Lecture 8 Attitudes and Persuasion - Human Conflict and ... WIN 05 W.pdf · Subliminal Messages...

Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 20051

Lecture 8Lecture 8

Attitudes and PersuasionAttitudes and Persuasion


Consider the scale above:

How do you view abortion?

Negative … PositiveNegative … Positive

1 2 3 4 5 6 7


Would you volunteer to get Would you volunteer to get signatures for a petition against signatures for a petition against changing M.L. King day?changing M.L. King day?

Martin Luther King, Jr.Martin Luther King, Jr.

Dislike … LikeDislike … Like

1 2 3 4 5 6 7


AttitudeA favorable or unfavorable evaluative reaction towards something or someone, exhibited in one’s beliefs, feelings, or intended behavior. They operate like schemas to organize information and guide behavior.


The ABC Model of Attitudes

Attitudes have three components:

Affect (feelings)

Behavior (or behavioral intent)

Cognition (thoughts, perceptions)


Affect (emotion)Affect (emotion)What is my affective

reaction when I see a person smoking a cigarette?

Do I feel a sense of excitement because I like smoking, or a sense of anger and resentment?

What is my affective reaction when I see a person smoking a cigarette?

Do I feel a sense of excitement because I like smoking, or a sense of anger and resentment?


Subtle changes in the facial muscles can be used to detect positive and negative reactions to attitude objects.


Behavior Behavior

Imagine that you see a person smoking a cigarette in a public place in Davis, CA.

What is your behavioral reaction?

Will you tell the person to put it out?

Imagine that you see a person smoking a cigarette in a public place in Davis, CA.

What is your behavioral reaction?

Will you tell the person to put it out?


Cognitive Cognitive

How do I think about smoking. Do I think it is dangerous and causes cancer? Does second hand smoke kill millions?

Do I perceive smoking as a danger to my health?

When I see a person smoking do I think about the American Cancer Society or “Joe Camel” ?

How do I think about smoking. Do I think it is dangerous and causes cancer? Does second hand smoke kill millions?

Do I perceive smoking as a danger to my health?

When I see a person smoking do I think about the American Cancer Society or “Joe Camel” ?

Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 200511© 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Elements of An Attitude


Do Attitudes Predict Behavior?Overall, the correlation between attitudes and behavior is surprisingly small, about (.30). This means that attitudes appear to account for less than 10% of variability in behavior.

Why isn’t the relation stronger? A number of things moderate the strength of the attitude-behavior relation.

(Example of Field Experiment).


When Do Attitudes Predict Behavior?


Minimizing social influences

People may not express real attitudes because of social factors (e.g., racist attitudes). Bogus pipeline is a way to make subjects express their real attitudes

Minimizing social influences

People may not express real attitudes because of social factors (e.g., racist attitudes). Bogus pipeline is a way to make subjects express their real attitudes


Attitude BehaviorAttitude Behavior

Must minimize other influences on behavior

Must minimize other influences on behavior




Examine attitudes specific to behavior

Generally a better attitude/behavior link is found when the level of specificity of attitudes and behavior are similar.

(e.g., more general attitudes about environmentalism do not predict participating in recycling.)

Examine attitudes specific to behavior

Generally a better attitude/behavior link is found when the level of specificity of attitudes and behavior are similar.

(e.g., more general attitudes about environmentalism do not predict participating in recycling.)


OutlineOutline

The Nature of AttitudesWhat is Persuasion?Goals of Persuasion: Why People

Change Their Attitudes and BeliefsSeeking Accuracy

Being Consistent

Seeking Social Approval

The Nature of AttitudesWhat is Persuasion?Goals of Persuasion: Why People

Change Their Attitudes and BeliefsSeeking Accuracy

Being Consistent

Seeking Social Approval


The Nature of AttitudesThe Nature of Attitudes

Attitudes spring from several sources:Classical conditioning

Operant conditioning

Observational learning

Heredity

Attitudes spring from several sources:Classical conditioning

Operant conditioning

Observational learning

Heredity


Attitude StrengthAttitude Strength

Strong attitudesAre more likely to remain unchanged as

time passes,

Are better able to withstand persuasive attacks or appeals specifically directed at them.

Strong attitudesAre more likely to remain unchanged as

time passes,

Are better able to withstand persuasive attacks or appeals specifically directed at them.


Attitude StrengthAttitude Strength

The two main reasons strong attitudes resist change areCommitment –

people are sure they are correct,

Embeddedness –people have connected these attitudes to other features of their self-concept, values, and identity.

The two main reasons strong attitudes resist change areCommitment –

people are sure they are correct,

Embeddedness –people have connected these attitudes to other features of their self-concept, values, and identity.


