Lecture Notebook to accompany Principles of Life · Host's Diet. To treat certain digestive...

Sinauer Associates, Inc. W. H. Freeman and Company

Lecture Notebook to accompany

Copyright © 2012 Sinauer Associates, Inc. Cover photograph © Fred Bavendam/Minden Pictures.

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© 2012 Sinauer Associates, Inc.

Organisms in Their Environment 42

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POL HillisSinauer AssociatesMorales Studio Figure 42.01 Date 10-04-10

Organism

Ecosystem

Biosphere

Community

Population

FIGURE 42.1 The Hierarchy of Ecological Systems (Page 823)

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A. Explorers realized that organisms and their environments are closely linked. 1. Physical geography and biogeography played major roles in this concept. 2. Environments and populations of organisms changed often. B. All organisms, including humans, are surround by an abiotic and biotic environment. C. Ecological systems can be small or large. 1. A system is an area of any interacting part. a. Such as YOUR GUT!!! How? 2. A boundary can be drawn around any part of the biological hierarchy. a. What that means is that on a tiny scale an organism and its immediate environment form an ecosystem. If it uses materials, energy.... then these can be used by other organisms.

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Chapter 42 | Organisms in Their Environment 3


HYPOTHESIS

CONCLUSION

INVESTIGATION

Go to yourBioPortal.com for original citations, discussions,and relevant links for all INVESTIGATION figures.

Oligofructose stimulated the growth of bifidobacteria at the expense of potentially pathogenic bacteria.

The abundance of beneficial Bifidobacterium bacteria in the human gut can be increased relative to pathogenic bacteria by includingoligofructose in the diet.

METHOD

FIGURE 42.2 The Microbial Community of the Human Gut Depends on the Host's Diet To treat certain digestive disorders, doctors try to increase the relative abundance of beneficial Bifidobacterium bacteria in the human gut. This manipulation of the nutritional environment as a way of adjusting the species composition of the gut community is known as prebiotic therapy.

RESULTS

ANALYZE THE DATAResearchers measured the energy content of the subjects' stools and compared itwith the energy content of the ingested oligofructose. The stools contained nooligofructose because it had been fermented—converted into bacterial biomass and waste heat.

A. Was all of the oligofructose energy excreted?B. What happened to the energy that wasn’t excreted?C. What do these observations suggest about the role of gut bacteria in host nutrition?D. Why did the researchers follow the oligofructose diet with “Sucrose 2”? (Hint: If the microbial community in Sucrose 2 had not moved back toward its composition in Sucrose 1, would the Conclusion be different?

1. Feed 8 healthy human subjects a standardized experimental diet for 45 days. On days 1–15 supplement the diet with 15 g sucrose/day (“Sucrose 1”); on days 16–30, substitute 15 g oligofructose for the sucrose; on days 31–45 return to 15 g sucrose (“Sucrose 2”). 2. Collect stool samples during each 15-day period and assay for bacterial composition and energy content.

Type ofbacteria Sucrose 1 Oligofructose Sucrose 2

Bifidobacteria 8.8 ± 0.5 9.5 ± 0.7a 8.9 ± 0.9b

Lactobacilli 6.8 ± 1.2 7.0 ± 1.4 7.1 ± 1.0Coliforms 6.0 ± 1.2 5.9 ± 0.7 5.8 ± 1.0Gram-positive cocci 5.8 ± 1.0 5.8 ± 0.9 5.5 ± 0.8Bacteroides 9.4 ± 0.8 8.8 ± 1.1a 8.9 ± 0.9c

Fusobacteria 8.5 ± 0.7 7.7 ± 0.9a 8.1 ± 0.8c

Clostridia 8.0 ± 1.2 7.5 ± 0.9c 7.7 ± 0.7

Number of bacteria (log10/g stool; mean ± SD)

aSignificantly different from sucrose 1 (P < 0.01).bSignificantly different from oligofructose (P < 0.01).cSignificantly different from sucrose 1 (P < 0.05).

The number of bifidobacteriawas highest on the oligofructose diet.

The numbers of these potentially pathogenic bacteria were lowest on the oligofructose diet.

