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Catholic and Orthodox ChristianityLecture 17

During the 1st century after Jesuss death, Christianity was a small, persecuted religion. Today, it is the largest religion in the world. Given that so many religions come and go, how has Christianity been able to survive, spread, and ultimately fl ourish? In this lecture, we will trace the development of Christianity and the variety of its forms todayfrom Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and Lutheran, to Baptist, Quaker,and Mormon.

The Apostles and Paul After Jesuss death, the apostles began to spread the good news

about salvation through Christ, but the apostle Paul is most responsible for the understanding of Jesus that would become the foundation of most forms of Christian theology.

Pauls letters sent to Christian communities provided guidance, explained doctrine, and encouraged fellow believers. They also explained the signifi cance of Jesuss crucifi xion and resurrection. For this reason, Paul, more than Jesus, can be seen as the founder of the Christian religion.

A prominent view presented by Paul is a form of atonement theory, which is based on the concept that we are born in original sin, inheriting our sinful nature from our fallen ancestors, Adam and Eve. We can only be saved by Gods grace through Jesus. To make our salvation possible, Jesus took our sins on himself.

The Nicene Council and Creed For the fi rst three centuries after Jesuss death, Christianity spread

rapidly, but Christians faced persecution and even death. However, the Roman Emperor Constantine converted to Christianity in the early 4th century, ultimately leading to Christianity as theempires religion.

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Constantine next decided to achieve consensus on issues. A council of bishops convened in Nicaea (in modern-day Turkey) in 325. The nature of Jesus was a central issue. One of the bishops, Arius, believed that Jesus, as son, was created by God and was inferior to God the Father. This view was condemned as heresy at the council.

Ultimately, what came out of the council was the foundation of most Christian theology, the Nicene Creed. It proclaims belief in God the Father, Jesus the Son, and the Holy Spiritthe Holy Trinity.

Christians are monotheists who proclaim the oneness of God, and at the same time understand God as being three-in-one. Ultimately anything that you can say about God the Father (that God is omnipresent, eternal, loving), can also be said of Jesus and theHoly Spirit.

Divisions in Catholicism In 330, Constantine had established a new eastern capital for his

empire, calling it Constantinople. After the sack of Rome in 410, Constantinople became a new center of Christianity. The Eastern and Western parts of the empire would grow further apart and would ultimately yield two forms of ChristianityRoman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox.

A number of factors contributed to the division. Christians in the East did not recognize the supreme authority of the bishop of Rome, the pope. There was also a division over interpretations of the Trinity and debates over the nature of original sin. They were also divided over language and ritual. Other issues dealt with the priesthood, in particular whether priests must be celibate.

The differences came to a head in 1054 when the authorities from each church excommunicated each other, a schism that divides Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic churches to this day.

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The Roman Catholic Church The Roman Catholic Church has more members than any other

churchover 1.1 billion people. The majority of Catholics live in Europe and the Americas, and there has been high growth in Asia and Africa. At 68 million, Roman Catholicism is the largest denomination in the United States.

The Catholic Church is a unifi ed, hierarchical structure, led by the pope; under the pope are bishops. Bishops have authority over areas known as dioceses, which are further divided into parishes, the individual church communities under the authority of a priest or deacon.

Some bishops receive the honorary title of cardinal, which means that, as a member of the College of Cardinals, they have the responsibility of electing a new pope when a pope dies.

The Catholic Church puts forth a claim of papal infallibility. This means that when the pope speaks ex cathedra, or from his seat of authority, on matters of faith or morals, his position must be held by the whole Catholic Church. However, many Catholics do not follow the Vaticans positions on matters some would consider in the realm of personal morality, such as birth control.

Virtually all Christian churches teach that there are important rituals that serve as powerful channels for Gods grace; these are known as sacraments. The Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches observe seven sacramentsbaptism, confi rmation, Eucharist (communion or Lords Supper), penance (confession), last rites (known as extreme unction), holy orders (joining the priesthood), and matrimony.

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Both Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy feature venerated saints. A person becomes a saint when he or she is canonized by the church. This normally comes only after a long process to fully understand his or her character and also to confi rm that at least two miracles can be attributed to the person.

Devotion to Mary, the mother of Jesus, is also an important feature among many Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Christians. A common practice is praying the rosary, using a chain of beads to count recitations of prayers including the Hail Mary.

Mary has held an important place in the hearts of many Christians for centuries. Catholic, Orthodox, and many Anglican churches celebrate the Assumption of Mary, which marks Marys bodily ascent into Heaven at the end of her life. The event is usually celebrated on August 15.

Vatican City, a tiny independent nation within the borders of the city of Rome, is the administrative and spiritual heart of the Roman Catholic religion.

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Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy feature a great number of intermediaries, such as priests, angels, and saintsbeings that serve as channels or mediate the connection between human beings and God. Angels are understood as purely spiritual beings who serve as messengers and instruments of God, and many people believe they have a guardian angel who watches over them.

