Lecture 5Lecture 5

• Aristotle on Politics, Equality

• Comparison of Plato, Aristotle & Bible

• Two responses by Christians to Plato & Aristotle

• Boethius

Implications of Aristotle’s ViewsImplications of Aristotle’s Views

1. Ethical values are absolute, universal2. Virtuous action is an end in itself, not

merely a means to social reward.3. We have reliable, pre-scientific

knowledge of ethics: common sense, the consensus of wise people

How do we know ethical truth?How do we know ethical truth?

o The potential is built into human nature: our final cause includes wisdom.

o Nurture and education (good upbringing) are prerequisites.

o Experience increases wisdom.o A scientific knowledge of human beings

can confirm and (on the margins) correct our naïve opinions.

Justice and the “City”Justice and the “City”

Justice is not merely a compromise between competing interests.

There is a "common good": all of our happinesses depend on participating in a just society, because we are social animals.

The city is a partnership, whose end (final cause) is living well (eudaemonia).

Friendship is essential to Friendship is essential to happinesshappiness

Three forms of friendship:Friendships of shared tastes, interestsFriendships of mutual advantageTrue friendships: based on mutual

recognition of virtue

Aristotle on Equality and Aristotle on Equality and InequalityInequality

Justice is treating equals equally, and unequals unequally.

Who are equal?

Aristotle on SlaveryAristotle on Slavery

Aristotle assumes that most societies are close to a state of justice, just as most organisms are close to a state of health.

All developed societies in Aristotle's times were based on slavery.

Consequently, Aristotle inferred that some forms of slavery must be just.

Contrast with the Contrast with the Hebrew/Biblical TraditionHebrew/Biblical Tradition

Hebrews are delivered from slavery in Egypt by God. Commanded to treat strangers as equals.

The Fall (Genesis 3): all societies are radically unhealthy (spiritually speaking).

• The Bible accepts slavery as a given, but puts limits on it (emancipation every jubilee -- 50 year cycle).

In (partial) defense of AristotleIn (partial) defense of Aristotle

• Not a blanket justification of slavery.– Slavery is justified only if the slaves are

incapable of rational self-control.– Applies only to household slaves (a kind of

extended family), not to sheer exploitation: mass agricultural labor, galley slaves, etc.

o Aristotle’s system was (apparently) temporary in Aristotle’s system was (apparently) temporary in nature: aimed at inculcating virtue. No reason for nature: aimed at inculcating virtue. No reason for inherited status.inherited status.

Is Aristotle Undemocratic?Is Aristotle Undemocratic?

• Forms of government, from best to worst:Monarchy

Aristocracy

Polity

Democracy

Oligarchy

Tyranny

Why is democracy ranked so Why is democracy ranked so low?low?

o A good regime should be governed by those who are well educated.

o Aristotle assumes that this will never be true of the majority.

o The modern world has changed this, by unleashing the power of technology.

o Leo Strauss’s worries: is technology dehumanizing? And can democracies educate for virtue?

Is Aristotle’s theory of human Is Aristotle’s theory of human nature unscientific?nature unscientific?

• Modern natural science (since Galileo, Newton) seems to have no place for natural functions, final causes, teleology.

• Possible responses:– Leo Strauss: natural science isn’t the only way

of knowing.– Teleology survives in physics (least action).– Teleology survives in biology (functionality).

The Bible’s View of HumanityThe Bible’s View of Humanity

• Genesis 1-3: story of creation and “fall”.• Created “in God’s image” (includes 2 sexes).• Given dominion over the earth and other forms of

life (not over the heavens).• Created as the climax of creation. Only after

creation of mankind: “very good”.• Formed from the dust -- but God is directly

involved (“breathed into nostrils”).

The Fall: Genesis 2The Fall: Genesis 2

• Whether to interpret details literally (trees, fruit, serpent) - relatively unimportant.

• Knowledge of good and evil: – “Knowledge” seems to mean experiential,

intimate (used as euphemism for sex).– “Good and evil” are moral categories:

righteousness and wickedness.

