marked when Judaism went from a cult to a religious heritage among a dispersed
group of people.
*Exodus – book of the Bible centered around Moses leading His people out of Egypt
(mass exodus)
*Gemarah – a body of commentary to make a translation “complete”
*halakha – the topically arranged legal material of the Talamud , as well as a
particular legal or folklore technique and or the specific book of oral law where these
techniques are used
kosher – a set of laws where Jews are not to eat or even touch pork. The biblical
rules that the slaughter of all kosher that is ritually acceptable must be done in a
humane way had an original application to sacrifice.
*menorah – the official symbol for Israel
o six pointed star of David
o symbol of Jewish culture and sovereignty
o Shield of David appeared in the Middle ages and was only a decoration in
synagogues
Midrash – the interpretation and commentary rabbis created of the ancient text
o Know the text is unalterable, but the significance of the text itself could be
analyzed
Mishnah - divided the bible into six parts (seeds [agriculture], festivals, women,
damages, holy things [ritual] and purifications. The misnah summarizes traditional
law while the pharisees/rabiis interpreted and applied it.
*mitzvah (mitzvah is a singular form; in the Oxtoby text the plural form, mitzvoth, is
also used) – mitzvah means commandments, so bar mitzvah is the son of
commandments and bat mitzvah is daughter of commandments, specifically. At a
bar/bat mitzvah, the teenager comes of age by reading from the Torah (the holy book)
in Hebrew and proving themselves coherent in Judaism.
*Septuagint – “seventy” in Latin, LXX
o 70 scholars from Egypt miraculously produced 70 exact translations of the
bible for a King of Philadelphos
o gave the innate word of the Lord validity since they all wrote the same thing
gained authority and respect
synagogue – traditional Jewish place of worship
Tanakh – the parts of the old testament
o T – torah (first five books)
o N – nevi’im - prophets
o K – ketuvim – writings
o Denotes the different types of Hebrew scripture
Reading Questions
Overview: Diversity in Judaism (pp. 35–36)
o Approximately how many Jews live in the world today? How does this figure
compare with the Christian and Muslim populations in the world? Where are
the major centers of Jewish life?
There are about 14 million Jews worldwide today. About half live in
the U.S, then Europe at about 4 million with Asia bringing up the rear
with 3 million. Judaism is considered an ethnic religion with the fact
that people claim their religion as part of their ethnicity. Both
Christianity and Muslims attribute many of their rituals and starts to
Judaism. But Islam and Christianity and larger powerhouses for
population and worldwide knowledge than Judaism, as well as being
more politically powerful as well. Jews consider themselves to be a
race, that their beliefs and “jewish-ness” is transmitted biologically to
make a ethnic and racial pedigree. Jews also believe to follow the
Torah, the first five books of the bible, as orthodoxy and to model their
lives around it as orthopraxy.
The Biblical Period (pp. 36–57)
o How does the material in Genesis 1–11 anticipate the call of Abraham in
Genesis 12? What does the choice of Abraham by God signify?
God chose Abraham as an example for people to live and gives hope
that humanity can be redeemed from sin.
o What does it mean to state that the covenant concept is the central organizing
principle of the Jewish concept of God and view of history?
A covenant gives a divine mandate to follow instead of social laws.
Abraham, Isaac and Jacob entered this covenant with God knowing
what He wants and doesn’t want humans to do.
o How do the narratives about Moses, the Exodus, and the wilderness
wanderings lay the foundations of later Jewish society and ritual life?
They form this relationship with God as an all-high leader by paying
homage through rituals and honoring covenants with them. After
getting the Ten Commandments, these people made a Tabernacle to
carry them in and realized the error of their ways and began to repent
and sacrifice to get back into God’s graces. This repentance was the
beginning of rituals still carried out today by the Jewish population.
o Why did kingship emerge among the Israelites? What happened to the
kingship following the Exile?
Up to this point, the Israelites were held together by tribal chieftains
who were not formally appointed or elected, but rather took over. The
Israelites created a kingdom to have a central figure with a soul
purpose to fight the Canaanites and Philistines in order to get more
land and establish themselves as a force to be reckoned with. At 586
BC, the Judean kingdom went from a united kingdom to a group of
people only held together by religious views. The Babylonians took
over and the Jews became more focused on their beliefs and
agricultural changes than becoming a power. During this time, the
Jews pieced together the 1st 5 books of the bible and wove together the
Torah, their book of beliefs, so that they may be united as one, sharing
the similar beliefs which were thoughts and facts deemed from God.
o Why is the prophetic movement so important? What is notable about the
writings of the literary prophets?
See above
The Hellenistic Period (pp. 57–71)
o What does Hanukkah celebrate? Who were the Hasmoneans?
When the Macabees rejoined the Hellenized Jews after intermarriage
with gentiles and “shafting parts of their manhood” to fit in, the
celebrated Hanukkah for military successes and took the minor holiday
and made it explode to unite the two bodies as one. They then set up
the client kings called Hasmoneans to run the rebel dynasty and rule
over this body of Jews for more than a century before they fell to
Roman rule.
o Who were the Sadducees and the Pharisees? What sociological groupings
within Judean society did they represent?
The Sadducees were the upper class who interpreted the law literally,
while the Pharisees were a part of the middle class who were popular
and the nit picky portion of the Sanhedrin of the New Testament.
Pharisees attempted to make rules and interpret the scriptures so that
the rules would make it easy to live by the bible.
o In broad terms, what are the characteristics of Jewish concepts of the
Messiah?
The messiah was to exemplify God’s sovereign control of events and
reward his faithful followers who trusted Him. He would also
overturn the existing way of life, as well as his death be part of a
sequence of events. The Messiah serves as a political leader as well as
a spiritual leader.
Rabbinic Judaism (pp. 71-91)
o How did Pharisaic traditions give rise to the institutions of Rabbinic Judaism?
The Pharisees lost their base of power when their independence was
ripped out from under them. The temples were gone and these leaders
were the only ones able to spread Judaism since the Saducees,
Essenes, Zealots and Qumran were gone. Pharisees put a new national
purpose to spread their beliefs and brought about the position of a
rabbi. Rabbis were legal specialists and teachers like the Pharisees,
not spiritual leaders like pastors we see today.
o What does the term "Tanakh" denote? How did the Hebrew canon become
fixed? (Note that the term "canon" denotes a set of Biblical books considered
to be scripture by a particular religious group. See Oxtoby, p. 332.)
The Hebrew canon for the Old Testament was fixed by an
acculmulated body of the church and different clergy subjects.
o What is midrash? What is the Mishnah? What is the Talmud?
