Lecture in Australia Geography

7/27/2019 Lecture in Australia Geography

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(Having just returned from a family trip to Australia, I feel compelled to muse over a fewAustralian topics over the next few days.).

In the various indices of the worlds mostlivable cities, those of Australia generally rank quite high. In the Economist IntelligenceUnits (EIU) most recent global liveability report, Melbourne places first, Adelaide fifth,

Sydney seventh, and Perth ninth. The EIU index does not consider climate; if it did,Sydney would probably rank higher. What constitutes an ideal climate is of course ahighly subjective matter; judging from various web postings on the worlds bestclimate, some people prefer mild conditions and while others favor warmth, some likearidity and while others prefer periodic rain, and some revel in year-round constancywhile others demand seasonality. Sydneys climate, however, would appeal to many:summers are on average warm but not hot (with an average January high of 78F[26C]*), while winters are cool but not cold (with an average July high of 61 F [16 C]).

Although real heat is occasionally experienced (the citys record high temperature is113F [46C]), true cold is unknown, allowing tropical vegetation to flourish (the recordlow is 36F [2C]). Although some might find Sydney too wet (with average annual

precipitation of 47 inches [1,213 mm]), in every month one can expect at least five hoursof mean daily sunshine. By the same token, summer days tend to be fairly damp, withan average January relative humidity of 64% at 3:00 PM, but given the citys mildtemperatures, such a figure remains within the comfort range of most individuals.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World's_most_livable_citieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World's_most_livable_citieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World's_most_livable_citieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World's_most_livable_citieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economist_Intelligence_Unithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economist_Intelligence_Unithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economist_Intelligence_Unithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economist_Intelligence_Unithttp://geocurrents.info/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/Australia-Climate-Map2.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economist_Intelligence_Unithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economist_Intelligence_Unithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World's_most_livable_citieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World's_most_livable_cities


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Sydneys moderate summers surprise many

casual visitors, who often associate Australia with blistering heat in the high-sunseason. Even geographically aware travelers might be taken aback. Climatic conditionsin general are predictable on the basis of latitude, altitude, position on a landmass(whether located in the west, east, or center), orientation of mountain ranges, and soon. First-year students in physical geography are typically introduced to thehypothetical continent on which ideal climate zones are mapped. As an east -coast citysituated at a latitude of 34, Sydney lies on the poleward side of the humid subtropicalzone on such a map. (On Australian climate maps, Sydney is variably depicted in eitherthe subtropical or the temperate belt.) As such, it would be expected to experienceample year-round rainfallwhich it does. But it should also have hot summers and coolwinters with occasional cold-snapswhich it does not. Many similarly situated cities are

much less equable. The subtropical east coasts of North America and Asia in particularshow marked contrast with Sydney. Analogous cities here include Charleston, SouthCarolina and Nagoya, Japan, each of which has a sweltering average high in the hottestmonth of 91F (33C). Both cities are also appreciably colder than Sydney in the winter:Nagoyas average January high is 48F (9C) and Charlestons record low is 6F (-14C).
http://geocurrents.info/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/Hypothetical-continent-climate-map.png


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It is not coincidental that Charleston andNagoya are both located in the northern hemisphere. Similarly situated cities in theSouthern Hemisphere are more like Sydney. Montevideo, Uruguay, for example, has anintermediate average summer (January) high temperatures of 83F/28C, whereas EastLondon, on South Africas east coast at a latitude of 33, is more moderate than evenSydney, with an average winter (July) high temperature of 70F (21C).The differences between the hemispheres in this regard is likely generated by acombination of ocean currents, which are shaped by landmasses, and the fact that thesouth is the much more oceanic half of the planet. Sydney owes much of its moderatesummers to its maritime locationeven its interior suburbs have hotter summers andcooler winters. The subtropical zones in eastern North America and eastern Asia lacksuch marine moderation owing to the warm currents off their coasts and the greater sizeof the continents on which they sit. Although the warmEast Australian Currentdoesaffect Sydney, its influence in the summer is somewhat limited; summerwatertemperatures off Charleston,South Carolina average about 10F higher thanthose offSydney.

