Lecture (4) Introduction: key concepts in stylistics · · 2017-03-07Page (38) Cognitive models...

Lecture (4)Introduction: key concepts in stylistics

Page (38) Cognitive models in and for stylistic analysis

Stylistics focus on the methods of compositional technique has tended to make stylistics writerly in its general theoretical orientation. However, what has largely been missing from this approach has been any account of the mental processes that inform, and are affected by, the way we read and interpret literary texts. Stylistics has in other words lacked a readerly dimension.


what an analysis of discourse would not account for is the way we are able to store a mental picture of a ‘things’ which can be activated for the understanding of this utterance in context.

This mental picture develops out of past experience of such places, experience gathered either through direct contact or through indirect sources.


Pub Could I have a pint of lager, please?


Mosque

Schema theory and discourse deviation

Schema theory is an umbrella term covering a range of individualcognitive models at the heart of which are situated the core conceptschema and the attendant concepts frame, scenario and script.

a script (and by imputation a schema) is a chunk of knowledge whichdescribes ‘a predetermined, stereotyped sequence of actions thatdefines a well-known situation’ (Schank and Abelson 1977: 41).Scripts are expectation-based, preexisting knowledge stores, butthey are also subject to modification in the course of an individualsubject’s experience and development.

Schema theory and discourse deviation

Mosque

there is more to comprehending adiscourse than knowing the words onthe page,

attempts to provide theoretical modelsthat can explain the ways in which ourknowledge of the world guides ourefforts to comprehend a discourse ..

work has been carried out byresearchers in the field of artificialintelligence to develop programs thatwill enable computers to comprehendand produce natural discourse.

Human memory consists of sets of stereotypicalsituations, or 'frames‘, which are constructed out ofour past experiences.

These provide a framework which we use to make sense of new experiences.

e.g. _ going to the doctor_ buying a car_ planning a wedding party

One major problem is that it provides no explanation of why one frame might be selected rather than another.

Recession or no recession, retailers were preparingyesterday for the expected onslaught of thousands ofbargain hunters. Shops around the country were gettingready to open their doors for the first day of traditionalafter-Christmas clearance sales, with one large retailchain already predicting record trading levels.

(The Australian, Friday 27 December 1991)

a 'recession' frame, ? a 'Christmas' frame, ? an 'economy' frame, ? a 'shopping' frame, ?

the more text one has, the greater the chance of selecting the appropriate frame, and often, as listener or reader, we have to reserve judgement for some time until we have enough information to make a choice.

the knowledge we carry around in our heads is organized into interrelated patterns.

These interrelated patterns are constructed from all our previous experiences and they enable us to make predictions about future experience.

meaning does not come neatly pre-packaged in aural and written texts.

texts are little more than elaborate 'signposts' to the speaker or writer's original meanings,

the reader or listener must use his or her linguistic and content knowledge to reconstruct the original meanings of the creator of the discourse.

Schema

• two dimensions or levels to any given discourse:

1. Systematic level: includes the reader or listener's linguistic knowledge

2. Schematic level: relates to background content knowledge

• In making sense of a given piece of discourse, we try and match our own schematic knowledge with that of the writer or speaker.

the importance of interpretation to comprehension

we use procedure of interpretation to supply meanings that do not actually appear in the

discourse itself.


we use procedure of interpretation to supply meanings that do not actually appear in the discourse itself.

The case of cohesive devices

references

[antecedent] [reference]

I saw John yesterday. He gave me his hat.


Statistical probability was discovered in a teapot. Apostman saw it there and connected in to a petrolpump. He was wearing silk pyjamas at the time. Theywere old and dusty.

it Statistical probability there teapot He postman

NO DIFFICULTY


Statistical probability was discovered in a teapot. Apostman saw it[1] and connected it[2] to a petrol pump.It[3] was old and dusty.

1. it Statistical probability , teapot2. it teapot, Statistical probability3. it teapot, a petrol pump

MOREDIFFICULTY


Statistical probability was discovered in a teapot. Apostman rinsed it[1] out. He has no idea what it[2] wasof course.

1. it teapot2. It Statistical probability

NODIFFICULTY

appeal to our knowledge of the world

Schema theory and discourse deviation that restaurant

(1) Cafe. Chorus of kitchen cafe menu sounds and phrases.EDDY: One coffee please and croissant and butter.WAITRESS: Right. Cream?EDDY: Please.