Variety of InterpretationsVariety of Interpretations

• Some interpret the story as representing a unique, historical event. Others see it as a story about “Everyman”. (“Adam” is the common noun for human being.)

• Among those who interpret it as a unique historical event, there are a variety of views about how much damage is done to human nature (especially, our capacity for virtue and liability to vice).

““Original Sin”Original Sin”

• The majority of commentators in ancient, medieval and early modern times take it that we have all “inherited” a morally disordered nature as a result of the fall.

• Two key elements: concupiscence (uncontrollable desires, both sensual and ambitious), and pride (haughtiness, arrogance, self-worship).

• Consequences listed in text focus on pain, toil and physical death.

Psalm 139Psalm 139

• God’s universal knowledge and presence.

• Encompasses the details of conduct of each individual human being.

• God creates each human being.

• Possibility of divine deliverance from enemies and guidance.

Wisdom and Proverbs 8Wisdom and Proverbs 8

• Recall: Aristotle distinguished practical wisdom (phronesis) and philosophical wisdom (sophia). God has only the latter.

• Author of Proverbs 8 makes no such distinction: the same wisdom that enabled God to craft the world is available to guide us, enable us to live righteously.

The Fruit of WisdomThe Fruit of Wisdom

• Results in riches, honor, wealth and justice.

• But -- the fruit she gives is better than gold.

• “Happy are those who keep to my ways.” (v. 31)

• “He who does injury to me does hurt to his own soul; all who hate me are in love with death.” (v. 36)

Common Ground: Plato, Common Ground: Plato, Aristotle & the BibleAristotle & the Bible

The world is teleologically organized -- full of systems with built-in purpose.

Human nature exists and is knowable by us. (The law written on the heart -- Rom 2:14-15)

There are absolute, universal values, grounded in human nature.

Acting morally, virtuously is an indispensable component of happiness (blessedness).

Knowing and contemplating God is the highest human good.

Human beings have an immaterial component (the soul).

To fulfill their true natures. human beings are in need of discipline, training and restraint. (The 10 commandments, training in the virtues)

God (a perfect, self-sufficient, eternal intelligence) exists.

The order of the universe (Logos) is reflected in the rational order of human mind (logos). (Proverbs 8)

Humanity is the highest form of life on earth (Gen. 1,2: created in God's image, commissioned to subdue the earth).

Common ground: the Bible and Common ground: the Bible and Plato only (not Aristotle)Plato only (not Aristotle)

• Human beings survive bodily death (it is uncertain what the mature Aristotle thought about this).

• The creation of the world by a supreme intelligence (according to Aristotle, the world is eternal, uncreated).

• One can be supremely happy, even when persecuted and mistreated, so long as one attains righteousness.

Common ground: the Bible and Common ground: the Bible and Aristotle only (not Plato)Aristotle only (not Plato)

• Human beings consist of a unity of soul and body. We are not merely souls that inhabit or possess a body. (Cf. Genesis, 1:7 and 3:19; Psalm 139:13. )

Contrasting Elements of the Contrasting Elements of the Biblical worldviewBiblical worldview

• It is possible for friendship and mutual love to exist between God and individual human beings.

• Physical work (including manual labor) is a positive good, part of human happiness (Gen. 1:28, Jesus as carpenter)

• Human beings are essentially equal before God, under God's law.

• Divine forgiveness and mercy are not a violation of justice and provide no license for unrighteousness. (See Romans 4:21-26).

• The truth that God reveals in the Bible is in some conflict or tension with our "natural" knowledge. (I Corinthians 1:19-25).

• The positive reality of evil. Evil is more than merely the lack of goodness. Evil deeds lead to an "inherited" proclivity to evil. Evil is like a cancer.

Two reactions to philosophy Two reactions to philosophy from within the Biblical traditionfrom within the Biblical tradition

• Rejectionists: “What has Jerusalem to do with Athens?” Tertullian, al-Gazzali, Martin Luther, Karl Barth, Anders Nygren.

