Religion and RitualReligion and Ritual

The BIG QuestionsThe BIG Questions

What is religion and what are the basic features of religions?

How do world religions illustrate globalization and localization?

What are some important aspects of religious change in contemporary times?

Studying ReligionStudying Religion academic versus theological perspective

the academic perspective does not make value judgments about the validity of a religion

description of characteristics analysis of relationship between characteristics and cultural

context

Defining ReligionDefining Religion Durkheim (1915)

a unified set of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, that is to say, things set apart and forbidden, - beliefs and practices which unite [into] one single moral community, all those who adhere to them

Geertz (1985) (1) a system of symbols which acts to (2) establish

powerful, pervasive, and long-lasting moods and motivations in men by (3) formulating conceptions of a general order of existence and (4) clothing these conceptions with such an aura of factuality that (5) the moods and motivations seem uniquely realistic

Defining ReligionDefining Religion

Tylor (1871) religion is the belief in spirits

a comprehensive definition the beliefs and behaviors related to supernatural

beings and/or forces some religions don't believe in deities some religions believe in many

Separating ReligionSeparating Religion how do cultures separate religion

from other cultural aspects? small-scale societies are generally

less specialized, including the realm of religion

more complex, specialized societies tend to have categories that separate religion from other aspects of society (ex: economics, politics)

however, we oftentimes see a relationship between religion and these other aspects

ex: Proposition 8 involved aspects of politics and religion

Magic and ReligionMagic and Religion Frazer (1890)

a system of supernatural beliefs that involves the manipulation of supernatural forces for the purpose of intervening in a wide range of human activities and natural events

two general principals: the law of similarity/imitative magic suggests that if a

person or thing is similar to the actual person or thing you are seeking to modify, then the actions you do to it will transfer to the actual thing (voodoo doll)

the law of contagion/contagious magic suggests that performing magic on things that were once in contact with the actual person you are seeking to affect will have an effect on that person (lock of hair)

Magic and ReligionMagic and Religion in some cultures magic is inseparable

from religious beliefs, while in others it is seen as a completely separate practice both are nonrational (faith) magic is often aimed at specific

issues/problems, while religion is more concerned with “bigger picture”

magic can fit into a religious system, utilize personal agency and power; ex: prayer

difference in size of groups religions can include billions of people, while

magic is usually personal or small-scale, however, voodoo ceremonies can blur this line

Magic and ReligionMagic and Religion

Magic and ReligionMagic and Religion similarities and differences (continued):

religious practices are often done at specific, predetermined times (Ramadan), while magic is usually performed when the need arises (hardship)

some magic rituals, however, need to be performed during specific seasons, on specific days, and at specific times (solstice)

religions usually have more formalized positions of leadership, while magic can often be performed by the general population

again, voodoo blurs these lines with their special priests and priestesses

Magic and ReligionMagic and Religion in Western society we often view magic as

inherently evil, however, in those groups that practice magic, it is neither inherently good nor evil if used for positive purposes then it is good and if used

for negative ones then it is bad anthropologists and other scholars have used two

terms to separate the use of magic in non-Western cultures witchcraft is an inborn, involuntary, and often

unconscious capacity to cause harm to other people sorcery is the performance of certain magical rites for

the purpose of harming other people

Case Studies: West and Case Studies: West and North Central AfricaNorth Central Africa

Maka of Cameroon use the term sorcery in very ambiguous

ways it could refer to the magical force of djambe

that lives inside of many people or to a person that uses this force for their

own aims also simply refers to someone who is

knowledgeable about this force and the people that use it

djambe is sometimes used unconsciously by someone who is unaware of its existence within them, but is also used by people to heal those harmed by others who have it

Case Studies: West and North Case Studies: West and North Central AfricaCentral Africa

the Azande of Congo, Sudan, and Central African Republic

witchcraft refers to the conscious or unconscious use of a "witchcraft substance" inherited by one's parent of the same

sex a sorcerer does not necessarily need

this substance and can learn this skill and will intentionally use it to harm people

Case Studies: West and North Case Studies: West and North Central AfricaCentral Africa

although there is a wide range of meanings that these terms can have, there is a general theme of under what conditions they most often occur what is often the case with witchcraft and sorcery in

Africa is that the emergence of these forces or energies correlate with a rising of tension within the group, mostly in the form of jealousy

for example, in the Maka, witchcraft accusations would often occur because of jealousy of one's kin

the Bangwa present another example...