Attitude-Behavior ConsistencyAttitude-Behavior Consistency

The following factors influence the likelihood that a person’s attitude will be consistent with his behavior:Knowledge

Personal relevance

Attitude accessibility

The following factors influence the likelihood that a person’s attitude will be consistent with his behavior:Knowledge

Personal relevance

Attitude accessibility


Attitude-Behavior ConsistencyAttitude-Behavior Consistency

Theory of planned behavior –A theory stating that the best predictor of behavior is one’s behavioral intention, which is influenced byOne’s attitude toward specific behavior,

The subjective norms regarding the behavior, and

One’s perceived control over the behavior.

Theory of planned behavior –A theory stating that the best predictor of behavior is one’s behavioral intention, which is influenced byOne’s attitude toward specific behavior,

The subjective norms regarding the behavior, and

One’s perceived control over the behavior.


Attitude(One’s evaluation of the

specific behavior in question)

Subjective Norm(One’s perception that important others will

approve of the behavior)

Perceived Behavioral Control

(One’s perception of how difficult it would be to perform the behavior)

Behavioral Intention

(One’s aim to perform the behavior)

Behavior

Theory of planned behaviorTheory of planned behavior


What IsPersuasion?

What IsPersuasion?

Persuasion –change in private attitude or belief as a result of receiving a message

Persuasion –change in private attitude or belief as a result of receiving a message


Dual Process Models of Persuasion: Two Routes to Change


Dual process model of persuasion –a model that accounts for the two ways that attitude change occurs—with and without much thought

Dual process model of persuasion –a model that accounts for the two ways that attitude change occurs—with and without much thought




Message recipients will consider a communication deeply when they have both:the motivation

the ability

Message recipients will consider a communication deeply when they have both:the motivation

the ability




Factors that influence a person's motivation to process a message deeply: Personal relevance of the topic (does it

matter to you?) Need for cognition –

the tendency to enjoy and engage in deliberate thought

Factors that influence a person's motivation to process a message deeply: Personal relevance of the topic (does it

matter to you?) Need for cognition –

the tendency to enjoy and engage in deliberate thought


Message

High motivation

and ability to think about the message

Low motivationor ability to think about the message

Peripheral processing, focused on surface features such as the

communicator’s attractiveness or the

number of arguments presented.

Central processing, focused on the quality

of the message arguments.

Lasting change that resists fading and

counterattacks

Temporary change that

that is susceptible to

fading and counterattacks

Persuasion Attempt

Audience Factors

Processing Approach

Persuasion Outcome


The Effects ofPersonal Relevance


Petty & Cacioppo (1984) asked college students to read arguments in favor of mandatory comprehensive exams.

Students would be required to pass these exams before being allowed to graduate.

Petty & Cacioppo (1984) asked college students to read arguments in favor of mandatory comprehensive exams.

Students would be required to pass these exams before being allowed to graduate.

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The issue was either highly relevant to them (They would personally have to take the

exams to graduate)

Or of low relevance to them(Policy would not take effect for 10

years – long after they’d graduated).

The issue was either highly relevant to them (They would personally have to take the

exams to graduate)

Or of low relevance to them(Policy would not take effect for 10

years – long after they’d graduated).

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The Effects of Personal Relevance

The Effects of Personal Relevance

Arguments were either high quality e.g., “Average starting salaries are higher for

graduates of schools with exams”

Or low quality “Exams would allow students to compare

performance with other schools”

Some students heard only 3 arguments.Others heard 9 arguments.

Arguments were either high quality e.g., “Average starting salaries are higher for

graduates of schools with exams”

Or low quality “Exams would allow students to compare

performance with other schools”

Some students heard only 3 arguments.Others heard 9 arguments.

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Number of Arguments

Atti

tude

Tow

ard

Exa

ms

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

3 9 3 9

HighLow

LowPersonal Relevance

HighPersonal Relevance

Argument Quality

For students with a personal stake, more strong arguments were more convincing

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Number of Arguments

Atti

tude

Tow

ard

Exa

ms

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

3 9 3 9

High Low

HighLow

Argument Personal RelevancePersonal Relevance Quality

But more weak arguments left them less convinced

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Number of Arguments

Atti

tude

Tow

ard

Exa

ms

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

3 9 3 9

High Low

HighLow

Argument Personal RelevancePersonal Relevance Quality

Students who wouldn’t be affected didn’t process quality

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The Goals of Persuasion:Why People Change Their

Attitudes and Beliefs

The Goals of Persuasion:Why People Change Their

Attitudes and Beliefs

Individuals may yield to a persuasive message in order to:hold a more accurate view of the world,

be consistent with themselves, and

gain social approval and acceptance.