Midrash is the rabii’s commentary to what was God-breathed in their
text. They knew it is inertly the Lord’s, but the midrash was used to
show what God was saying and how He said it. The Mishnah divided
the bible into six parts (seeds [agriculture], festivals, women, damages,
holy things [ritual] and purifications. The misnah summarizes
traditional law while the pharisees/rabiis interpreted and applied it.
o Contrast halakha and agada.
Halakha is the legal material while agada is the narrative expansion of
stories told in the Bible. The halakha shows a genre distinction while
the agada teaches a moral lesson in its story.
Written Assignment
Discuss the importance of the covenant concept in Judaism.
o The covenant God made with Abraham signified the two becoming one in
thought and in accordance to the laws Abraham now must obey. They sealed
this deal by passing a flaming torch between two halves of a carcus, signifying
that the two indeed have become one. If anyone breaks that promise, a
curse will fall upon them. This covenant was the starting point of man
creating treaties and oathes between their gods for protection and lawful
purposes. Many treaties were written up to bind gods to protect their people
and sometimes even having the gods divinely write the laws for the nation.
God also made a covenant with Abraham promising a new offspring,
beginning his nation’s population through his family lineage. God provided
and the Jewish lineage starts here.
How did the Sadducees and Pharisees differ?
o The Sadducees were the upper class who interpreted the law literally, while
the Pharisees were a part of the middle class who were popular and the nit
picky portion of the Sanhedrin of the New Testament. Pharisees attempted to
make rules and interpret the scriptures so that the rules would make it easy to
live by the bible, while the Sadducees just took the literal representation of the
Scripture and chose to live by those.
What is the structure of the Hebrew canon, or Tanakh?
o The Tanakh separates the Bible into three parts, represented by the characters
T, N and K. T stands for Torah, the first five books of the bible. The N
stands for Nevi’im, which from Hebrew means Prophets. The K represent the
Ketuvim, translated to Writings. The T, N and K represent the backbone of
the Hebrew Bible.
What is the structure of the Talmud? (Both scholars and Jews typically use the
Babylonian Talmud and refer to it simply as the Talmud.)
o The Talmud used the Misnah of ancient days as a skeleton for its organization.
Even though there is only one Misnah, there are two Talmuds. Each of these
Talmuds used the Misnah from Rabbi Judah and provided two different
commentaries to analyze the ancient writings called gemarah. There is the
Palestine or Jerusalem Talmud which originated near Galilee, while the other
gemarah was compiled in Babylonia named the Babylonian Talmud.
Normally, the Misnah is written first and the gemarah is behind it explaining
the text, often times much longer than the passage itself. Over time this
Talmud and gemarah found itself in a central column together with other more
recent compilations of ideas and commentaries surrounding it on either side.
The Talmud (the Babylonian one) became the more frequented version and
was used most often in legal discussions. Since the Talmud is considered the
law since the Misnah is law, the gemarah also carries weight of lawfulness by
association.
Lesson 3: The Jewish Tradition – Medieval and Modern Periods Mary-Catherine Ciuba
Lesson Objectives
Successful completion of this lesson requires meeting specific learning goals. Before
going on to the next lesson, be sure that you can
o outline the history and development of Judaism throughout the medieval and
modern periods
o discuss the literature and practices of medieval and modern Judaism
o distinguish between and among the major branches of modern Judaism
Reading Assignment
Oxtoby, pp. 91–157
Discussion
In this lesson, the emphasis is on medieval and modern Judaism, focusing on
developments in literature, philosophy, and practice. Among other things, you will
learn about the major branches of modern Judaism (Orthodox, Conservative, and
Reform). You will also read about the significance of the Holocaust and the rise of
the modern nation of Israel.
You learned in the previous lesson that Judaism has an emphasis on orthopraxy. That
is because the essence of traditional Judaism is to be obedient to the commandments
given by God to Moses in the written law, as interpreted by the rabbis through the
oral law. There are two areas of possible confusion concerning this matter. First, you
may find the idea of basing a religion on the performance of commandments
perplexing if you have been taught that sin is inherent in all humans and that, as a
result, individuals are by nature unable by their own power to rise above sin. But this
is not a typical Jewish assumption. Instead, Jews have tended to believe that humans
can not only choose to observe the commandments but may also be successful in
doing so, achieving religious rightness with God in the process. (Thus there is no
savior figure in Judaism, since Judaism holds that humans can become right with God
by their own power.) Judaism has not stressed the Adam and Eve story and does not
infer from it an idea of inherited or "original" sin. On the contrary, rabbinic literature
draws attention to the story of Cain and Abel, the sons of Adam and Eve. In the
biblical account, Cain murders his brother Abel. But in the verse immediately
preceding this murder, God speaks to Cain, who has become "very angry" with his
brother, and tells him that he "must master" sinful desire (see Genesis 4:6–8). The
rabbis interpreted this to mean that humans have the innate capacity to control sinful
urges and, therefore, we are solely responsible for our choice of action. In short, we
are able, by our own volition, to live holy lives. (Note the biblical injunction in
Leviticus 19:2 that the people are to "be holy, for I, the Lord your God, am holy.")
Hence, obedience to divine commandments has been a defining characteristic of
Jewish religion.
A second area of possible confusion is the name Orthodox Judaism, since we have
learned that Judaism is primarily an orthopraxy system. In the case of Orthodox
Judaism, however, the term Orthodox simply conveys the sense of traditional, i.e.,
Rabbinic, and should not be confused with the technical term orthodoxy.
(Unfortunately, Alan F. Segal in the Oxtoby text uses the term Orthodoxy to refer to
Orthodox Judaism.) Though it may seem awkward, Orthodox Judaism stresses
orthopraxy, not orthodoxy. Indeed, you may observe in your reading that each branch
of modern Judaism emphasizes orthopraxy, though in different ways. Orthodox
Judaism demands the full range of practice of the commandments, Reform Judaism a
smaller or reduced range of practice, and Conservative Judaism somewhat less than
Orthodox but more than Reform.
Key Terms and Concepts
*Ashkenazim – one of the two groups of Jewish people in the premodern world.
These people originated in the central and eastern Europe areas, away from the
Mediterranean and Sephardim Jews. The names themselves came from Obadiah 20
and were commonly found in Germany, Poland, Hungary, Romania and Russia. The
Ashkenazim were all under Christian domination from repression and persecution.
Most of the Ashkenazims were uprooted and moved to the new world…more
Ashkenazims than Sephardics.