Energy (kJ/day)

Ingested as oligofructose 240Excreted in stools 77

(Page 824)

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A. What is a microbial community? How is this classified as an ecosystem? 1. Small ecosystems tend to be less complex that large ecosystems. 2. Larger ecosystems contain more interacting parts over a greater range of spatial and temporal scales. What is prebiotic therapy? or probiotic? Bifidobacterium? A gram positive, non-motile, anaerobic, gut bacterium that lives in the gastrointestinal digestive tract of humans. They are used in probiotics. Sucrose is basically table sugar/ 16 grams per tsp. Oligofructose is a natural sweetner derived from a plant that has an almost 0 caloric intake. Bifidobacterium can inhibit the caloric intake of potential pathogenic bacteria! When conducting an experiment, don't forget your data, graphs and conclusion! Go onto Microsoft Excel Read p. 825 top left paragraph!




At and near the Equator, sunlight strikes Earth at a steep angle, delivering more heat and light per unit area.

Toward the poles, the sun’s rays strike Earth at an oblique angle andare spread over a larger area,so that their energy is diffused.

Toward the poles, the sun’s rays are absorbed as they must travel a longer distance through the atmosphere.

Equator (0°)

Direction ofEarth’s rotation

SouthPole(90°)

NorthPole(90°)

FIGURE 42.3 Solar Energy Input Varies with Latitude (Page 826)

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A. Climate and topography shape the earth's physical environment. 1. These processes determine whether a place is cold or hot, moist or dry, aquatic or terrestial. 2. Climate is a variation of patterns over time and what is expected. 3. Weather is the current.....and what you get. 4. Organisms respond differently to weather and climate. a. a plant can respond quickly to a hot summer day. b. an animal has to adapt to a certain climate.

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What would happen if the earth tilted 5 degrees more toward the sun?

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5. The sun's energy is greatest at the tropics. The heated air expands, becoming less dense and more buoyant and rises. It continues to expand and cool, adiabatically, when compressed gas expands it cools. 6. The cooled air sinks back to Earth and compresses then warms. 7. It completes a two patterns of vertical atmospheric circulation called Hadley cells.

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Solstice ~December 21Sun’s rays fall directly on Tropic of Capricorn.

Solstice ~June 21Sun’s rays fall directly on Tropic of Cancer.

Equinox ~March 20At the two yearly equinoxes, the sun’s rays fall directly on the Equator.

Equinox ~September 2223.5°

North Pole

Earth’s orbit

Winter

Summer

Summer

Winter

FIGURE 42.4 The Tilt of Earth’s Axis of Rotation Causes the Seasons (Page 826)




The now cool, dry air warms and retains its moisture as it descends. It reaches Earth’s surface at about 30°N and 30°S.

In the tropics, warm, moist air rises, expands and cools, drops its moisture, and flows poleward.

90°

90°

60°

60°

30°

30°

0°

Rising airDescending air

30°N

30°S

0° Hadleycells

Dry

Dry

Dry

Dry

Sunlight

Wet

Wet

Wet

2

1

FIGURE 42.5 Global Atmospheric Circulation (Page 827)




An air mass moving toward the equator moves more slowly than Earth’s surface and is therefore deflected to the west.

An air mass moving toward the poles moves faster than the Earth’s surface and is therefore deflected to the east.

90°

90°

60°

Direction ofEarth’s rotation

Easterlies60°

30°

30°

0°

Westerlies

Westerlies

NE Trade Winds

SE Trade Winds

Hadleycells

Easterlies

FIGURE 42.6 Direction of Prevailing Surface Winds (Page 828)




Latit

ude

60°

30°

0°

30°

60°

North Atlantic Drift

GulfStream

Equatorial Countercurrent

Carol,I’m using this map projection because it is used elsewhere in the book. If author wants the same projection as the Brooker art ms, I will have to redraw the map.This could get smaller.

Circumpolar Current

FIGURE 42.7 Ocean Currents (28)

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Poleward flowing ocean currents carry heat from the tropics toward the poles, moderating the climates of higher latitudes.




Tem

pera

ture

(°C

)

Precipitation (m

m)

Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May JunMonth

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

00

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200100

Perth

Australia

FIGURE 42.8 Walter Climate Diagrams Summarize Climate in an Ecologically Relevant Way (Page 829)


Prevailing winds pick up moisture over water bodies.

On the windward side of the mountain, air rises and cools, releasing moisture in the form of rain or snow and leading to lush vegetation.

On the leeward side of the mountain, air descends and warms. Moisture remains in the atmosphere as water vapor, resulting in dry conditions.