Monasticism and Mysticism As early as the 4th century, some Christians moved toward leaving

society behind and living an ascetic life devoted fully to God. This was the origin of Christian monasticism.

One of the most infl uential monastic rules was created by Saint Benedict in the 6th century. His rule discusses how to live a Christian life, focusing on qualities such as poverty, humility, and obedience, and also how to run a monastery, with sections dedicated to the responsibilities of an abbot. The Benedictine Order consists of those monasteries and abbeys that follow the Rule of Saint Benedict.

During the medieval period, new orders and movements arose. In some cases, the order featured mendicant friars who worked and taught among the people, rather than living a cloistered life. The Dominicans, an order founded to teach correct doctrine, spread the Gospel, and refute heresies, dates back to the 13th century and produced many theologians, the greatest of whom wasThomas Aquinas.

The life of Saint Francis of Assisithe 13th-century merchants son who, following a spiritual transformation, lived a life of poverty, begging, preaching, and caring for lepersserved as the inspiration for the Franciscans.

In the 16th century, Ignatius of Loyola founded the Society of Jesus, or Jesuits, a religious order requiring vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience. Their focus on education resulted in the founding of numerous schools, including many highly regarded collegesand universities.

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Mysticism, as we have seen, can be understood as involving a direct experience of God. Saint Franciss spiritual transformation was ignited by a mystical experience in which he saw Jesus in a vision and received instruction from him. He retained this deep connection with God throughout this life.

One notable feature of Catholic mysticism is that it sometimes involved women. While women did not have access to authority as priests or, for the most part, theologians, they did have a spiritual authority. Well-known women mystics include Julian of Norwich in the 14th century.

Two Important Theologians There are many great Catholic theologians, but two stand out.

The fi rst is Augustine of Hippo, who lived from 354430. Saint Augustine is perhaps best known for writing what might be the fi rst autobiography in the West, his Confessions, in which he writes about his conversion to Christianity.

Augustine was an infl uential formulator of the Christian understandings of sin, evil, and grace, and he is admired by Catholic, Orthodox, and Protestant churches.

During the medieval period, Christian theology featured an approach known as scholasticism, in which logic and reasoning were used to harmonize seeming contradictions and analyze important concepts within Christian thought.

The most infl uential scholastic is Thomas Aquinas, who lived in the 13th century. One of Aquinass most enduring contributions is the Summa Theologica, which contains fi ve arguments for the existence of God, as well as his discussion of ethics.

One of the most important modern theological movements is liberation theology, which articulates Christian faith in terms of a commitment to liberate the poor and oppressed and join them in a struggle against systems that perpetuate injustice.

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The Catholic Church underwent a major transformation with the Second Vatican Council (19621965). One change was to allow greater participation of laypeople and, most signifi cantly, to permit the use of vernacular languages in the celebration of the mass (prior to this, the mass was conducted solely in Latin).

The Eastern Orthodox Church The Eastern Orthodox churches together represent the second

largest Christian community after the Roman Catholic Church, with approximately 300 million followers. A signifi cant majority of its members are found in Greece, Russia, Ukraine, Romania, Bulgaria, and Serbia. There are also signifi cant minorities of Orthodox Christians throughout the Middle East, including Syria, Lebanon, and Jordan.

Whereas the Roman Catholic Church is unifi ed under the pope, there are a number of autonomous patriarchates and self-governing churches in the Eastern Orthodox world. Bishops have authority over individual territories.

There is a greater emphasis on mystical practices by Orthodox Christians. In Orthodox theology, human beings aim to achieve theosis, which is understood as a union of the individual with God. Practices, such as meditation, cultivate consciousness of God and enable people to become more Christlike.

The Eastern Orthodox churches are also known for their use of icons in worship. They do not aim for realism. Orthodox theologians believe once God took human form, it became permissible to use images to focus the mind on Jesus (or the saints).

A distinctive feature of Orthodox worship services is their reliance on chanting. As opposed to Catholic services, which feature spoken prayer, readings, as well as singing and organ music, Orthodox services are almost exclusively chanted (except for the sermon).

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Atwood, Handbook of Denominations in the United States.

Augustine, Confessions.

Boff and Boff. Introducing Liberation Theology.

Gomes, The Good Book.

Gutierrez, A Theology of Liberation.

Holt, Thirsty for God.

Marty, The Christian World.

Matlins and Magida, How to Be a Perfect Stranger.

McGrath, Christian Theology: An Introduction.

, The Christian Theology Reader.

Migliore, Faith Seeking Understanding.

Pagels, Beyond Belief.

, The Gnostic Gospels.

Sharma, Our Religions.

Smith, The Worlds Religions.

Van Voorst, Anthology of World Scriptures.

1. What are some of the differences between the teachings of Jesus and the letters of Paul? In what ways can Paul be understood as the founder of Christianity?

2. What is your understanding of original sin? How can human beings be sinful yet created in the image of God?

3. Do you think the pope should have the authority to rule on birth control? Why or why not?

Suggested Reading

Questions to Consider