The seeming anomaly of Sydneys climate is not mentioned in the standard referencework on topic, Glen TrewarthasThe WorldsProblem Climates.Trewartha ratherregarded coastal New South Wales, like most of the rest of Australia, as climaticallyunexceptional. As he put it, Australia approximates in nearly ideal form the climaticarrangement that one would expect on a hypothetical continent where the greatplanetary controls largely regulate the weather (75). The one real exception thatTrewartha noted (p. 80) is Australias lack of an extremely arid but rather cool desert onits coastal flank of its western subtropical belt.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Australian_Currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Australian_Currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Australian_Currenthttp://www.sercc.com/climateinfo/historical/coastal_water_temps.htmlhttp://www.sercc.com/climateinfo/historical/coastal_water_temps.htmlhttp://www.sercc.com/climateinfo/historical/coastal_water_temps.htmlhttp://www.sercc.com/climateinfo/historical/coastal_water_temps.htmlhttp://www.surf-forecast.com/breaks/Bondi-Beach/seatemphttp://www.surf-forecast.com/breaks/Bondi-Beach/seatemphttp://www.surf-forecast.com/breaks/Bondi-Beach/seatemphttp://www.surf-forecast.com/breaks/Bondi-Beach/seatemphttp://www.amazon.com/Earths-Problem-Climates-Thomas-Trewartha/dp/029908230Xhttp://www.amazon.com/Earths-Problem-Climates-Thomas-Trewartha/dp/029908230Xhttp://www.amazon.com/Earths-Problem-Climates-Thomas-Trewartha/dp/029908230Xhttp://www.amazon.com/Earths-Problem-Climates-Thomas-Trewartha/dp/029908230Xhttp://www.amazon.com/Earths-Problem-Climates-Thomas-Trewartha/dp/029908230Xhttp://geocurrents.info/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/Australia-Climate-Map1.pnghttp://www.amazon.com/Earths-Problem-Climates-Thomas-Trewartha/dp/029908230Xhttp://www.surf-forecast.com/breaks/Bondi-Beach/seatemphttp://www.surf-forecast.com/breaks/Bondi-Beach/seatemphttp://www.sercc.com/climateinfo/historical/coastal_water_temps.htmlhttp://www.sercc.com/climateinfo/historical/coastal_water_temps.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Australian_Current


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Despite Trewarthas assessment, Australia isclimatically unusual in several regards. Its deserts are both more extensive and less aridthan those of other continents. Much of the landmass is also characterized by greaterannual variation in rainfall than most other places. Australia owes this characteristiclargely to its position relative to the Pacific Ocean, which makes it especially vulnerableto the perturbation of theEl NioSouthern Oscillation(ENSO). As can be seen on themap, rainfall variability is pronounced in Australias more arid interior, but is relativelymodest in most costal zones.

Concern is mounting that climate changecould accentuate the continents already pronounced precipitation variability. The so-calledMillennial Droughtthat began in the late 1990s and lasted until 2009 was theworst dry-spell on recordwhich is saying a lot. It was followed by an extremely wetperiod beginning in 2010 and lasting into 2012. The past three months have again beendry over the southeastern half of the country. Long-range forecasts continue to predict awet summer over much of this region, but they also indicate a drought striking northern
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000s_Australian_droughthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000s_Australian_droughthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000s_Australian_droughthttp://geocurrents.info/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/Australia-rainfall-2012-2012-Map.pnghttp://geocurrents.info/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/Australia-Rainfall-variability-Map.pnghttp://geocurrents.info/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/Australia-rainfall-2012-2012-Map.pnghttp://geocurrents.info/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/Australia-Rainfall-variability-Map.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000s_Australian_droughthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation


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Queensland. Forecasting that far into thefuture, however, is still notoriously unreliable.* All climate data from the Wikipedia articles on the cities in question, except for therelative humidity data for Sydney, which is from theTimes World Weather Guide.