Hesed – a higher spherah that is Gods aspect of “lovingkindness”
Kabbalah – the teaching of tradition or ritualistic aspect of Judaism that believe lining
up the 10 different spherots or “spheres of life” through ritual and pious deeds will
line up a life through divine means
*mezuzah – a scroll on the door frame which contain commandments and literal
observances of them on the doors of the Jewish houses
minyan – a quorum for group prayer, which for Jewish groups is a body of 10 people
who usually pray together daily in the synagogue
Passover – a time of “Spring Cleaning” that gives the Jewish people a new beginning
by eating unlevened bread for 7 days. Jews also sometimes use separate pots and
pans for milk from meat. A season of agricultural rebirth and renewal, these meals
must be eaten with newly cleaned equipment and eat an elaborate dinner called seder.
*Rosh Hashanah – known as the “New Year” celebration for the Jewish lunar
calendar that occurs at the fall equinox.
Sabbath – Friday evening to Saturday evening which is dubbed a holy time. Jews
may not work during the Sabbath, including cooking food over a fire or giving
commands. The only loop hole is when a holiday falls on a Sabbath, which moves
the Sabbath hours to another day.
*seder – a ritual dinner that is symbolic and uses plants. It is the Jewish people’s
historical participation in the Passover.
*Sephardim – The Sephardic Jews were from the Mediterranean and was a place the
Jews migrated to at the fall of their Empire. Spain and Portugal dominate the
Sephardim history.
*sukkah – a booth or tabernacle that is a small, temporary shelter outside the house
which Jews sleep in or at least eat in when possible. This occurs at Sukkoth, the 8
day autumn harvest.
*tallith – a rectangular piece of cloth known as a prayer shawl
*tefillin – cube like boxes that aer tied together with a leather thong, one to the
forehead and 1 on the upper arm. There are passages in the Torah explaining that the
word of God should always be upon the hand and in between the eyes
yarmulke – a skull cap worn by men to cover their heads while praying, an ancient
tradition
*Yom Kippur – known as the Day of Atonement, the most solemn day of the year.
This day begins the Autumn harvest by blowing in a rams horn (shofar) and the rabbi
reminds his congregation to consider their deeds from the past year.
Reading Questions
Medieval Judaism (pp. 91–111)
o Where did medieval Jewish philosophy flourish? Why?
Everywhere that there was Islam and they were welcoming.
Muhammad let the Jews have their freedom of whatever religion they
wanted to practice.
o Why is Maimonides considered the most impressive Jewish philosopher?
He bridged the gap between faith and reason in Judaism. He proved
that logic applies to the thought of the resurrection and salvation,
which reassured the Jewish population of their faith.
o How does Merkabah mysticism differ from Kabbalah? What are the spherot?
(Note that this word is a plural form in Hebrew.)
Merkabah is the chariot mysticism that was the longest lasting. It is
interested in God’s size, heavenly accents, ritualistic/magical spells
and the apocalypse, which Kabbalah had 10 sperots (spheres or
realms) that must be lined up to be pointed in a divine way. Kabbalah
also began at the fall of Merkabah.
Jewish Observances (pp. 111–30)
o How is the Sabbath observed?
The Sabbath is from Friday evening to Saturday evening, which has a
service at the synagogue on Saturday evening. Sabbath is the holiest
day of the Jewish year, even though it occurs every week. They cease
all work from sundown to sundown because that is what the
Commandments called God’s followers to do in Exodus 31. They
clean the house and prepare a Sabbath meal. Every move on this day
is sanctified to God as well as their rest and thanksgiving.
o What are the major features of the Jewish dietary laws?
They must not eat meat that is not kosher, or ritually acceptable, by
any means. This includes eating pork, because the pig is considered
unclean. All animals and birds that eat other animals are not allowed
EXCEPT for fish. The blood from these animals must be washed and
salted out, not removed by any other means.
o Which annual festivals seem to have had agricultural and pastoral origins?
How were these festivals later interpreted?
Rosh Hashanah – fall equinox – new year (pastoral)
Yom kippur – day of atonement - autumn harvest (agricultural)
Sukkoth – Israelite’s living in temporary shelter – concludes autumn
harvest (agricultural)
Hanukkah – eight days of menorah oil and marks freedom and uniting
of Jews – December (pastoral)
Purim – like Halloween or Mardi Gras from Esther – march (pastoral)
Passover – birth and renewal – kosher food (agricultural)
Shavuoth – weeks of late spring 50 days after Passover – giving of the
torah at Sinai (agricultural)
The ninth of Ab – late summer – destruction of 1st and 2nd temple and
wear nothing elaborate from sun up to sun down, as well as fast
(agricultural)
o What are the major life-cycle events and rituals in Judaism?
Birth – circumsion on the 8th day of life
Give child a jewish education stressing learning and doing
good deeds
Get a aliyah to go up and read the Torah during the hours of the
synagogue
Natah – pleasurable feelings from birth
Bar mitzvah – coming of age ceremony around 12 or 13
Must be educated in how to read it and the cultural significance
of their history
Marriage – joined together in order to raise children
Rabii is present for legal purposes
Death – faced without an illusion
Corpse was washed, laid the people in a stone coffin and when
the body decomposed, the bones are laid in a sacrocophagus
with the rest of the family.
No embalming is allowed.
The family receives visitors for 7 days after the death
Mirrors are covered, wear somber clothing, rip the clothing and
children recite the Kiddish in their honor for a year after their
death.
The Modern World (pp. 130–50)
o How did each of the major branches of modern Judaism (Reform,
Conservative, and Orthodox) emerge? How do the branches differ?
Reform Judaism began in England during the 18th century and was
formed around the modern European lifestyle. The Reformed Jews
found their Jewish identity in the modern lifestyle and meshed the two
into one, leaving the Orthodox ways. The Reformed ways helped the
Jewish population of mainly Germany to have a significant religious
side while still living a life acceptable for the times. The reformed
Jews had church services instead of a mass type service, dressed in
attire from the Western tradition and refer to their “church place” as a
temple instead of a synagogue. The Conservative Jews have the
“middle road” between Reform and Orthodox Jews. They use history
to tell them how to act and what to wear over the times of the nation
they are living in. They have also not changed much of their services
and outlook on Judaism since its inception, unlike the Reformed Jews.
One of the few things that have changed since the Orthodox ways was
that men and women can both attend services together and women can
now lead alongside men, which Orthodox Jews do not condone.
Orthodox Jews have held many of the original Jewish life traditions,
with one of the only changes being modern dress. Their services are
still in the traditional Hebrew language and live out the rules set out in
the Bible. Israeli people practice Orthodox Judaism as their official,
national religion.
Written Assignment
Distinguish between Sephardim and Ashkenazim.
o Both the Sephardic and Ashkenazim Jews were present during the time of
medieval Judaism. The Sephardic Jews were from the Mediterranean and was
a place the Jews migrated to at the fall of their Empire. Spain and Portugal
dominate the Sephardim history. The Ashkenazim Jews originated in the
central and eastern Europe areas, away from the Mediterranean and
Sephardim Jews. The names themselves came from Obadiah 20 and were
commonly found in Germany, Poland, Hungary, Romania and Russia. The
Ashkenazim were all under Christian domination from repression and
persecution. Most of the Ashkenazims were uprooted and moved to the new
world…more Ashkenazims than Sephardics came to America.