Individuals may yield to a persuasive message in order to:hold a more accurate view of the world,

be consistent with themselves, and

gain social approval and acceptance.


Seeking AccuracySeeking Accuracy


Good ShortcutsGood Shortcuts

When we can’t make a thorough evaluation of a persuasive argument, we may rely on shortcuts, such as:Credibility of communicator

Is the person expert? Trustworthy?

Others’ responsesWhich side do other people seem to be taking?

Ready ideasWhat side have I heard frequently or recently?

When we can’t make a thorough evaluation of a persuasive argument, we may rely on shortcuts, such as:Credibility of communicator

Is the person expert? Trustworthy?

Others’ responsesWhich side do other people seem to be taking?

Ready ideasWhat side have I heard frequently or recently?


Issue InvolvementIssue Involvement

Cognitive resources are too limited to think deeply about every issue.

People focus their accuracy concerns on issues that involve them directly.

Cognitive resources are too limited to think deeply about every issue.

People focus their accuracy concerns on issues that involve them directly.


MoodMood

A sad moodMotivates people to acquire accurate

attitudes about the situation at hand

Warns of potential danger of making errors in immediate environment.

A sad moodMotivates people to acquire accurate

attitudes about the situation at hand

Warns of potential danger of making errors in immediate environment.


Done dealsDone deals

Desire to be unbiased and accurate is much stronger before a person makes a decision.

After the decision, the accuracy motive fades in favor of the desire to feel good about the decision.

Desire to be unbiased and accurate is much stronger before a person makes a decision.

After the decision, the accuracy motive fades in favor of the desire to feel good about the decision.


Unwelcome InformationUnwelcome Information

People tend not to expend cognitive effort looking for flaws in an argument that supports their beliefs.

Those who encounter information that doesn't fit search for weaknesses they can use to form counterarguments.

People tend not to expend cognitive effort looking for flaws in an argument that supports their beliefs.

Those who encounter information that doesn't fit search for weaknesses they can use to form counterarguments.


Defensiveness and DenialDefensiveness and Denial

Fear may lead people to deny information, unless that information is accompanied by a plan to reduce the threat.

Fear may lead people to deny information, unless that information is accompanied by a plan to reduce the threat.


Expertise and ComplexityExpertise and Complexity

People rely on the expertise of a communicator principally when the message is highly complex.

People rely on the expertise of a communicator principally when the message is highly complex.


Subliminal Messages Subliminal Messages So, does subliminal advertising really

work? The issue has been a controversial one since 1950s. A movie theater in New Jersey secretly flashed “Eat popcorn” and “Drink Coke” on the screen during intermission. It was claimed that Coke sales increased 18% and popcorn sales increased 58% over a 6-week period.

So, does subliminal advertising really work? The issue has been a controversial one since 1950s. A movie theater in New Jersey secretly flashed “Eat popcorn” and “Drink Coke” on the screen during intermission. It was claimed that Coke sales increased 18% and popcorn sales increased 58% over a 6-week period.


Public reaction was swift. The New Yorkerclaimed that minds had been “broken and entered” (September 21, 1957, p. 33) and the Nation called it “the most alarming and outrageous discovery since Mr. Gatling invented his gun” (October 5, 1957, p. 206). Subliminal messages on radio and television were banned by the Federal Communications Commission.


Do subliminal messages work?

Only in the laboratory, under highly controlled conditions. Even then, the effects are weak and not very specific.


Being Consistent Being Consistent


Being ConsistentBeing Consistent

Consistency principle –the principle that people will change their attitudes, beliefs, perceptions, and actions to make them consistent with each other

Consistency principle –the principle that people will change their attitudes, beliefs, perceptions, and actions to make them consistent with each other


Balance Theory Balance Theory

We want to: Agree with people we like

Disagree with people we dislike

Associate good things with good people

Associate bad things with bad people.

We want to: Agree with people we like

Disagree with people we dislike

Associate good things with good people

Associate bad things with bad people.


↓

Cognitive system out of balance

Uncomfortable tension


To remove this tension, we will have to change something in the system.

To remove this tension, we will have to change something in the system.


AbortionAbortion

MaryMaryRhoda Rhoda

+ -

+


Rhoda is strongly pro-choice.Mary is strongly pro-life.Rhoda considers Mary her best friend.

Rhoda is strongly pro-choice.Mary is strongly pro-life.Rhoda considers Mary her best friend.


AbortionAbortion

MaryMaryRhoda Rhoda

-

+

-


Rhoda could restore balance by changing her feeling about abortion.

Rhoda could restore balance by changing her feeling about abortion.


AbortionAbortion

MaryMaryRhoda Rhoda

-+

-


Or she could restore balance by changing her feelings about her friend.