3

2

1

FIGURE 42.9 A Rain Shadow (Page 830)

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Walter climate diagrams show average monthly temperature and precipitation throughout the year. Walter determined that plant growth is optimal when the temperature is greater than 0 degrees Celsius and the precipitation line is above the temperature line. Looking at the diagram to the right when is the best growing time in Perth Australia?

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**For #2, think of condensation forming on your ice cup.

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1. Precipitation tends to lower on the leeward side of a mountain. Moisture remains in the atmosphere as water vapor as the warm air descends. The dry air is known as the rain shadow. 2. Physical conditions in any particular place and their range of variation determine which organisms can live there.




Tropicalrain forest

Temperate rain forest

Tropicalseasonalforest/savanna

Subtropicaldesert Temperate

grassland/desert

Temperateseasonalforest

Woodland/shrubland

Borealforest

Tundra

Ann

ual p

reci

pita

tion

(cm

)

30 20 10 0 –10Average temperature (C°)

100

0

200

300

400

FIGURE 42.10 Temperature and Precipitation Gradients Determine Terrestrial Biomes (Page 831)


Tropical rain forest

Tropical seasonal forest/savanna

Subtropical desert

Woodland/shrubland

Temperate grassland/desert

Temperate rain forest

Temperate seasonal forest

Boreal forest

Tundra

Polar ice cap

Alpine (mountains)

FIGURE 42.11 Global Terrestrial Biomes (Page 831)

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Concept 42.3 p. 830 I. Physical Geography provides a template for biogeography. A. Naturalist explorers of the 18th and 19th centuries laid the foundations for understanding how the distribution of Earth's physical environments shapes the distribution of organisms. 1. Species are only found in environments they can tolerate. Later read bottom paragraph p. 830 about Humboldt and plants. a. his discovery led the concept of biomes. b. species that occupy the same biome geographically separate regions are not closely related phylogenetically. Their morphological, physiological or behavioral similarities therefore reflect convergent evolution. 2. The distribution of terrestrial biomes is broadly determined by annual patterns of precipitation and temperature. 3. Elevation gradients also determine the distribution of biomes. Example tundra can be found on mountain tops in the tropics.

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Please refer to biome interactive animation.




(A) (B)

(C) (D)

FIGURE 42.12 Same Biome, Different Continents (Page 832)

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The Mediterranean climate produces a convergent woodland/ shrubland (biome) vegetation that is found all over the world. a. SW Australia b. Shrubland on the windward side of a California mountain c. Croatia d. Cape region of S. Africa



TABLE 42.1 Major Aquatic Biomes BIOMEa DESCrIpTION

FRESHWATER

Rivers and streams Flowing water. Many fast-flowing, small source streams form on high ground, feeding into networks of ever larger, slower-flowing streams and rivers. Biota adapted to constantly moving water.

Wetlands Glades, swamps, and marshes. Rich biota adapted to water-saturated soil and/or standing fresh water.

Ponds and lakes Significant bodies of standing fresh water. Ponds are smaller and shallower, subject to drying. Biotic zones determined by distance from shore and light penetration (see Figure 42.13A).

ESTUARIESb

Salt marshes Cool-temperate stands of salt-tolerant grasses, herbaceous plants, and low-growing shrubs. Crucial to nutrient cycling and coastal protection; rich habitat supporting diverse aquatic and terrestrial life.

Mangrove forests Tropical and warm subtropical coasts and river deltas. Dominated by mangrove trees with aerial roots (see Figure 28.11A). Rich in animal life; protect against coastal erosion.

mARInE

Intertidal Sandy or rocky coastlines subject to rising and falling tides; organisms adapted to withstand both submerged and dry conditions, as well as the force of waves and moving water.

Kelp forests Found in shallow coastal waters of temperate and cold regions. Dominated by large, leaflike brown algae (kelp) that support a wide variety of marine life.

Seagrass beds “Meadows” of monocot grasses (see Figure 21.29C) found in shallow, light-filled temperate and tropical waters.

Coral reefs Rich, highly endangered ecosystems of shallow tropical waters. Dependent on cnidarian corals (see Figure 23.9C) and their photosynthetic endosymbionts (see Concept 20.4).

