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Lecture 2

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Basic database terminology and concept

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DATA REPRESENTATIONDATA REPRESENTATION

0Analog vs. Digital0Digital0Two states

0 (1) on0 (0) off

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DATA REPRESENTATIONDATA REPRESENTATION

0Binary number system0Combination of ones and zeroes represent characters

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Bit and Byte

0Bit0 Short for binary digit0 Smallest element of data0 Either zero or one

0Byte0 Group of eight bits, which operate as a single unit0 Represents one character or number

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Representing Characters in Bytes

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Using Binary Code to Calculate

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Hierarchy of Data

0Bit0Byte (Character)0Field0Record0File0Database

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Database objects/tools

0Table0Form0Query0Report

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Table

0A table is a grid of rows and columns

R O WCOLUMN

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Field

0A single trait or characteristic about a subject of a table

NAMA TARIKH LAHIR

JANTINA NO TEL GAJI

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Data type

0Characteristic designate for an Access field0Text0Number0Currency0Date/time0Yes/No0Memo0OLE object0Hyperlink

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Exercise

0Salutation (Mr., Mrs., Ms.)0Date of birth0Home address0Whether a student is allergy to medication 0The words to describe type of allergy0Photo of a student0How many sibling in the house0Salary

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Record

0A group of traits about a particular item0Simply a row in a table!

NAMA TARIKH LAHIR

JANTINA NO TEL GAJI

…

…

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Value

0The actual data entered at the intersection of a row and column

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Primary keys

0Key is a field that serves a specific function within a table.

0AutoNumber 0Requirement for a relational database. Means, in a

field that is the primary key, there can never be duplicate data

0example

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It’s about nothing: Null values and Zero-Length strings

0“Report that say something hasn’t happen are always interesting to me because, as we know, there are known knowns, there are things we know we know. We also know there are known unknowns; that is to say, we know there are some things we do not know. But there are also unknown unknowns-the ones we don’t know we don’t know”

At a press conference in 2003Donald Rumsfeld

Secretary of Defense(in the Bush Administration)

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It’s about nothing: Null values and Zero-Length strings

0Example:

Student Name Has Tel. No.? Tel. No.

Jasman Yes 018-1234567

Asmah No Does not exist

Syafiq Yes Exist, but we don’t know it

Elangovan Don’t know Don’t know if there’s one

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Activity 2

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Database Structures

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Database Structures

0 In all IS, data resources must be organized and structured in some logical manner so that they can be accessed easily, processed efficiently, retrieved quickly, and managed effectively.

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Database Structures

0Common database structures…

0 Hierarchical

0 Network

0 Relational

0 Object-oriented

0 Multi-dimensional

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Hierarchical Structure0Early DBMS structure0Records arranged in tree-like structure0Relationships are one-to-many

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Network Structure

0Used in some mainframe DBMS packages0Many-to-many relationships

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Relational Structure

0 Most widely used structure0 Data elements are stored in tables0 Row represents a record; column is a field0 Can relate data in one file with data in another,

if both files share a common data element

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Relational Operations

0Select0Create a subset of records that meet a stated

criterion0Example: employees earning more than $30,000

0Join0Combine two or more tables temporarily0Looks like one big table

0Project0Create a subset of columns in a table

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Multidimensional Structure

0Variation of relational model

0 Uses multidimensional structures to organize data

0 Data elements are viewed as being in cubes

0 Popular for analytical databases that support Online Analytical Processing (OLAP)

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Multidimensional Model

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Object-Oriented Structure

0An object consists of0Data values describing the attributes of an entity

0Operations that can be performed on the data

0Encapsulation0Combine data and operations

0Inheritance0New objects can be created by replicating some or

all of the characteristics of parent objects

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Object-Oriented Structure

Source: Adapted from Ivar Jacobsen, Maria Ericsson, and Ageneta Jacobsen, The Object Advantage: Business Process Reengineering with Object Technology (New York: ACM Press, 1995), p. 65. Copyright @ 1995, Association for Computing Machinery. By permission.