Or she could restore balance by changing her feelings about her friend.


AbortionAbortion

MaryMaryRhoda Rhoda

+

+

+


Or she could restore balance by changing Mary’s feelings about abortion.

Or she could restore balance by changing Mary’s feelings about abortion.


Cognitive Dissonance TheoryCognitive Dissonance Theory

Cognitive dissonance –the unpleasant state of psychological arousal resulting from an inconsistency within one's important attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors

Cognitive dissonance –the unpleasant state of psychological arousal resulting from an inconsistency within one's important attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors



Counterattitudinal action –a behavior that is inconsistent with an existing attitude

Counterattitudinal action –a behavior that is inconsistent with an existing attitude



In a study by Festinger and CarlsmithStudents first performed a boring task

(turning pegs in holes)

Then were asked to tell another student it was interesting—and for this, they were paid either $1 or $20.

In a study by Festinger and CarlsmithStudents first performed a boring task

(turning pegs in holes)

Then were asked to tell another student it was interesting—and for this, they were paid either $1 or $20.



When later asked their attitudes toward the boring task:Those receiving $1 payment had come

to see it as more enjoyable

Those receiving $20 hadn't changed their attitudes at all.

When later asked their attitudes toward the boring task:Those receiving $1 payment had come

to see it as more enjoyable

Those receiving $20 hadn't changed their attitudes at all.



Why? Dissonance theory explains:$20 provided adequate justification for

misleading another student.

$1 was insufficient justification, thus arousing dissonance.

Changing beliefs about the task reduced the cognitive discomfort.

Why? Dissonance theory explains:$20 provided adequate justification for

misleading another student.

$1 was insufficient justification, thus arousing dissonance.

Changing beliefs about the task reduced the cognitive discomfort.



Postdecisional dissonance is the conflict one feels between the knowledge that he or she has made a decision and the possibility that the decision may be wrong. Just seconds after placing a bet, gamblers are

more confident their horse will win (Knox & Inkster, 1968).

Postdecisional dissonance is the conflict one feels between the knowledge that he or she has made a decision and the possibility that the decision may be wrong. Just seconds after placing a bet, gamblers are

more confident their horse will win (Knox & Inkster, 1968).


an actionor

decision that

conflicts with an

important aspect of the self.

Initiation Amplification Motivation Reduction

is seen as freely chosen

produces negative consequences that were foreseeable

cannot be justified as due to strong

rewards or threats

cannot be withdrawn

unpleasant arousal

change designed to remove the unpleasant

arousal

Dissonance begins with:

More dissonance arises when the action or decision:

Dissonance is experienced as:

Dissonance is reduced through:


If we are forced to engage in the behavior, there is no real inconsistency and so no discomfort to reduce.


ArousalArousal

No arousal = no dissonance = no need to change

Cooper, Zanna, and Taves – participants in an experiment who were given a tranquilizer (eliminating any dissonant arousal) did not change their opinions, even after writing a counter-attitudinal essay.

No arousal = no dissonance = no need to change

Cooper, Zanna, and Taves – participants in an experiment who were given a tranquilizer (eliminating any dissonant arousal) did not change their opinions, even after writing a counter-attitudinal essay.


Gaining Social Approval Gaining Social Approval


Gaining Social Approval Gaining Social Approval

The motivation to achieve approval is called impression motivation, because the goal is to create a good impression on others.

This motivation to create a good impression can sometimes conflict with the pursuit of the accuracy and consistency goals.

The motivation to achieve approval is called impression motivation, because the goal is to create a good impression on others.

This motivation to create a good impression can sometimes conflict with the pursuit of the accuracy and consistency goals.


Self-MonitoringSelf-Monitoring

High self-monitors were more persuaded by ads promoting socially appealing images associated with particular brands of coffee, whiskey, and cigarettes than by ads touting the quality of the same brands(Snyder and DeBono).

High self-monitors were more persuaded by ads promoting socially appealing images associated with particular brands of coffee, whiskey, and cigarettes than by ads touting the quality of the same brands(Snyder and DeBono).


Gender Gender

Like high self-monitors, women tend to be sensitively attuned to relationships and interpersonal issues.

This sensitivity affects the way they respond to persuasive appeals.

Like high self-monitors, women tend to be sensitively attuned to relationships and interpersonal issues.

This sensitivity affects the way they respond to persuasive appeals.


Self-Monitoring andExpectation of Discussion

Self-Monitoring andExpectation of Discussion

When expecting a discussion, high self-monitors (who pay more attention to social rewards) shift their attitudes and beliefs more than do low self-monitors.

When expecting a discussion, high self-monitors (who pay more attention to social rewards) shift their attitudes and beliefs more than do low self-monitors.

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