Summarize the writings and significance of Maimonides.
o Maimonides wrote the Misneh Torah in Hebrew and wrote a responsa or a
commentary to advise the Jewish community on matters like false conversions
and the resurrection of the Messiah. Although that was important, he was
most known for the book Guide of the Perplexed, his major philosophical
piece that proved faith through reason. The book was a breakthrough of its
time and was written as if to one student, not the Jewish population. This
work also resolved the tension between faith and reason because it pointed out
that the Torah used allegories to prove its points, which gave the Torah’s
philosophy a certain peace among its people.
Contrast Hanukkah and Yom Kippur. (Note that Hanukkah was covered in the
previous lesson.)
o Hanukkah focuses on the Jewish population being united and is about the
purification and rededication of their church. Hannakuh was also initially a
smaller holiday with not much emphasis until the Maccabees threw over the
Jewish reign and brought the entire Jewish religion together. Hannakuh is a
eight day celebration and uses a menorah to remember how the amount of oil
for one day kept a lamp on for 8 days. Hannakuh is also unique because its
importance is not recorded in the Mishnah, so the day became a celebration of
a miracle rather than a religious holiday, which is appropriate since it
celebrates a day of independence instead of a spiritually important day. Yom
Kippur (or the day of Atonement) is a bigger holiday when the congregation
focuses on the past year. Yom Kippur is also the most solemn day out of the
Jewish calendar year and Jewish population focuses in the final judgment on
God’s people.
What are the major differences among the modern forms of Judaism (i.e., Orthodox,
Conservative, Reform) with regard to the law and the liturgy (i.e., rituals of worship)?
o The Reformed ways helped the Jewish population of mainly Germany to have
a significant religious side while still living a life acceptable for the times.
The reformed Jews had church services instead of a mass type service, dressed
in attire from the Western tradition and refer to their “church place” as a
temple instead of a synagogue. The Reformed considered themselves to be a
spiritual community instead of a nation, do not consider diet and holy rituals
as a way to further yourself in faith and that the Bible has its own idea of
clothing and concepts that have changed over time, which the people of their
religion can adapt with throughout the ages. The Conservative Jews have the
“middle road” between Reform and Orthodox Jews. They use history to tell
them how to act and what to wear over the times of the nation they are living
in. They have also not changed much of their services and outlook on
Judaism since its inception, unlike the Reformed Jews. One of the few things
that have changed since the Orthodox ways was that men and women can both
attend services together and women can now lead alongside men, which
Orthodox Jews do not condone. Orthodox Jews have held many of the
original Jewish life traditions, with one of the only changes being modern
dress. Their services are still in the traditional Hebrew language and live out
the rules set out in the Bible. Israeli people practice Orthodox Judaism as
their official, national religion.
Lesson Four: The Christian Tradition: From Its Origin Through Imperial Christianity Mary-Catherine Ciuba
Lesson Objectives
Successful completion of this lesson requires meeting specific learning goals. Before
going on to the next lesson, be sure that you can
o outline what we know about the origins of Christianity, including the life and
teachings of Jesus, the writings of Paul, and the development of the New
Testament canon
o relate the development of Christian thought and literature after the New
Testament period
o recognize the various forms of early Christianity
Reading Assignment
Oxtoby, pp. 200–41
Discussion
This lesson explores the beginnings of Christianity, including its history, thought, and
literature. The Oxtoby text discusses the apostolic writings that eventually came
together to form the New Testament canon, part of the authoritative collection of
scripture for Christianity. It will also trace the development of Christianity from Jesus
and the church's beginnings in Judea, through its spread to the Greco-Roman world,
to its solidification in the city of Rome.
At the center of Christian understanding is the doctrine of the Incarnation, the idea
that God became a historical human being in the person of Jesus of Nazareth. While
Judaism and Islam might regard the claim that a human being could have been the
recipient of the fullness of the deity as incomprehensible and even blasphemous,
Christians understand this doctrine as a supreme expression of God's love for
humanity. Furthermore, Christian tradition has maintained that the death of Jesus was
the means for reconciling the rift between God and humanity and that the resurrection
of Jesus is the assurance of eternal life. As you will see, there arose other convictions
about Jesus' divinity, etc. Indeed, differences over particular faith claims about Jesus
and/or their correct interpretations have occasioned many of the serious divisions
within Christianity. Even discussions regarding the relationship between faith and
works in the life of the Christian have often been hotly debated ones. The divisions
among Christians concerning theological issues have gained for Christianity the
description that it tends to emphasize orthodoxy over orthopraxy. Few, if any, major
schisms have centered on debates over correct behavior, a fact that further fortifies
the notion of Christianity's emphasis on orthodoxy.
There is another means by which we might compare Christianity and other religions
regarding orthodoxy and orthopraxy. In an entry in Western Ways of Being Religious
(edited by Gary E. Kessler), Lawrence S. Cunningham provides the following
characterization of Christianity:
Christianity seems so complex in its history and practice one can forget that, at its
core, Christianity is based on a simple premise. Christianity asserts that human beings
exist in a state of alienation; that alienation (from each other, from God) has been
healed through the life and saving deeds of a single person, Jesus of Nazareth. (p.
104)
How does this concept of alienation compare with Jewish thinking in this regard? To
be clear, Judaism agrees that there can be alienation from God, but asserts that
humans not only can but must heal the alienation individually, by and for themselves.
Christianity, on the other hand, claims that humans cannot accomplish the healing of
the alienation by and for themselves, at least not the totality of the healing.
Put in the simplest of terms then, Judaism asks, "If humans can act by and for
ourselves, what should we do?"—and responds with the mitzvoth, the
commandments. (Recall that, according to Judaism, the salvation of both Jews and
Gentiles is linked to the performance of commandments. Review the discussion of the
Noachic commandments on p. 90 in Oxtoby.) Christianity asks, "If humans cannot
heal alienation from God by and for ourselves, what should we believe?"— and
responds, in part, with the creeds, i.e., statements of correct belief. You will learn in
this lesson about various creeds that were produced by the developing Church, but
especially about the Nicene Creed (see pp. 227–28 in Oxtoby). Gary E. Kessler's
summary comment concerning the sometimes contentious debates leading up to and
surrounding the production of the creeds underscores the shift in emphasis you will
encounter in this lesson: "Many scholars have argued that these fights over correct
belief...turned Christianity into more of an orthodoxy-type of religion than an
orthopraxy-type such as Judaism. Correct belief...became more important than correct
practice" (Western Ways of Being Religious, p. 127). As you did in Lessons 2 and 3
in regard to the orthopraxic emphasis of Judaism, try to find examples as you read
that demonstrate that Christianity is primarily an orthodoxy.