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Object-Oriented Structure

0Used in object-oriented database management systems (OODBMS)

0Supports complex data types more efficiently than relational databases0 Examples: graphic images, video clips,

web pages0Example use for product design

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Evaluation of Database Structures

0Hierarchical0 Works for structured, routine transactions0 Can’t handle many-to-many relationship

0Network0 More flexible than hierarchical0 Unable to handle ad hoc requests

0Relational0 Easily responds to ad hoc requests0 Easier to work with and maintain0 Not as efficient/quick as hierarchical or network

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Database Structures

Source: Management Information Systems by James A. O'Brien and George Marakas. McGraw-Hill Higher Education

Management information systems and the relevance to educational organization 3

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Foundations of Information Systems

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Foundation Concepts0Why study information systems and

information technology?0Vital component of successful

businesses0Helps businesses expand and

compete0 Improves efficiency and effectiveness

of business processes

0Facilitates managerial decision making and workgroup collaboration

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What is a System?

0A group of interrelated or interacting elements forming a unified whole

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What is a System?

• A set of interrelated components• With a clearly defined boundary• Working together• To achieve a common set of objectives

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What is a System?

0A system is…0A set of interrelated components

0With a clearly defined boundary

0Working together

0To achieve a common set of objectives

0By accepting inputs and producing outputs

0 In an organized transformation process

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What is an Information System?

0An organized combination of…0People0Hardware and software0Communication networks0Data resources0Policies and procedures

0This system…0Stores, retrieves, transforms, and disseminates

information in an organization

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Basic component of IS:

1. Hardware: it’s a set of devices such as processor, monitor, keyboard, and printer.

• Together, they accept data and information as an input, process them, and display them as an output.

2. Software: it’s a set of programs that instruct the hardware to process data.

3. A database: is a collection of related files, tables, relations, and so on, that stores data and the associations among them.

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Basic component of IS:

4. A network: is a connecting system that permits the sharing of resources by different computers. It can be wireless.

5. Policies and Procedures: are the set of instructions about how to combine the above components in order to process information and generate the desired output.

6. People: are those individuals who work with the system, interface with it, or use its output.

0 How would these information relevant to your project?

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Information Technologies

0Information Systems0All the components and resources necessary to

deliver information and functions to the organization0Could be paper based

0Information Technologies – technological side of IS0Hardware, software, networking, data management

0Our focus will be on computer-based information systems (CBIS)

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Recaps

0Data0 Elementary description of things, events, activities, and

transactions that are recorded, classified, and stored, but not organized to convey any specific meeting

0 Information0 Data that has been organized so that they have meaning

and value to the recipient 0Knowledge

0 Information that has been organized and processed to convey understanding, experience and expertise as they apply to a current problem or activity

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Information System

0Primary Purpose:

0Collects data, processes it into information then converts information into knowledge for a specific purpose.

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IS Activities0 Input of data resources

0 Data entry activities0Processing of data into information

0 Calculations, comparisons, sorting, and so on0Output of information products

0 Messages, reports, forms, graphic images0Storage of data resources

0 Data elements and databases0Control of system performance

0 Monitoring and evaluating feedback

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Recognizing Information Systems

0As professional of EMIS, you should be able to look at an information system and identify…0The people, hardware, software, data, and network

resources they use

0The type of information products they produce

0The way they perform input, processing, output, storage, and control activities

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Recognizing Information Systems (Group Discussion)0We will try to recognize and visualized IS in

several organizations in terms of following characters: 0The people, hardware, software, data, and network

resources they use

0The type of information products they produce

0The way they perform input, processing, output, storage, and control activities

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Type of information systems

• Manual information systems • Informal information systems • Formal information systems • Computer-based information systems (CBIS)

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System Concepts: A Foundation0 System concepts help us understand…

0 Technology: hardware, software, data management, telecommunications networks

0 Applications: to support inter-connected information systems

0 Development: developing ways to use information technology includes designing the basic components of information systems

0 Management: emphasizes the quality, strategic business value, and security of an organization’s information systems

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Other System Characteristics

0If a system is one of the components of a larger system, it is a subsystem0The larger system is an environment

0Several systems may share the same environment0Some may be connected via a shared boundary, or

interface0Types of systems…

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System typesSimple Complex

Has few components, and the relationship or interaction between elements is uncomplicated and straightforward

Has many elements that are highly related and interconnected

Open Closed

Interact with its environment Has no interaction with the environment

Stable Dynamic

Undergoes very little change over time Undergoes rapid and constant change over time

Adaptive Non-adaptive

Is able to change in response to changes in the environment

Is not able to change in response to changes in the environment

Permanent Temporary

Exists for a relatively long period of time Exists for only relatively short period of time

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Major Capabilities of Information Systems

1. Facilitate work in hazardous environments.2. Facilitate interpretation of vast amounts of data.3. Perform high-speed, high-volume, numerical

computations. 4. Store huge amounts of information in an easy-to-

access, yet small space.5. Provide fast, accurate, and inexpensive

communication within and between organizations.6. Allow quick and inexpensive access to vast amounts

of information worldwide.