(. . .)(2) EDDY: Where’s my fucking coffee? I’ve nearly finished this cheesecake

and then my whole purpose in life at this particularmoment will be lost. I’ll be drinking hot coffee with nothingto wash it down with.WAITRESS: Here you are, sorry I forgot you!EDDY: About fucking time!WAITRESS: Oh shut your mouth, you complaining heap of rat’s shit.

(Berkoff 1983: 35f)

Page (42) Metaphor

Metaphors are not some kind of distorted literal thought, but rather are basic schemes by which people conceptualise their experience and their external world.

Page (43) Metaphor

Writers consciously strive for novelty in literary expressionand this requires developing not only new conceptualmappings but also new stylistic frameworks throughwhich these mappings can be presented.

Examples of Conceptual Metaphors

•A PROBLEM IS A BODY OF WATER•ANGER IS HEAT•BELIEFS ARE FASHIONS•BELIEFS ARE GUIDES•COMPETITION IS A RACE•DESIRE IS HUNGER•EMOTIONS ARE FORCES•FEAR IS COLD•HOPE IS LIGHT

•IDEAS ARE FOOD•IDEAS ARE LIGHT SOURCES•IDEAS ARE OBJECTS•INTELLIGENCE IS A LIGHT SOURCE•LIGHT IS A FLUID•LOVE IS MAGIC•LUST IS HEAT•MORALITY IS PURITY

•PEOPLE ARE PLANTS•PEOPLE ARE MACHINES•SOCIETY IS A BODY•THE MIND IS A BODY•THEORIES ARE CONSTRUCTED OBJECTS•TIME IS A CONTAINER (BOUNDED)•WORDS ARE WEAPONS

Examples of Conceptual Metonyms

• PART FOR WHOLE+ (all hands on deck)

• WHOLE FOR PART+ (to fill up the car)

• CONTAINER FOR CONTENT+ (I'll have a glass)

• MATERIAL FOR OBJECT+ (a glass, an iron)

• PRODUCER FOR PRODUCT+ (have a Lowenbrau, buy a Ford)

• PLACE FOR INSTITUTION+ (talks between Washington and Moscow)

• PLACE FOR EVENT+ (Watergate changed our politics)

• CONTROLLED FOR CONTROLLER+ (the buses are on strike)

Metaphor and styleThe following poem is by the Liverpudlian poet Roger McGough:

A HUMAN RELATIONSHIP IS A GAME OF SPORT.

Metaphor development Extending and elaboration (Kövecses 2002: 48).

Extending a metaphor means expressing it throughlinguistic resources which introduce new conceptualelements from the source domain.

Elaboration involves capturing an existing component ofthe source domain in an unusual or unconventional way.

Metaphor and metonymy in different kinds of texts

1) Downing Street is thought to be furious over the International DevelopmentSecretary’s radio interview.

(from British newspaper, The Guardian 2003)

2) I have other irons in the fire but I am keeping them close to my chest.(British football manager discussing his plans for the forthcoming season)

3) My luve is like a red, red roseThat’s newly sprung in June:My luve is like the melodieThat’s sweetly played in tune.

(from a song by Robbie Burns)


4) Top rod for the day was visiting angler Mr. Simpson who had eight trout(Angling Reports Wales; Tallylyn)

5) When the evening is spread out against the skyLike a patient etherised upon a table

(from ‘The Long Song of J. Alfred Prufrock’ by T. S. Eliot)

6) Houllier targets £13m Cissé. Gérard Houllier has reacted to Liverpool’s costly failure to qualify for the Champions’ League by pledging to lure the France International striker Djibril Cissé. The Liverpool manager is also preparing to swoop on Blackburn Rovers’ Damien Duff . . .

(from British newspaper, The Guardian 2003))


7) When the still sea conspires an armorAnd her sullen and abortedCurrents breed tiny monsters . . .

(from ‘Horse Latitudes’ by Jim Morrison of rock band The Doors

8) Of course, with the Soviets’ launch of Sputnik, the Americans had been Pearl Harbored in space.

(Arthur C. Clarke, interviewed in 2001)


9) Whether ’tis nobler in the mind to sufferThe slings and arrows of outrageous fortune,Or to take arms against a sea of troubles,And by opposing end them?

(from Hamlet by William Shakespeare)

10) The exercises developed in this sub-unit are more an appetiser than a main course.