• Synthesizers: Boethius, al-Farabi, Maimonides, Thomas Aquinas, Joseph Butler

Boethius (480-525 AD)Boethius (480-525 AD)

• Last philosophical scholar of the ancient world. Translated Aristotle’s logical works into Latin.

• Unjustly sentenced to death as a result of political intrigue in court of Theodoric, barbarian king of Rome.

• Wrote The Consolation of Philosophy while on death row.

Boethius’s impactBoethius’s impact

• Boethius preserved logic, mathematics for western Europe sliding into the Dark Ages (700-1000 AD).

• The Consolation of Philosophy became one of the most influential books in European history. Suggested a unification of Christian piety with Greek philosophy.

Boethius: synthesizing Boethius: synthesizing Christianity with Plato/AristotleChristianity with Plato/Aristotle

• All human beings seek happiness -- the supreme good.

• Like drunkards, we have lost the way home and stumble into errors, identifying happiness with position, power, honor, wealth, or pleasure.

• True happiness consists in possessing (by a kind of participation) God, who is absolute, self-sufficient goodness.

Discussion QuestionsDiscussion Questions

• Why does Boethius not mention anything specifically Christian in The C of P (e.g., Jesus, the Bible, the Church)?

• Is Boethius closer to Plato or Aristotle?

• What common denominator recurs in all of Boethius’ refutations of false conceptions of happiness?

False Conceptions of HappinessFalse Conceptions of Happiness

• Wealth

• Position

• Power

• Fame

• Pleasure

Crucial testsCrucial tests

• Does it make one self-sufficient, independent? (wealth creates dependencies, new wants)

• Can it be used for bad, even self-destructive purposes? (wealth, power -- clearly can be)

• Is it a source of anxiety? (pleasure)

• Can it have bad effects? (pleasure)

Boethius’s Definition of True Boethius’s Definition of True HappinessHappiness

• Once one possesses it, one has no further needs, wants, or reason for anxiety.

• It can never be used for anything but good purposes.

• It can never have anything but good effects.

• It cannot be deceptive or false.

Happiness = GodHappiness = God

• God is the very essence of happiness.

• If we can “possess” God, then God would fulfill every need or want, and provide perfect security.

• God cannot be the source of evil.

Boethius & AristotleBoethius & Aristotle

• To a degree, Aristotle would agree with Boethius: the intellectual apprehension and comprehension of God is the highest good for human beings.

• However, Aristotle did not believe that human beings were capable of a permanent “possession” of God. So, human happiness is inherently insecure, fleeting.

A Natural Pointer to the A Natural Pointer to the Supernatural?Supernatural?

• Boethius argues, in effect, that the fact that human beings can be dissatisfied with any good obtainable in this life points to the reality of a further life (beyond the limits of organic death).

• Is this merely wishful thinking?

Introduction to AquinasIntroduction to Aquinas

• Europe emerging from Dark Ages (700-1000)

• Scientific works of Aristotle: Byzantium ->Islamic world -> Spain ->Jews ->Western Europe

• Averroes (ibn Rushd), Maimonides -- 12th c. Spain

• St. Albert the Great -- Paris, Cologne, 13th century. Revived use of observation & experimentation.

• Roger Bacon (Oxford) -- revived Platonic application of mathematics to science

• Thomas Aquinas -- student of Albert. Born near Naples. Joined Dominican order. Kidnapped by brothers.

Structure of Structure of Summa TheologiaeSumma Theologiae

• Work of theology. Appeals to both theological authorities (Bible, Augustine) and to natural reason.

• Encompasses the conclusions of philosophy.

• Organized by questions.

Typical questionTypical question• Is ....? (the question)

• It seems.... (thesis)

• [Several plausible arguments, numbered]

• On the contrary,.... (antithesis)

• Response [Sets out Thomas's opinion -- typically, agrees with the antithesis, or accepts both as partially true.]