Key Terms and Concepts
*Advent – beginning of the Christian liturgical year, a period including four Sundays
immediately preceding Christmas.
*Apostles' Creed – a brief statement of Christian doctrinal belief dating from about
the third century but ascribed to the apostles or first-generation followers of Jesus,
and often recited in unison by congregations.
baptism – sprinkling or immersion in water, the ritual by which a person is initiated
into membership in the Christian community. Baptism is considered a cleansing from
the skin.
bishop –the supervising priest of a district of diocese. In some branches of
Christianity the bishop has charge of ordaining priests as well as confirming
baptisms.
*Epiphany – the festival twelve days after Christmas commemorating the
manifestation of Jesus’ divinity, associated with the visit of the wise men from the
East to the infant Jesus.
*Eucharist – the ritual re-enactment of Jesus’ sacrifice to himself, patterned after his
sharing bread and wine as his body at his final Passover meal with his disciples. The
orthodox term it the liturgy, Catholics the mass, and Protestants the Lord’s supper or
holy communion.
*Lent – the period preceding Easter, consisting of forty days, not counting Sundays.
It is the season for most serious Christian spiritual reflection.
mass – the Eucharistic ceremony of Roman Catholics, in which bread and wine are
eaten as the body and blood of Christ.
*Nicene Creed – an ancient doctrinal formulation longer and more explicit than the
Apostles’ Creed and still in use through regular recitation in the Catholic mass.
Passion – the suffering and death of Jesus on the cross
*Pentecost – the fiftieth day after Easter, commemorated as the occasion when Jesus’
followers experienced dramatically the presence of the Holy Spirit and the ability to
preach and be understood in different languages
sacrament – a ritual action seen as signifying divine grace. The most widely accepted
as sacraments are baptism and the Eucharist; the Catholic church has regarded these
plus five other as sacraments since the thirteenth century.
Trinity – the conception of God as having three ‘persons’ or manifestations: as father,
as son, and as Holy Spirit. The doctrine emerged during the late third century and
was adopted after vigorous debate in the fourth.
Reading Questions
Celebrating a Birth (pp. 201–203)
o Approximately how many Orthodox, Catholics, and Protestants are there in
the world?
Orthodox – at least 150 million
Catholics – at least 900 million
Protestants – about 400 million
Christian Origins (pp. 203–223)
o Based on the summary of the Gospel of Mark, what are the major events in
the life of Jesus?
His ministry, miracles performed during his ministry, his trial, his
execution, death and how he rose again on the 3rd day.
o What are parables, and what is the Q source?
Parable – story with a moral
Q source refers to a German word meaning source. Some German
scholars assume Luke and Matthew received information we do not
have to create their accounts since they both have so many similarities.
o What are the essential elements of the "minimum core of Jesus' evident intent
as a teacher"?
He wants his followers to live up to the Jewish ideals from the Old
Testament, as well as place the ethics and beliefs from these texts
ahead of the way of life and the rituals the church performed.
o How does John differ from the other gospels?
John shows the reasoning behind why Jesus is the Messiah, while the
others focused on what He taught and miracles he performed.
o What are the major points of Paul's message? Why is he considered such an
influential figure in the development of Christianity?
Paul was a Pharisee turned Christian after a personal interaction with
Jesus after he was crucified. After that encounter, he was a believer.
He (Paul) went from church to church proclaiming that the only way to
be saved would be through faith, not works or dietary choices. He
explained that we made Jesus come down on that cross and that
through that deed, we were now saved. He left behind many of these
letters which make up a big part of the New Testament, as well as
lived out a life after his encounter that was an example.
o Who was Marcion, and what was his impact on the development of the
Christian canon?
Marcion pointed out the difference between the old and new testament,
because the God from both of them were different (old was a rule
follower, the new had a compassionate and loving God. He created
the canon, or a list of the writings that make up the Old and New
Testaments to make a definition of what is biblical and what is not.
Imperial Christianity (pp. 223–241)
o Why did Constantine give support and patronage to Christianity? How did the
Roman Empire become an officially Christian state?
Constantine claims to have seen a cross in the sky with the words
“conquer in this sign” written under it. Eusebius, a historian of the
time, recorded this and claims Constantine also shifted policies so that
the Roman Empire had the freedom to practice any religion under
Roman rule.
o What was the dispute between Arius and Athanasius about? What were their
positions?
Arius and Athanasius fought over the eternal characteristics of Jesus.
Arius argued that Jesus was not eternal and was placed into the time
line to save the world and is now gone since he fulfilled his purpose.
Athanasius claimed that God and Jesus were the same entity, both
eternal and powerful equally.
o How did the Council of Chalcedon arrive at a Christological formulation that
was acceptable both in Rome and Constantinople?
Written Assignment
Based on your reading in Oxtoby, give an academic description of the main
characteristics of the teaching of Jesus of Nazareth. Please do not provide personal
confessions of faith. In other words, make sure to maintain the outsider's perspective
we studied in the first lesson.
o Jesus showed the world that he was the Messiah and saved the world from
paying for their sins. Jesus claims that he is God through the miracles and
teaches his followers lesson to live by through parables and other teachings
from the Old Testament. Jesus was the human link between God and man,
and claimed to be fully both. He claimed to sacrifice himself, a sinless man,
to save the world from sin by bearing theirs’ on a cross willingly. He also
warned his followers that only those that believe and follow him and his
teachings would be saved by laying down their lives to further his kingdom.
Why are Matthew, Mark, and Luke called the synoptic gospels? How do Matthew
and Luke differ from Mark?
o Matthew, Mark and Luke are synoptic gospels declaring a common thesis,
while John is a biography disguised as a major theological essay. While the
other Gospels string together parables and miracles, John focuses on who
Jesus was and showed the world that he is the Messiah. Matthew and Luke
are thought to both have been born from the “Q Source”, a document we do
not have that helped Matthew and Luke both write their gospels since there
are so many similarities between them.
Based on your reading in Oxtoby, select what you would regard as the four most
significant persons or events in the development of Christianity in the time period
after Jesus of Nazareth up to the end of the fourth century ce. Briefly explain the
significance of each of your choices. Please include at most only one or two biblical
persons/events. The other two or three should be non-biblical.
o John, Paul, Marcion and Constantine are the four important men that I think
furthered Christianity throughout the world. John wrote the gospel book John,
which explained who Jesus was and why he came to pay for our sins. John’s
work was more of a intellectual piece of Jesus’s reasoning for coming than the
other three gospels, which had only his parables, his teachings and his story.