Case Studies: West and North Case Studies: West and North Central AfricaCentral Africa

the Bangwa of Western Cameroon accused child witches are often

jealous that their male parents are allowed to eat proteins that they are not due to a food taboo

when they are found guilty of witchcraft, they are allowed to eat these foods to appease the forces that caused the witchcraft, thus letting the child eat the food it wanted

Case Studies: West and North Case Studies: West and North Central AfricaCentral Africa

witchcraft and sorcery in these African groups can be seen as a way to ease tensions whether through accusations and the taking of

responsibility for magical events or through the function of witchcraft as an explanation for unfortunate circumstances

we see this theme of magic and ritual during times of anxiety or uncertainty throughout religious belief systems and practices

Theories on the Origin and Theories on the Origin and Function of ReligionFunction of Religion

early evolutionists (Tylor 1871) suggested our earliest human ancestors needed to explain the difference between the living and the dead argued that animism was the original and

most primary form of religion the belief that people have souls or spirits in

addition to physical, visible bodies after animism, people began to personify

the soul as human-like deities in the form of polytheism

polytheism then “evolved” into the “higher” form of monotheism

Theories on the Origin and Theories on the Origin and Function of ReligionFunction of Religion

Robert Marett (1914) disagreed, arguing that our ancestors were not that sophisticated to make this distinction argued that animatism was the original

form the belief in a generalized, impersonal power

found in all objects on earth over which people have some measure of power

another way to categorize the function of religion is in terms of the social and the psychological

The Social Functions of ReligionThe Social Functions of Religion social control

positive and negative sanctions to encourage socially acceptable behavior

religions as ethical systems with rules, rewards, and punishments

ex: the Ten Commandments conflict resolution

resolve tension during stressful times marginalized people often use religion to negotiate status by

forming own power structure intensifying group solidarity

bring people together, reinforces bonds religious institutions as meeting places

The Psychological Functions The Psychological Functions of Religionof Religion

cognitive provides an intellectual

framework for explaining parts of our world that we do not understand

origin and creation myths emotional

helps reduce anxiety by proscribing straightforward ways of coping

rituals, praying, meditating

Theorists and TheoriesTheorists and Theories Marx: religion is the “opiate of the

masses” functions as superficial comfort for

the poor, obfuscating class inequality Durkheim (1915): religion functions

to maintain social cohesion through the use of rituals and symbols

Malinowski: rituals reduce anxiety and uncertainty (see Gmelch 2009)

Freud: religion expresses people's unconscious thoughts, wishes, and worries

Classifying ReligionsClassifying Religions Canadian anthropologist Anthony Wallace

identified four principal patterns of religious organization based on what he calls cults cult here is used in an academic sense to refer to

forms of religion that have their own set of beliefs, rituals, and goals

these four cults are: individualistic shamanistic communal ecclesiastical

Individualistic CultsIndividualistic Cults least complex form of religious

organization in which each person is his or her own religious specialist (mystic tradition) one such ritual that is often

performed by people within these cults is the Vision Quest

ritual found among a number of Plains Indian cultures wherein through visions people establish special relationships with spirits who provide them with knowledge, power, and protection.

Shamanistic CultsShamanistic Cults characterized by part-time religious

specialists called shamans who intervene with the deities on behalf of their “clients” shamans are thought to have

supernatural powers by virtue of birth, training, or inspiration

emphasize the meaningfulness of humanity's connection to the earth and the supernatural, as well as the symbolic importance of every day events

often utilize medicinal plants that alter consciousness (ex: peyote, ayahuasca)

Communal CultsCommunal Cults societies in which groups of ordinary people

conduct religious ceremonies for the well-being of the total community similar to shamanism in that there are no full-time

religious leaders can be seen in the practice of:

ancestor worship – belief that the spirits of one's ancestors still affect the living and through the use of rituals and ceremonies they can ask for blessings, to be left alone, or to punish those who have harmed you (ex: the Lugbara of Uganda)

totemism –(not to be confused with totem poles) refers to the belief that groups of people are spiritually connected to certain plants, animals, or objects which are used as symbols of group identity (ex: many Native North American groups)

Ecclesiastical CultsEcclesiastical Cults highly complex religious systems

employing full-time priests formally elected or appointed and devote

all or most of their time to performing priestly functions

unlike shamans who conduct rituals during times of crisis or when their services are needed, these full-time priests conduct rituals that occur at regular intervals

priests are usually organized hierarchically, with some having more rights and responsibilities than others

ex: Christianity, Judaism, Islam, Buddhism

ReligionReligion as our definition suggested,

religion is composed of both beliefs and behavior beliefs involve the thoughts,

ideas, and ideologies that people in various religions espouse

behavior includes practices, rituals, and ceremonies that people from various religions perform