• [The numbered plausible arguments are rebutted or corrected, one by one.]

The Natural and the SupernaturalThe Natural and the Supernatural

• Natural– Imperfect happiness– Can be attained by our own, natural powers– Can be understood scientifically

• Supernatural– Perfect happiness– Requires God’s “grace” (special assistance)– Can be understood only by “faith”

Natural Philosophy & Natural Philosophy & Supernatural (Revealed) Supernatural (Revealed)

TheologyTheology• Philosophy (including “natural theology”)

is competent to understand the natural order. So, Aristotle is a reliable guide to imperfect happiness, and the structure of the cosmos.

• Understanding the supernatural requires special revelation (through prophets, inspired Scriptures).

Human NatureHuman Nature

• For Aquinas, human nature (the essence of humanity) encompasses both levels.

• We are “naturally supernatural”. We cannot be fully satisfied with any natural good.

• Our capacity to grasp the idea of infinity or perfection bears witness to our supernatural end. (Cf. Boethius)

Theory of Mind and KnowledgeTheory of Mind and Knowledge• Aquinas is a developmental empiricist: all

human knowledge begins with the use of the 5 senses, by which we come to know our physical environment.

• We start with the natural sciences, and then move to metaphysics and natural theology.

• Natural theology tells only that God (a First Cause) exists. It does not tell us much about the nature of God.

Not a Strict, Absolute EmpiricistNot a Strict, Absolute Empiricist• 1. Mind is not a blank slate: it brings specific,

pre-determined powers and potentialities to the business of learning through the use of the senses.

• 2. Knowledge is always the product of the joint operation of the senses and the intellect.

• 3. Ultimately, we can attain some (very limited) knowledge of things beyond the range of our senses.

The Structure of the SoulThe Structure of the Soul• Rational

– Intellect• Speculative

• Practical

– Will (rational appetite)

• Sub-rational– Senses– Bodily appetites

• Concupiscible & Irascible

The Sub-rational SoulThe Sub-rational Soul

• The senses give us information about the environment.

• The appetite propels us to certain apparent goods or away from certain evils: anger and fear (irascible) and desires for food, water, warmth, sex (concupiscible).

Rational SoulRational Soul• The theoretical (or "speculative") intellect

strives toward truth and understanding. It begins with the information delivered by the senses, and "abstracts" universal laws from this data.

• The practical intellect deliberates about what is the best course of action. It begins with inclinations provided by the appetites, but corrects and supplements them from a rational assessment of a plan of life.

• The will receives its direction from the practical intellect -- but the will is needed to effect the transition from thought and feeling to action.

Essence vs. AccidentEssence vs. Accident

• What a thing is most fundamentally, versus what a thing just happens to be.

• An oak tree (essence) vs. a hammock hanger (accident).

• A human being (essence) vs. a source of household income (accident).

The signs or criteria of essencesThe signs or criteria of essences• 1. Essences correspond to a shared nature,

that can be the subject of scientific investigation.

• We can investigate the nature of humans or oak trees, not of hammock-supports or income-sources.

• 2. Essences provide a non-arbitrary principle for dividing the world into distinct, countable individuals.

• Contrast: how many human beings are in the room? vs. How many income sources are in my brokerage account?

• 3. Essences provide a non-arbitrary principle for identity through time.

• If I disassemble and re-assemble a wooden hammock support, is it the same support? Who cares?

• Is X the same person as Y? This matters.

Function/useFunction/use

• The function of a thing is part of its essence, the use we put it to is an accident.

• The dog's function is to be loyal and trainable, its use is to herd sheep.

““Double” TruthDouble” Truth• Some 13th century philosophers (including

Siger of Brabant) were accused of holding a theory of “double” truth: that the same thing could be theologically true but scientifically false.

• Aquinas vigorously opposed this distinction: philosophy and theology give us two ways of knowing the truth. Truth itself is one, indivisible.