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Major Capabilities of Information Systems

7. Enable communication and collaboration anywhere, any time.8. Increase the effectiveness and efficiency of people working in

groups in one place or in several locations.9. Vividly present information that challenges the human mind.10. Automate both semiautomatic business processes and

manually done tasks. 11. Facilitate global trade.12. Can be wireless, thus supporting unique applications

anywhere.13. Accomplish all of the above much less expensively than when

done manually.

All IS have purpose and social context

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Purpose

0A typical purpose is to provide solution to a (business) problem.

0Example:0 To coordinate internal units0 To collaborate0 To improve performance

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Social context

0The social context of the system consists of the values

and beliefs that determine what is admissible and

possible within the culture of the people and groups

involved.

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Discussion 2

0 In the educational context of organization, describe the characteristics of IS available and match them to the System types which you have learnt. Use the following table for discussion:

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System typesSimple Complex

Has few components, and the relationship or interaction between elements is uncomplicated and straightforward

Has many elements that are highly related and interconnected

Open Closed

Interact with its environment Has no interaction with the environment

Stable Dynamic

Undergoes very little change over time Undergoes rapid and constant change over time

Adaptive Non-adaptive

Is able to change in response to changes in the environment

Is not able to change in response to changes in the environment

Permanent Temporary

Exists for a relatively long period of time Exists for only relatively short period of time

Management information system

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Management Information SystemConcept of

General System

Stages and Functions of Management

Methods and Techniques in Planning and

Decision Making

Control Principle:

Feedbacks

Organization’s Structure and

Process

InformationTechnology Influences

Condition of Data,Information andCommunication

Factor

Behavior

MIS Development and Operation

Management Information SystemConcept of

General System

Stages and Functions of Management

Methods and Techniques in Planning and

Decision Making

Control Principle:

Feedbacks

Organization’s Structure and

Process

InformationTechnology Influences

Data Condition,Information andCommunication

Factor

Behavior

MIS Development and Operation

Data Condition, Information andCommunication

• Processing data into information and for communications, for the users are very important in MIS

• Data are collected facts and numbers which are kept, analysed, compared, and calculated to produced messages in the form that are useful to the users (which we call it as information)

Data Condition, Information andCommunication

• In designing MIS, despite producing reports, things such as: 0 source of information, 0 means for information dissemination, and 0 the meaning of particular information need a crucial attention. These are important to the MIS designer, as well as to the users.

• As a conclusion, data are costly; information that are well delivered; and with actions taken, shall gives values.

Management Information SystemConcept of

General System

Stages and Functions of Management

Methods and Techniques in Planning and

Decision Making

Control Principle:

Feedbacks

Organization’s Structure and

Process

InformationTechnology Influences

Condition of Data,Information andCommunication

Factor

Behavior

MIS Development and Operation

The Concept of General System

• There are a number of General System Theory that can be used to describe ‘organisation and MIS’

• GST emphasizes not only the needs to focus on divisions of the systems or organisations (reductionist approach), but also to look at these systems or organisations as a whole (holistic approach)

• System consisting of sub-systems or organisation consisting departments and divisions where all of those are interacting with each others

The Concept of General System

• Relationships between departments need to be given serious attention, or otherwise the whole system will not be functioning efficiently and slowing-down responses of transformation – which very important to keep on moving

• Reductionist approach discriminate relationship between departments and give more attention to each individual departments as an entity separately (which not always be the case)

Management Information SystemConcept of

General System

Stages and Functions of Management

Methods and Techniques in Planning and

Decision Making

Control Principle:

Feedbacks

Organization’s Structure and

Process

InformationTechnology Influences

Condition of Data,Information andCommunication

Factor

Behavior

MIS Development and Operation

Organisation’s Structure and Process

• Organisation make every effort to have a structure of procedures and objectives that suite to any transformations in their environment