Source:http://www.geocurrents.info/place/australia-and-pacific/australias-climatic-

anomalies#ixzz3DcEnVrBA

Irrigation in Australia

The National Land & Water Resources Audit has detailed the characteristics of the Australian

irrigation industry. In summary:

Profitability

Irrigation provides about 26% ($7Billion dollars per annum) of thegross value of agricultural production with flow-on benefits of about five times thisvalue to the Australian community.

Area 2.4 million hectares of irrigated crops and pastures (0.5% of the total area of

land in agricultural holdings and 12% of the total area of crops and pastures).

Locations

South-eastern Australia - the large inland river systems in the Murray-Darling Basin -

rice, horticulture, cotton, wine, and dairy

Queensland coastal catchments such as the Burdekin River floodplain and the black

soils of the upper Fitzroy - sugar cane, cotton, grains and horticulture

Western Australia: the Ord River and selected coastal floodplains in the north

horticulyure and sugar cane; and the Swan Coastal plain and other floodplainsaround Perth - horticulture and dairy

Water use by commodities dairying, with substantial areas of irrigated pastures

and fodder crops, uses about 40% of the water; cotton (16%), rice (11%) and sugarcane (8%).

Increasing intensificationIn a response to climate variability and through theapplication of improved technology in the 15 years since 1985 the area irrigated has

increased by 30% and the water diverted by 75%.
http://www.amazon.com/Times-Books-World-Weather-Guide/dp/0812918819/ref=sr_1_3?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1354910453&sr=1-3&keywords=world+weather+guidehttp://www.amazon.com/Times-Books-World-Weather-Guide/dp/0812918819/ref=sr_1_3?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1354910453&sr=1-3&keywords=world+weather+guidehttp://www.amazon.com/Times-Books-World-Weather-Guide/dp/0812918819/ref=sr_1_3?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1354910453&sr=1-3&keywords=world+weather+guidehttp://www.geocurrents.info/place/australia-and-pacific/australias-climatic-anomalies#ixzz3DcEnVrBAhttp://www.geocurrents.info/place/australia-and-pacific/australias-climatic-anomalies#ixzz3DcEnVrBAhttp://www.geocurrents.info/place/australia-and-pacific/australias-climatic-anomalies#ixzz3DcEnVrBAhttp://geocurrents.info/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/Australia-Climate-Forecast-Map.pnghttp://www.geocurrents.info/place/australia-and-pacific/australias-climatic-anomalies#ixzz3DcEnVrBAhttp://www.geocurrents.info/place/australia-and-pacific/australias-climatic-anomalies#ixzz3DcEnVrBAhttp://www.amazon.com/Times-Books-World-Weather-Guide/dp/0812918819/ref=sr_1_3?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1354910453&sr=1-3&keywords=world+weather+guide


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Major water user- Irrigation uses about 72% of all water used in Australia (18,000GL).

Figure 1: Irrigation Areas in Australia (1997)


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Science needs, national water initiative and sustainabilitychallenges

The National Land & Water Resources Audit provided assessment of the sustainability of

Australias water resources. Many of Australias key surface and groundwater resources

were assessed by water resource managers as being at or used beyond the levels ofsustainability. {Figures 3 and 4]. With irrigation responsible for about 72% of Australiasuse, clearly goals of sustainability for Australias water resources will involve the irrigation

industry.

Figure 3: Level of Surface Water Commitment, 2000

Figure 4: Ground Water Development Status, 2000


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Companion Audit work detailed the health of Australias catchments, rivers and estuaries.Irrigation and its impacts are part of the contributing factors to the health of the ecosystems

that comprise our catchments, rivers and estuaries. Equally clearly, what happens on farmand is within farmer control is just part of the equation and part of the response as Australiaseeks to implement sustainability.