Paul realized that Jesus did this and furthered his kingdom telling the church
that deeds will not save them (like the Old Testament claims) but they must
accept Jesus’ sacrifice and follow his teachings now. Even though Marcion is
a strange choice, it was important to decide what teachings and books of the
Bible were God-breathed and what was not biblical. Marcion helped the
church make those decisions to see what was divinely written and what was
just an interpretation of scripture already in circulation. Constantine changed
the government’s outlook on religion and let everyone have the choice to
practice whatever religion they believed, which was mainly Christianity.
What did the Council of Chalcedon decide about Christology, and how did it "steer a
middle course between the Nestorians and the Monophysites"?
o Nestorians believed that the divine and human realms of Jesus were separated,
while the Monophysites believed nature and deity are one, so Christ’s
humanness was swallowed by the deity. The Council of Chalcedon ruled that
Christ had two natures in one person (both fully human and fully man). From
this ruling, the Eastern Roman empire broke apart the Anglicans and
Protestants in time. It was a middle road between Nestorians and
Monophysites because it brought the 2 full parts in 1 man idea, combining the
2 halves to 1 whole and 1 swallowed by another into a different possibility.
Lesson 5 - The Christian Tradition: The Medieval Latin World and the Protestant Reformation Mary-CatherineCiuba
Lesson Objectives
Successful completion of this lesson requires meeting specific learning goals. Before
going on to the next lesson, be sure that you can
o state the factors that gave rise to medieval Latin theology and how it differed
from that of the early period
o discuss the development of the structure of the medieval Latin Church,
including the papacy and monastic orders
o describe events, practices, and items attached to medieval Latin Christianity
o explain the forces that gave rise to the Protestant Reformation and the
significant changes it brought
Reading Assignment
Oxtoby, pp. 241–289
Discussion
Some forms of Christianity, such as Monophysitism and Nestorianism, have had
continuous presence in portions of the world like Africa and India since ancient times.
We will, however, now turn our attention to Christianity among Eurasians,
particularly Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy, as we enter a discussion of
the Middle Ages. Medieval Christianity is a complicated mixture of various Christian
elements that bridge the early and modern periods. Developments in the papacy,
monastic orders, theology, and practices of the Church eventually gave rise to a
reform movement, generally known as the Protestant Reformation. This lesson will
enumerate the people involved in the developments and the reform and attempt to
clarify the issues that were at stake.
Key Terms and Concepts
Atonement – Christ’s restoration of humanity to a right relationship with God,
variously interpreted as divine victory over demonic power, satisfaction of divine
justice, or demonstration of a moral example
*excommunication – formal expulsion from the Church, particularly the Roman
Catholic Church, for doctrinal error or moral misconduct
*friar – a member of a Latin mendicant order such as the Dominicans, Franciscans, or
Carmelites
Immaculate Conception – the doctrine that the virgin Mary was herself conceived
without sin, defined as Roman Catholic dogma in 1854
*indulgences – releases from specified amounts of time in purgatory, a realm to
which in Catholic doctrine the soul proceeds after death for an unspecified period of
preparation to enter heaven
*lectionary – a schedule of scriptural passages to be read in worship on a particular
day
mendicant orders – Medieval Latin religious orders operating in the cities and towns
rather than in monasteries apart from them. Members worked or begged for a living,
originally as a protest against the monasteries’ wealth.
mysticism – a tradition cultivating and reflecting on the content of moments of
intensely felt spiritual union with the divine
ontological argument – an argument based on logic holding that God must necessarily
exist and formulated by the eleventh-century theologian Anselm.
Puritanism – a movement in England from 1558 to 1660 seeking to ‘purify’ the
Church of England of Catholic influences in favor of Calvinist ones. Before running
its course in England, it became a major influence in Congregational Churches in
New England.
Reformed Churches – churches that are Calvinist in doctrine and often Presbyterian in
Church government, strong in the Netherlands and Scotland, and also found in
France, Switzerland, Hungary and places on other continents populated by settlers
from these lands.
*rosary – a string of fifty-eight beads and a small crucifix, used in Catholic devotion
to keep count when repeating Our Father and Hail Mary prayers
Stations of the Cross – fourteen locations marked in the nave of a Catholic church,
recalling events along the pilgrim route in Jerusalem from Jesus trial to his
crucifixion
Reading Questions
The Medieval Latin World (pp. 241–269)
o How has Augustine influenced later Christian thought?
Augustine made a difference with his approach to political events.
The City of God, Augustine’s book, showed how theology changed
over time, from the beginning of history until the present. And then he
challenged the Roman people to realize that God is much bigger than
their city will ever be, so their empire was a speck of dust in God’s
eyes. He also helped the Roman empire realize that the church
supersedes the state and will always hold more importance over
political power.
o What are the characteristics of the monastic life? How does monasticism
contrast with the mendicant orders?
Monastic life only encompasses all male living situations, no women.
Women had convents and called their inhabitants nuns. These men
must agree to vows of poverty, chastity and obedience before joining
the monastery and becoming monks. These men were vital to the
Greek and Latin churches since they followed a strict prayer and
worship lifestyle. The monks and nuns in this time period were
referred to as “a religious” and were seen as a different faction of the
community who were secluded in their position. Mendicant orders, on
the other hand, are the religious folk who lived among the ordinary
people, not separated from them. These people were the friars or any
other laypeople working and begging for their money from normal
folk to serve them and serve the church. The biggest difference
between monks and friars are that monks were solemn and become
recluse, while friars are part of the total community and serve as a part
of the community.
o What were the Crusades? What were they intended to accomplish?
There were three crusades that were military campaigns / wars that
were between Latin Christians and taking Jerusalem back from
Muslim control. Christians were allowed to pilgrimage from their
farms and hometowns to Jerusalem for religious purposes. There were
interrupted, which spurred wars.
o How did Christian regard for Mary develop?
Early Greek and Latin Christianity put a ton of importance on the
presence of Mary in the Bible and their church realm. In Matthew and
Luke, she was mentioned as the virgin mother and in John as being
present at Jesus’s crucifixion. Because of her presence, she became an
avenue to converse with the Trinity as well as a wellspring of love.
Some scholars believe she now rules with the Trinity in heaven, as
well as using the rosary to pray to her. The rosary is 58 beads and a
small crucifix attached. People would say the Lord’s prayer as well as
10 heal Mary’s following the sequence of the beads. Protestants,
however, praise her as a virgin and celebrate the immaculate
conception of the Messiah, but did not consider her to be the mother of
God. She is more seen as a bearer of Jesus, but should not be raised to
a higher standard (like saintdom) because she was a faithful vessel
used by the Lord.
o What was scholasticism? What is the importance of Anselm and Thomas
Aquinas to Roman Catholicism?