• MIS should helps organisation to achieve this objective, to plan and control processes and operations, to handle uncertainty and to adapt with transformations, and also to urge for transformations

• MIS designer should aware of various influential factors to the organisation

• This, includes transformation in pattern of organisation management which start with mechanistic concept to the idea that acknowledged human and their characteristics

Management Information SystemConcept of

General System

Stages and Functions of Management

Methods and Techniques in Planning and

Decision Making

Control Principle:

Feedbacks

Organization’s Structure and

Process

InformationTechnology Influences

Condition of Data,Information andCommunication

Factor

Behavior

MIS Development and Operation

Stages and Functions of Management

• The value of information depends on actions taken into place that are resulting from information handling

• Information experts need to be clear of the types of tasks and management functions and therefore they could produced information that can be utilised by the management parties

• Typically, duties and management functions are different to one another depending on their position in the organisation

Stages and Functions of Management

0Management functions can be categorised into 5 fields and they are:0 Planning0 Decision Making0 Arrangement and coordination0 Leadership and motivation0 Controlling

Stages and Functions of Management

0 In general, there are 3 levels of management in an organisation:0 Top Management or Strategic Management0 Management of Middle level or Tactical Management0 Junior Management or Operational Management

03 out of 5 fields of duties, uses information the most i.e.:0 Planning0 Decision Making0 Control

Management Information SystemConcept of

General System

Stages and Functions of Management

Methods and Techniques in Planning and

Decision Making

Control Principle:

Feedbacks

Organization’s Structure and

Process

InformationTechnology Influences

Condition of Data,Information andCommunication

Factor

Behavior

MIS Development and Operation

Methods and Techniques in Planning and Decision Making

• The main task in management is planning and making decision

• Planning is a process of deciding ahead what should be done and how it is done

• The result of planning is a plan that to be used as a guidance in regulating activity or task and taking action

• Planning is linked closely with decision making • Without decision and action, the planning process is

of no use

Methods and Techniques in Planning and Decision Making

• To ensure planning and decision are well tailored, information gains by the manager must be accurate and appropriate

• MIS designer must know types of planning and decision which may be made in every levels of management, so therefore an accurate and appropriate information could be delivered

• Decision Making can be classified as programmed and un-programmed matters

Methods and Techniques in Planning and Decision Making

• Programmed decision is a routine decision and regulated repeatedly, and decision rules are known

• Un-programmed decision is unstructured decision and nature of problem and decision rules are complex and less known. Various kind of information and procedures are needed for different kind of decision.

• Therefore, MIS must be designed according to types of decisions, how decision are made, how decision maker relate decision to the organisation, the condition of the organisation, the environment and so on.

Methods and Techniques in Planning and Decision Making

• Both parties - manager and information expert need to understand and accept these approaches and is a prerequisite for effective MIS design

• Manager and system expert of the system used must know how to distinguish these two notions: effectiveness and efficiency

• effectiveness Doing things right which produced desirable outcome

• efficiency resources handling measures to achieve outcome

Methods and Techniques in Planning and Decision Making

• There might be an organisation that produced wrong outcome in efficient way, therefore the organisation is considered as not effective

• A good management concentrate on: what must be done, before thinking about how to do it and IS should helps these

Management Information SystemConcept of

General System

Stages and Functions of Management

Methods and Techniques in Planning and

Decision Making

Control Principle:

Feedbacks

Organization’s Structure and

Process

InformationTechnology Influences

Condition of Data,Information andCommunication

Factor

Behavior

MIS Development and Operation

Control Principle

• Much efforts for lower and middle management levels are control

• Control is a process to ensure operations are progressing as planned

• Usually done by making comparison the real output to what have been targeted. The error will be fixed especially by adjusting the input so therefore the activity taken place is on track that achieved the target

Control Principle

0 INPUT PROSES OUTPUT MONITOR AND COMPARE INPUT ADAPTATION (Feedback control loop)

0 If the existing feedback system could not fully control the process, therefore it is more suitable to use FEEDFORWARD

0FEEDFORWARD monitor at the early stage of process, helps to adapt immediately rather waiting at the final stage

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Discussion 3

0Based on the table given, discuss the control strategies for both School-based management and External control management.