Open ocean The pelagic zone (see Figure 42.13B) is rich in photosynthetic planktonic organisms that support a host of marine ani-mals. Below the level of light penetration, the abyssal zone supports a fauna largely dependent on detritus that sinks down from pelagic regions.

Hydrothermal vents Abyssal ecosystems warmed by volcanic emissions. Chemolithotrophic prokaryotes (see Concept 19.3) nourish large annelid worms (see Figure 23.17B) and other invertebrates.

a A benthic region—silt, sand, or other substrate and the organisms encompassed there—occurs in all three biome types.b Estuaries are coastal biomes where the water is brackish (i.e., fresh and salt water mix).

(Page 833)




The nearshore area supports rooted aquatic plants and diverse animal life.

The intertidal zone is affected by wave action and exposure to air.

Photosynthetic organisms are limited to the photic zone.

Water temperature decreases and pressure increases with depth.

Hydrothermal vent

(A) Lake depth zones

(B) Oceanic zones

Littoralzone

Limnetic zone

Intertidalzone

Pelagic zone (open ocean)

Photiczone

Aphoticzone

Photiczone(~200 m)

Aphoticzone

Benthic zone(substrate)

Benthic zone(seafloor)

Continental shelf

Hightide

Lowtide

Abyssal zone(deepestocean)

FIGURE 42.13 Water-Depth Zones (Page 834)




The species living on Bali are similar to those in Thailandand the islands to the west.

The species living on Lombok are similar to those in Australia and New Guinea.

Wallace’s line separates two distinct modern terrestrial faunas.

Thailand

Borneo

Sumatra

Sunda Shelf

Java

New Guinea

Arafura Basin

Australia

PhilippinesCurrent land surface

Continental shelf (exposed during the Pleistocene)

Deep water (≥ 200 m below current sea level)

FIGURE 42.14 Wallace’s Line (Page 835)

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1. Wallace and Darwin accounted for the idea that natural selection influenced the evolution of life's diversity. 2. These differences could not be explained by climate or soil characteristics. 3. The movement of continents accounts for biogeographic regions. a. Wallace's observations of animal distributions led him to divide the world into 6 continental scale areas called biogeographic regions. b. Each region contains a distinct assemblage of animal species, of which many are phylogenetically related.

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During Pangea, the same animals lived in the same place. After the drift, the same animals ended up in different places on different islands. The animals then evolved to adapt to the new region or new biome.




Carol,This is 42.15 and 42.17 combined. I had to add Antarctic to the map, also not sure how to handle the label near Madagascar that pointed to India before it attached to Asia.

The Sahara and Arabian Deserts separate the Palearctic and Ethiopian regions.

The Himalayas separate the Oriental and Palearctic regions.

The Mexican Plateau separates the Nearctic and Neotropical regions.

NEARCTIC

NEO-TROPICAL

ANTARCTIC

PALEARCTIC

ETHIOPIAN

ANTARCTIC

ANTARCTIC

ORIENTAL

Wallace’s line separates the Oriental and Australasian regions.

AUSTRALASIAN

Cretaceous (100 mya)

70

45

180

100

100–110

180

6

45

80

49

49

17

FIGURE 42.15 movement of the Continents Shaped Earth’s Biogeographic Regions (Page 835)

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The major biogeographical regions occupy land masses that have been isolated from one another for most of the Cenozoic era- long enough to allow the organisms present at the time to undergo independent evolutionary radiations. Continued movements of continents have more recently eliminated some barriers to dispersal and have caused mixing of species, referred to as biotic interchange. This happened when India collided with Asia 45mya allowing the mixing of organisms. Africa collided with Eurasia 17 mya but the Sahara desert presented a climatic barrier. Currently, the Mexican Plateau provides a barrier to the northward dispersal of tropical species.




The southmost land mass in Gondwanaseparated from South America and driftedacross the South Pole, to become Antarctica and the South Pacific land masses.

Distributionof Nothofagus

Australia

New Guinea

New Caledonia

New ZealandTasmania

SouthAmerica

Present

Cretaceous(100 mya)

Nothofagus sp.

Laurasia

Gondwana

FIGURE 42.16 Distribution of Nothofagus (Page 836)

POL HillisSinauer AssociatesFigure 42.17 Date 09-20-10

FIGURE 42.17 Human Agricultural Practices Produce a Uniform Landscape (Page 838)



FIGURE 42.18 Harmonious Grazers (Page 840)

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