Religious BeliefsReligious Beliefs

religious beliefs: inform patterns of religious behavior are shared by practitioners of a given religion are passed on from generation to generation

how are religious beliefs expressed? myths and doctrines

Religious BeliefsReligious Beliefs myth – a narrative with a plot about

supernatural forces or beings must be understood academically

myth doesn't imply falsity, but suggests that the symbolic truths are the most important aspect of the story

ex: creation myths, like that found in Genesis doctrine – direct and formalized

statements about religious beliefs associated with large, institutionalized

religions written, often found in holy texts or official

decrees ex: Papal decrees, the Bible, the Qur'an

Religious BeliefsReligious Beliefs religions have beliefs about sacred

spaces also sacred versus profane space

different interpretations depending on religious tradition

natural or man-made, transient or permanent

examples: Devil's Tower is sacred to the Lakota peoples,

as are many natural landmarks (rivers, mountains, deserts)

churches, monoliths (Stonehenge), tombs, locations connected to religious leaders

any place where a ritual takes place can become sacred for that moment in time

Religious PracticesReligious Practices one of the most apparent religious

practices is that of the ritual a patterned behavior that is focused on

the supernatural realm the enactment of religious beliefs

rituals can also be secular, that is, not necessarily connected to religious beliefs sometimes mixed, sometimes modeled

after religious rituals can be periodic (performed at

predetermined times, ex: Christmas) or nonperiodic (performed in response to an event, ex: funerals)

Religious PracticesReligious Practices life-cycle rituals

also known as rites of passage marks a change in status from one

life stage to another Victor Turner (1969) suggested

that cross-culturally, rites of passage include three main stages or phases:

separation transition reintegration

Religious PracticesReligious Practices separation

the initiate (person undergoing the ritual) is separated physically, socially, and symbolically from society

can include special clothes, a period of silence, or actual seclusion from the rest of the population

transition termed as liminal phase by Turner initiate is between statuses, they are neither who they

were before nor who they are going to be concept of communitas

reintegration the initiate “comes out the other side” member of society again, this time with new status

Religious PracticesReligious Practices rituals of conversion

normal social roles and order are temporarily reversed

social norms are relaxed, like in the various celebrations of Carnival throughout the world

functionalists would suggest this is a way to relieve social tension

sacrifice the offering of something to a supernatural

force(s) can simply be the offering of food

ex: Dia de los Muertos and the offering of sugar skulls, pan de muerto, and beverages (like tequila or mezcal)

also includes killing of animals (including humans)

Religious PracticesReligious Practices pilgrimages

travel to a sacred place or places for purposes of religious devotion or ritual

often involves hardship the more difficult, the more merit the pilgrim

obtains removes a person from everyday life Turner's phases can also be applied here examples include:

Varanasi, India for Hindus Bodh Gaya in India for Buddhists Jerusalem, Israel for Abrahamic religions Lourdes, France for Christians Mecca, Saudi Arabia for Muslism

Hajj1 Hajj 2

World Religions and Local VariationsWorld Religions and Local Variations world religion refers to religions that are text-

based, have many followers, are regionally widespread, and are concerned with salvation in some form

important to remember that religions are not bounded, monolithic entities religions come into contact with each other

sometimes coexisting in the form of religious pluralism sometimes religions blend in the form of religious

syncretism sometimes religions conflict with each other and are the

impetus for violence therefore, when we talk about the 6 major world

religions, each has its own local variations

HinduismHinduism 828-1,000 million followers, the majority of

which live in India core texts are the 4 Vedas, written in Sanskrit

between 1200 and 900 BCE concept of god(s) depends on the specific

tradition under study nondualist (one's soul, or atman, is essentially not

separate from the supreme spirit, or Brahman) vs. dualist (multiple gods are the manifestations of the personality of the supreme spirit)

rituals and worship range from personal and everyday to large festivals

ex: Diwali, or the festival of lights, is a national 5 day holiday in India and includes lighting of lamps, gathering with friends and family, and sharing food; symbolizes triumph of good over evil

BuddhismBuddhism around 400 million followers in northern India with the birth of Siddhartha