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     Assumptions about education 

• -Multiplicity of educational goals• Complex and changing educational

environment• Need for educational reforms• Effectiveness and adaptation oriented• Pursuit of quality 

Unification of educational goals Simple and nearly static educational

environment No need for educational reforms Standardization and stability oriented Pursuit of quantity 

Theories used to manage schools

Principle of equifinality: Many different ways to achieve goals Emphasizes flexibility

Principle of standard structure: Standard methods and procedures to

achieve goals Emphasizes generalizability

  Principle of decentralization: Problems are inevitable, should be solved

at where they happen in time Looks for efficiency and problem-solving

Principle of centralization: Things big or small are carefully

controlled to avoid problems Pursues procedural control

  Principle of self-managing system: Self-managing Actively exploitative responsible

Principle of implementing system: Externally controlled Passively receptive Not accountable

  Principle of human initiative: Develops internal human resources Wide participation of school members

Principle of structural control: Enforces external supervision Expansion of bureaucratic system

Adapted from Y.C. Cheng (1993)

School-based management vs. external control management

Management Information SystemConcept of

General System

Stages and Functions of Management

Methods and Techniques in Planning and

Decision Making

Control Principle:

Feedbacks

Organization’s Structure and

Process

InformationTechnology Influences

Condition of Data,Information andCommunication

Factor

Behavior

MIS Development and Operation

Technology influences

• If we misused the technology especially without carrying out complete analysis of the management and organization problem, it shall not benefit, but most probably wasting the money spent

• Similarly, workers without sufficient training who to handle the computer, will not get the job done properly.

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Classification of MIS

0By organizational level0By the type of support provided

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Organization Level

Strategic

Tactical

Operational

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Org. A

Org. B

Org.C

Human Resources ISFinance IS

Product IS

Administrative IS

Inter-organizational Information Sys.

Organizational Information systems

Departmental Information systems

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Fundamental Roles of IS in Organization

O'Brien, James; Marakas, George 2008

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Types of Information Systems

0Operations Support Systems0Efficiently process business transactions0Control industrial processes0Support communication and collaboration0Update corporate databases

0Management Support Systems0Provide information as reports and displays0Give direct computer support to managers during

decision-making

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Purposes of Information Systems

O'Brien, James; Marakas, George 2008

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Operations Support Systems

0What do they do?0 Efficiently process business transactions0 Control industrial processes0 Support communications and collaboration0 Update corporate databases

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Types of Operations Support Systems0Transaction

Processing Systems0 Record and process

business transactions

0 Examples: sales processing, inventory systems, accounting systems

0 Process Control Systems0 Monitor and control

physical processes0 Example: using sensors

to monitor chemical processes in a petroleum refinery

0 Enterprise Collaboration Systems0 Enhance team and

workgroup communication

0 Examples: email, video conferencing

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Two Ways to Process Transactions

0Batch Processing0 Accumulate transactions over time and process

periodically0 Example: a bank processes all checks received in a batch

at night0Online Processing

0 Process transactions immediately0 Example: a bank processes an ATM withdrawal

immediately

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Management Support Systems

0What do they do?0 Provide information and support for effective decision

making by managers0Management information systems0Decision support systems0Executive information systems

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Types of Management Support Systems

0Management Information Systems (MIS)0 Reports and displays 0 Example: daily sales analysis reports

0Decision Support Systems (DSS)0 Interactive and ad hoc support0 Example: a what-if analysis to determine where to spend

advertising dollars0Executive Information Systems (EIS)

0 Critical information for executives and managers0 Example: easy access to actions of competitors

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Other Information Systems

0Expert Systems0 Provide expert advice0 Example: credit application advisor

0Knowledge Management Systems0 Support creation, organization, and dissemination of

business knowledge throughout company0 Example: intranet access to best business practices

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Measuring IT Success

0Efficiency0 Minimize cost, time, and use of information resources

0Effectiveness0 Support business strategies0 Enable business processes0 Enhance organizational structure and culture0 Increase customer and business value

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Developing IS Solutions

O'Brien, James; Marakas, George 2008

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Information System Resources

0People Resources0Specialists0End users

0Hardware Resources0Machines0Media

0Software Resources0Programs0Procedures

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Information System Resources

0Data Resources0 Product descriptions, customer records,

employee files, inventory databases

0Network Resources0 Communications media, communications

processors, network access and control software

0 Information Resources0 Management reports and business documents

using text and graphics displays, audio responses, and paper forms