(the first sentence of a sub-unit in your textbook)


InstructionsA. For each of 1–10, decide whether the example represents metonymy or

metaphor. If you are in doubt, you should apply the ‘simile test’ which was set out in A11.

B. Specify which type of associated concept is the vehicle of the metonymy. For example, is the metonymy based on a part-for-whole relationship, a locationfor-institution relationship, or on a more contingent ‘one-off’ connection between the associated concepts?

C. Specify the source domain and the target domain for the metaphor. Follow this procedure even if there is more than one metaphor in the example. (Remember, the same target domain may be mapped through different source domains.)


1) Downing Street is thought to be furious over the International Development Secretary’s radio interview.

(from British newspaper, The Guardian 2003)

THE PLACE FOR THE INSTITUTION


2) I have other irons in the fire but I am keeping them close to my chest.

(British football manager discussing his plans for the forthcoming season)

PLANNING IS WORKING IN A BLACKSMITH’S WORKSHOP (Describing a blacksmith working on several pieces at the same time.)

THE CHEST (HEART) IS THE CONTAINER (OF SECRETS)


3) My luve is like a red, red roseThat’s newly sprung in June:My luve is like the melodieThat’s sweetly played in tune.

(from a song by Robbie Burns)

Concretisation: LOVE IS A PLANT

Novel metaphor: LOVE IS A MELODYarrangement of single notes to form a satisfying sequence.


4) Top rod for the day was visiting angler Mr. Simpson who had eight trout

(Angling Reports Wales; Tallylyn)

A PRIZE IS A PERSON


5) When the evening is spread out against the skyLike a patient etherised upon a table

(from ‘The Long Song of J. Alfred Prufrock’ by T. S. Eliot)

Concretisation: TIME (EVENING) IS A PERSON

Novel metaphor: EVENING IS A PATIENT

Novel metaphor: THE SKY IS A (SURGERY) TABLE


6) Houllier targets £13m Cissé. Gérard Houllier has reacted to Liverpool’s costly

failure to qualify for the Champions’ League by pledging to lure the France International striker Djibril Cissé. The Liverpool manager is also preparing to swoop on Blackburn Rovers’ Damien Duff . . .

(from British newspaper, The Guardian 2003))

Novel metaphor: FOOTBALLERS TRANSFER IS BIRD HUNTING

Concretisation: COMPETITION IS HUNTING


7) When the still sea conspires an armorAnd her sullen and abortedCurrents breed tiny monsters . . .

(from ‘Horse Latitudes’ by Jim Morrison of rock band The Doors

Novel metaphor: THE SEA IS A (FEMALE) PERSON


8) Of course, with the Soviets’ launch of Sputnik, the Americans had been Pearl Harbored in space.

(Arthur C. Clarke, interviewed in 2001)

THE PLACE FOR THE EVENT

Novel metaphor: SPACE RACE IS A CONFLICT


9) Whether ’tis nobler in the mind to sufferThe slings and arrows of outrageous fortune,Or to take arms against a sea of troubles,And by opposing end them?

(from Hamlet by William Shakespeare)

Novel metaphor: TROUBLES ARE UNCONTROLLABLE NATURAL PHENOMENA \ TROUBLES IS AN ARMY

Novel metaphor: FORUNE IS A WARRIOR


10) The exercises developed in this sub-unit are more an appetiser than a main course.

(the first sentence of a sub-unit in your textbook)

Concretisation: IDEAS ARE FOOD

Page (45) Puns and verbal play

humour requires an incongruity.

the concept applies more generally to (i) any kind of stylistic twist in a pattern of language (ii) any situation where there is a mismatch between what

someone says and what they mean.

The stylistic analysis of humour therefore involves identifying an incongruity in a text and pinpointing whereabouts in the language system it occurs.


A pun is a form of word-play in which some feature of linguistic structure simultaneously combines two unrelated meanings.


“I [The British PM] cannot ask the Queen to break the law.” ... He [The French Ambassador] smiled. “I do not want the Queen to break the law, I merely ask the Prime Minister to bend it.”

(A Diplomatic Incident, 350)

Page (45) Parody and satire

Parody and satire are forms of verbal humour which draw on a particular kind of irony for the design of their stylistic incongruity.

Irony is situated in the space between what you say and what you mean, as embodied in an utterance like ‘You’re a fine friend!’ when said to someone who has just let you down.

Lecture (4) Introduction: key concepts in stylistics · · 2017-03-07Page (38) Cognitive models...

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