Gautama (566-486 BCE) became the Buddha (awakened one) at age 35 after

liberating himself through meditation while sitting under the Bhodi tree in Bhod Gaya

protest against inequalities in Hindu caste system some forms worship Buddha as a deity (often along

with others), others only see him as a teacher of how to obtain nirvana

no single text is seen as authoritative focuses on the release from samsara (cycle of

rebirths), includes Hindu concepts such as karma

strong tradition of monasticism

BuddhismBuddhism the Four Noble Truths

1st teachings of the Buddha after reaching enlightenment the 4th truth is to end suffering, one must follow the Noble

Eightfold Path the Noble Eightfold Path

JudaismJudaism religious system first defined in 500 BCE

after the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem Abrahamic in origin (shares this with

Christianity and Islam) the Torah (Pentateuch or Five Books of

Moses) forms the basis of belief and practice other texts include the Midrash and the Talmud

because of the history of Judaism, a major theme is the concept of exile and return

monotheistic emphasizes orthopraxy

dietary restrictions keeping the Sabbath

ChristianityChristianity began in eastern Mediterranean in

second quarter of the first century ties with Judaism includes

teachings about a coming messiah accepts the Bible as holy scripture belief in one God who sent His son

to the world in order to sacrifice him for the sake of humanity

largest branches include Roman Catholic, Protestant, and Eastern Orthodox denominations within branches

IslamIslam 1.4 billion followers, majority of which live in Asia and

Africa, especially Indonesia youngest of the world religions monotheistic; Allah is simply the Arabic term for God based on teachings of prophet Muhammad (May Allah

honor and grant him peace/ṣall Allāhuʿalay-hi wa-sallam) in the 6th and 7th centuries CE

set forth in the Qur'an word “Islam” means “submission to God”

IslamIslam two main denominations

Sunni – majority (80-90%), follows Sunnah as model for life

Shi'a – minority group, believe that Muhammad's (saaw) son-in-law and cousin, Ali, was the rightful successorSufism is a mystical (personal knowledge of the divine) sect within Islam

the Five Pillars of Islam are presented in the Qur'an as a framework for worship and as a sign of one's commitment to the faith

IslamIslam

African ReligionsAfrican Religions while not traditionally

considered a world religion, we can see that African religious traditions are spread throughout the globe tied to the African diaspora as

caused by slave trade form practiced in African diaspora

usually west African in origin contemporary manifestations

usually syncretic in nature (ex: voodoo, candomble, santeria)

African ReligionsAfrican Religions most indigenous African religions

share some of the following features: myths about conflict between creator

and humans pantheon of high god or gods with many

secondary supernatural figures, sometimes powerful gods, sometimes lesser spirits

elaborate initiation rituals rituals involving animal sacrifice and

other offerings, meals, and dances altars as places where human and

divine meet emphasis on healing

Religious ChangeReligious Change no religion is static or in a vacuum religions are subject to change through a variety

of forces internal invention and innovation contact with other cultures and religions through

various processes (often stressful) contact, colonization, globalization

sometimes change causes people to incorporate another culture's traditions into their religion

other times, people within religions resist these changes by reaffirming traditional aspects of their religion

Religious ChangeReligious Change revitalization movements

socioreligious in nature usually organized by prophetic leader seeks to construct more satisfying situation by

reviving all or parts of a religion that has been threatened by outside forces

can also include adopting new practices and beliefs

subcategories nativistic movements

found among American Indians that emphasize their traditional religious beliefs in rituals

ex: Native American Ghost Dance movement as response to invasion by Europeans

Revitalization MovementsRevitalization Movements Cargo cults

often found in Melanesia after WWII product of contact with societies who

are more technologically advanced main focus is obtaining this

advanced technology through magic and ritual

Separatist Christian churches small-scale churches that break

away from the dominant church done in order to gain greater political,

economic, social, and religious autonomy

ex: Zion Christian Church

Revitalization MovementsRevitalization Movements Mahdist movements

found in Sunni Muslim parts of the world based on the premise that there is a

great reformer or redeemer (much like a messiah) that will come and restore justice on earth

Millenarian movements found in Christian areas of the world suggests that, based on a 1,000 year

cycle, there will be major changes that will completely transform society

sometimes in the form of the second coming of Jesus

ex: Branch Davidians

Key ThemesKey Themes there is staggering variety in the ways that people

manifest their beliefs sometimes it is difficult to separate magic and religion

often times one fits within the other religions serve many functions for the individual and

the society religions are composed of both beliefs and practices world religions and their local variations illustrate the

richness and complexity of religion cross-culturally religions are subject to change, just like any other

aspect of culture