Scholasticism is the movement that occurred in the medieval
universities among the clergy. These intellectual findings from
thousands of years ago are still present today. Along with theology
comes philosophy in this era. Students of this time saw the faith and
reason stemming from theology and philosophy and mutually
confirmed their thoughts that Christianity is a valid religious practice.
Anselm furthered scholasticism among the Christians by moving away
from just reading the Bible and providing a rationale of why we
believe what we should believe. He confirms the presence of God
himself and is famous for the statement “I believe so that I may
understand”. Anselm’s impact on Christianity is primarily the
reasoning of why God became incarnate. Anselm argues that Jesus
came to pay the penalty for everyone’s sins who cannot pay the price
themselves. He also argues that Jesus’ human character was enough to
pay the penalty for our sins to God. Thomas Aquinas has also made
an impact of scholasticism through his five statements, proving God’s
existence. The first three reasons are cosmic related (as a big time
turner in the sky), while the fourth says that there must be a being that
is supremely good and true since there are levels of good and true and
the fifth explains that the universe has a plan that can only be
explained by the presence of a divine being, planning everything.
These five principles are still evident and used in Christian apologetics
(or arguments proving Christianity to be true) today.
o What is mysticism? What is characteristic of the Christian mystical
experience? What was the role of women in medieval Christian mysticism?
Mysticism is not just a mysterious and uncertain experience, but that
someone’s belief in God is based on an vivid, memorable experience
convincing them, not doctrine. These moments are normally
temporary and if written down, show a bridge between humans and
God. Mysticism puts an emphasis on the internal life, which is
sometimes dubbed the spiritual life. This aspect of life is seen to
“develop” with prayer and contemplation within the heart and soul of a
person. Women serve a primary role in Christian mysticism,
especially Jan van Ruysbroeck, Hildegard of Bingen, Catherine of
Siena, Julian of Norwich and Joan of Arc. Many of them had visions
of who God is and spread their thoughts and experiences among
Christians, showing them how God portrayed his love for us.
The Protestant Reformation (pp. 269–289)
o How did Protestantism emerge? What was the background of the
Reformation? What were Martin Luther's major claims or arguments?
During this portion of time, religion boomed across country lines,
whether it be Christianity or Islam among Asian countries. Spanish
navigators took Christianity with them to the New World, which is still
considered the dominant religion in North America today. Christianity
was on the cusp of dominance Europe began to have on the world.
Luther exploded with the Protestant reformation in response to the
indulgences brought forth in the Catholic community, which allows
people to buy their way into heaven to remove sins from their file. To
revolt, Luther posted 95 theses nailed to the door of the Catholic
church, reasoning that the Catholic church practices were not biblical
or right. Many people gave their support to Luther for spiritual and
political reasons, but Luther’s core reasoning was theological. Luther
argues that it is by grace that we are saved and justified by faith alone,
not by the rituals and requirements of the Catholic church. The
Protestant reformation was spread throughout the world primarily due
to the printing press and mass producing Luther’s teachings to the
world. Luther’s teachings were translating the Bible literally,
especially with the Eucharist and breaking bread that resembles
Christ’s body, because Christ explained the bread “was his body”.
Protestantism also rejected the central control like the pope has over
the Catholic church.
o Compare and contrast the major characteristics of the sixteenth century
branches of Protestantism, i.e., the Lutherans, the Anglicans, the Calvinists,
the Anabaptists, and the Unitarians.
Lutherans – they kept a Eucharist like mass, but did it in English
instead of Latin. They kept priests and bishops as positions of power
like the Catholic church, but they were now permitted to marry.
Anglicans – created to break from the Catholic church because Pope
Clement VII would not grant King Henry VIII to annul their marriage,
he created his own religion known as Anglican. In this denomination,
the king had the authority and granted divorce in this practice. Known
as Episcopalian church in the US, it is a broad church that looks
exactly like the catholic church except for these changes.
Calvinists – focused on spiritual discipline and trust in God’s power
and caring providence. Knowledge and faith are synonymous in their
book. They also believe in predestination and is Presbyterian here in
the states.
Anabaptists – it is known for becoming established before any other
reformed church. They emphasize getting baptized as an adult and
making the decision for yourself, rather than baptizing babies around
birth.
Unitarians – people who struggle with the thoughts of the Trinity and
other Christian doctrine to the point that they have free minds and
decide for themselves what they believe. They are not necessarily
Christians, but are a “community of free minds”.
o What are the major features of Protestant worship?
Not all Protestant worship contains the Eucharist and believe that
anyone can communicate with God (there is no reason for a
middleman, like a priest). They also look for the Holy Spirit moving
through the community, not accepting it as chance or from the clergy
in that area.
Written Assignment
Who was the African bishop Augustine? How did he influence Christianity in the
medieval and later periods?
o Augustine was a bishop who was converted from Manichaean to Christianity
by a passage in Romans 13. Predestination and grace theories of Christianity
are still based on Augustine’s thoughts from his book in culture today. The
City of God, Augustine’s book, showed how theology changed over time,
from the beginning of history until the present. And then he challenged the
Roman people to realize that God is much bigger than their city will ever be,
so their empire was a speck of dust in God’s eyes. He also helped the Roman
empire realize that the church supersedes the state and will always hold more
importance over political power.
Write a description of medieval monasticism. In what ways did it influence Christian
thought and/or practice?
o Monks and nuns were a part of a very structured religious institution were
these men and women who sacrificed a lot of worldly and monetary pieces to
serve the church. These communities took vows of poverty, chastity and
obedience to the church, which provided stability and a community of people
working together and sacrificing for one common cause. They were an
alternative group who had a rigorous schedule of prayer, studying and worship
in their monasteries or convents, respectively. These men and women also
sacrificed the option of ever being married to be celibate for the rest of their
lives. The monastic and nunnery life effects thoughts and practices of the
Christian religion because they singlehandedly brought Christianity to the
Western civilization. Most of the churches brought in new people and
travelers in and provided food and water, as well as optimism and hope
through their beliefs. Ordinary people would share this view with others and
their positive experience at the church, which pushed Europe into a religious
age. When mendicants (friars) also came into the cities, they furthered this
thought process and belief system all over until it became a (at that time)
“worldwide pandemic”.
What was Christian scholasticism? What do you see as the major contribution of
Anselm? of Thomas Aquinas?
o Scholasticism is the movement that occurred in the medieval universities
among the clergy. These intellectual findings from thousands of years ago are
still present today. Along with theology comes philosophy in this era.