In mid 2003, a Land & Water Australia forum facilitated by the senior author identified ninekey priorities for water resources science:

improving entitlements and access rights to water;

improving efficiency and productivity for all water uses;

ensuring high quality surface water and groundwater through improved catchment

management;

integrating management of surface runoff, river water, groundwater, tidal andmarine water;

protecting key natural assets and repairing ecosystems, especially wetlands and

riparian lands;

building a decision-making framework for all uses that recognises climate variabilityand exploits climate predictions;

fostering and improving irrigation scheme development and management in both

rural and urban Australia;

building improved institutional and governance frameworks for water resource

management; and

tracking progress and fine-tuning improvements in water resource management.

The National Water Initiative of late 2003 builds on these challenges and the Council of

Australian Governmentscommuniqulists six key areas for improvement of Australiaswater resources:

nationally compatible entitlements dealing with over-allocation [see figures 3 and

4], perpetual access, partitioning risks and change, water sharing plans and bestpractice specifications;

nationally functioning water markets dealing with market players andopportunities, market controls and market operations;

best practice water pricing determining full costs and who pays them, roles of

downstream and upstream communities in setting prices, and using this informationto assist development of institutional models;

integrated management of environmental water setting up water accounts,determining predictability of change and likely returns from change in water regime

and conjunctive use of surface and groundwater;

measuring, monitoring and information determining how to cost-effectively move

to volumetric allocations and metering protocols, the role of remote sensing systems,

and how best to regularly report progress; and


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urban water reform dealing with water re-se and recycling, maximisingproductivity, building systems understanding and fostering changes in community

attitudes.

For the sustainability of Australian irrigation this leads to a series of key challenges

Integrated catchment management

all Australian governments recognise theinteractions between landscape management, land use, on farm practice and river

health, which in turn affects the quality and availability of water for water extractorsand for the estuary and nearshore marine areas downstream. The irrigation industryrecognises this inter-relatedness of natural resources with many industries [eg

cotton, dairy, rice] leading the development of industry codes of practice.

Underpinning integrated catchment management is - Water Accounts and Benefits understanding where the water, both quality and

quantity, is within a catchment, how it changes with climate variability and changes

in land use and practice is essential if our catchments are to yield quality andquantity water. From this water accounts base, the next key set of information needsis what the benefits that we derive from water use are. With an understanding of the

benefits, scenarios for changes in catchment management can be tested. Objectives

are usually to maximise yield and quality of surface waters and ensure water balancein soils to mininise salt transport to groundwater. Understanding water accounts and

benefits allows managers at basin, regional and catchment scales to set -

Sustainable allocations limits are set on the volume of surface and groundwaterthat can be diverted for consumptive uses or stored in farm dams. This does notconstrain new irrigation nor urban and industrial developments but leads to these

developments being based on -

Water Use Efficiency -making water available for expansion in irrigation andincreased productivity through a range of on-farm and regional efficiency measures

in delivery and on-farm plant use measures. These include paddock scale water useefficiency, changed varieties, varied crops, changed technology and practice on-

farm, improved delivery at irrigation scheme and channel management levels and

making more effective use of water available through - Rapid response to climate variability using climate predictions regional water

managers are finetuning delivery and annual allocations. Climate predictions beforethe growing season interpreted through decision support tools allow individual

irrigators to optimise inputs, vary the area under cultivation and crop, and modifydelivery practices and scheduling on farm. Capturing all the water available calls for -

Water Reuse and Recycling including tailwater recycling on farm through tourban water treatment and reuse for high value commodities near urban centres

such as horticulture. All water used on farm, recycled or otherwise needs to be

carefully managed to ensure -

Soil Health insitu so that the soils physical structure, chemical status and biotaprovide for sustainable cropping and no adverse off-farm impact, be it throughexcessive leakage of nutrients, recharge to groundwater, build up of salts or soil

erosion. Irrigators, as land and water users within a catchment contribute to and arepart of -

integrated catchment management- where this brief discussion of aspectsessential for irrigation sustainability started.

Irrigation sustainability is part of catchment sustainability and a systems approach isessential if we are to identify which are the key areas for further investment as irrigation

and catchments strive for sustainability.


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Lecture in Australia Geography

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