Students of this time saw the faith and reason stemming from theology and
philosophy and mutually confirmed their thoughts that Christianity is a valid
religious practice. Anselm furthered scholasticism among the Christians by
moving away from just reading the Bible and providing a rationale of why we
believe what we should believe. He confirms the presence of God himself and
is famous for the statement “I believe so that I may understand”. Anselm’s
impact on Christianity is primarily the reasoning of why God became
incarnate. Anselm argues that Jesus came to pay the penalty for everyone’s
sins who cannot pay the price themselves. He also argues that Jesus’ human
character was enough to pay the penalty for our sins to God. Thomas Aquinas
has also made an impact of scholasticism through his five statements, proving
God’s existence. The first three reasons are cosmic related (as a big time
turner in the sky), while the fourth says that there must be a being that is
supremely good and true since there are levels of good and true and the fifth
explains that the universe has a plan that can only be explained by the
presence of a divine being, planning everything. These five principles are still
evident and used in Christian apologetics (or arguments proving Christianity
to be true) today.
What was the Protestant Reformation? In what ways did Protestants challenge
traditional Catholic doctrine and practice?
o During this portion of time, religion boomed across country lines, whether it
be Christianity or Islam among Asian countries. Spanish navigators took
Christianity with them to the New World, which is still considered the
dominant religion in North America today. Christianity was on the cusp of
dominance Europe began to have on the world. Luther exploded with the
Protestant reformation in response to the indulgences brought forth in the
Catholic community, which allows people to buy their way into heaven to
remove sins from their file. To revolt, Luther posted 95 theses nailed to the
door of the Catholic church, reasoning that the Catholic church practices were
not biblical or right. Many people gave their support to Luther for spiritual
and political reasons, but Luther’s core reasoning was theological. Luther
argues that it is by grace that we are saved and justified by faith alone, not by
the rituals and requirements of the Catholic church. Luther’s teachings were
translating the Bible literally, especially with the Eucharist and breaking bread
that resembles Christ’s body, because Christ explained the bread “was his
body”. Protestantism also rejected the central control like the pope has over
the Catholic church, which caused splintering of different denominations and
beliefs over time.
Lesson 6 - The Christian Tradition: Roman Catholicism after 1500 and the Modern World Mary-Catherine Ciuba
Lesson Objectives
Successful completion of this lesson requires meeting specific learning goals. Before
going on to the next lesson, be sure that you can
o discuss the impact of the Protestant Reformation on Roman Catholicism
o describe the impact the Enlightenment and the modern world had on Roman
Catholicism and Protestantism
o discuss new theological and structural developments in Roman Catholicism
Reading Assignment
Oxtoby, pp. 289–339
Discussion
The efforts to reform Christianity during the sixteenth century produced some
profound results. First, Catholic Christianity reaffirmed and clarified its doctrines and
practices and, through the thought and work of people such as Teresa of Avila and the
Jesuits, was greatly revitalized. Some Christian reformers found that their doctrinal
reformulations and changes in church structure were inconsistent with continued
Catholic affiliations and, thus, there emerged new, Protestant denominations.
Furthermore, there was an increased spread of Christianity to all parts of the world.
Due to factors such as missionary activities and colonialism, Christianity became a
truly world religion.
Since by the end of this lesson you will have thoroughly examined one tradition with
an orthopraxic orientation (Judaism) and one that, by comparison, stresses orthodoxy
(Christianity), it is appropriate to emphasize that these are emphases, not exclusive
traits. Of course, Judaism has some shared beliefs, and Christianity encourages
certain practices. It is a matter of which receives more focus and has been spelled out
more in each tradition. In his book, We Jews and You Christians: An Inquiry into
Attitudes (p. 68), the rabbi and scholar Samuel Sandmel summarizes the situation
very nicely:
If a neutral observer were to ask one of you [Christians] what he believes, he would
answer in terms of creed or theology, while one of us [Jews], if asked, would answer
in terms of our Jewish sacred days and our ethical precepts. In a word, in your
tradition, faith is explicit, and conduct usually left undefined or only implicit; in our
tradition, faith is left implicit, and the conduct made definite and explicit.
The truth of this statement can be underscored by the following. While most
Christians acknowledge the creeds produced by the first seven ecumenical councils,
with some Christians viewing them as having "special authority," Judaism does not
have even one creed that is shared by all Jewish religious groups (unless one counts
the Shema [see Oxtoby, pp. 64–65], which is effectively only one sentence). Recall
that while Maimonides' Thirteen Principles of Faith "almost constitute" a creed for
Orthodox Judaism, Reform Jews certainly oppose the majority of these principles.
Key Terms and Concepts
*ecumenism – movement for reunion or collaboration between previously separated
braches of Christianity
fundamentalism – a 20th century reaction to modernity by Protestants who advocated
strict literal inerrancy of scripture and doctrine. “Fundamentalism” has come to
imply calls for strict conformity in conduct as well as militancy in defending tradition
and attacking modernity.
Glossolalia – speaking in strange tongues, which is a principal feature of charismatic
behavior.
*imprimatur – permission given by a Roman Catholic ecclesiastical official before a
book on a theological or moral subject may be printed.
Pentecostal Churches – modern protestant groups emphasizing outbursts of exotic,
generally unintelligible, speech as a mark of the Holy Spirit’s presence and of the
individual’s holiness or spiritual perfection.
Pietism – a movement originating in late 17th century Lutheran Germany, expressing
a spontaneity of devotion and a confident certainty of forgiveness, over against
institutional rigidity. It contributed to Methodism in 19th century England.
*transubstantiation – the Catholic doctrine that the bread and wine of the Eucharist
are at the movment of consecration in the service miraculously transformed into the
body and blood of Christ.
Reading Questions
Roman Catholicism after 1500 (pp. 289–305)
o What was the Council of Trent? In what ways may we speak of the "Counter-
Reformation"? How do historians differ in assessing the Roman Catholic
response to the Reformation?
o Who are the Jesuits? How did they emerge? What are they known for?
o How widespread have Catholic missions been?
Modernity (pp. 305–331)
o Oxtoby writes: "To the extent that we today think of science and religion as
antithetical, it is not Newton's era but an earlier one (Galileo's) or a later one
(Darwin's) on which that impression is built" (p. 308). What are the major
arguments of Galileo, Newton, and Darwin? How did Christian leaders react
to each of these men in his own day?
o What were Vatican I and Vatican II? What did each council discuss and
decide?
o How did cultural expectations of the role of women in society change in the
twentieth century?
Writing Questions
Describe the Council of Trent and its importance for Catholicism.
o
What impact did nineteenth-century historical and archaeological discoveries have on
the interpretation of the Bible?
o
Describe Vatican Council I and Vatican Council II and their importance for Catholics and Protestants.
o
Explain in your own words how women and men have sought to redress patriarchal bias in Christianity.
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