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Dr. Akhlas AhmedGreenwich UniversityLecture # 04 July 23rd

2014

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Descriptive research is also known as non-experimental research

Asks the basic question: What is?No manipulation of variablesMeasure and record events that would

happen anyway

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Descriptive Research

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Manipulation of variables may be impossible or unethical Effects of megadoses of anabolic steroids on

strength Deliberately causing injury to study different

types of therapy No randomization, therefore less control

and many threats to internal validity Cause-and-effect is more difficult to

establish3

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Survey – technique of descriptive research that seeks to determine present practices or opinions of a specified population

Types of survey research include the questionnaire, interview, and normative survey

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Survey

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Durell, D. L., Pujol, T. J., & Barnes, J. T. (2003). A survey of the scientific data and training methods utilized by collegiate strength and conditioning coaches. J Strength Cond Res, 17(2), 368-373.

Schick MG, Brown LE, Coburn JW, Beam WC, Schick EE, Dabbs NC. Physiological profile of mixed martial artists. Medicina Sportiva. 14(4):182-187, 2010.

Rossi MD, Brown LE, Whitehurst M. Knee extensor and flexor torque characteristics before and after unilateral total knee arthroplasty. American Journal of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation. 85(9):737-746, 2006.

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Questionnaire – type of paper-and-pencil survey used in descriptive research in which information is obtained by asking participants to respond to questions rather than by observing their behavior

Limitation is that results are simply what people say they do, believe, like, dislike, etc.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QOqXlbWf9Io 6

Questionnaire

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Determine the objectives What information is wanted? How will the results be analyzed? Will comparisons be made between groups

of respondents?

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Questionnaire, cont’d

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Delimit the sample What is the specific population you wish to

examine?▪ Adults vs. children▪ Exercisers vs. nonexercisers (how do you define

exercisers?)▪ Elite coaches

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Questionnaire, cont’d

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Your sample must be representative of the population Sampling error

▪ Many samples may be drawn from a population▪ Each sample will yield different results▪ The difference between samples is the sampling

error (amount of error to expect in a single sample) Sample size

▪ Must be adequate to represent population of interest

▪ Must be practical from the standpoint of time and cost

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Questionnaire, cont’d

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Construct the questionnaire Open-ended questions

▪ Category of question in questionnaires and interviews that allows the respondent considerable latitude to express feelings and to expand on ideas

▪ Example: “How do you think things went today?”

▪ Drawbacks:▪ Respondents don’t like them▪ They are time-consuming to answer▪ Limited control over the types of answers given▪ May be more difficult to analyze

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Questionnaire, cont’d

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Closed questions▪ Category of question found in questionnaires

or interviews that requires a specific response and that often takes the form of rankings, scaled items, or categorical responses

▪ Ranking – type of closed question that forces the respondent to place responses in a rank order according to some criterion

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Questionnaire, cont’d

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▪ Example of Ranking: From what sources has most of your nutrition information come? Rank top 3

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Questionnaire, cont’d

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▪ Scaled items – type of closed question that requires participants to indicate the strength of their agreement or disagreement with some statement or the relative frequency of some behavior

▪ Example of scaled item: In a required physical education program, students should be required to take at least one dance class.1. Strongly disagree2. Disagree3. Undecided4. Agree5. Strongly agree

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Survey Research Process, cont’d

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▪ Likert-type scale – consists of 3 to 9 items▪ Equal intervals between responses, i.e.,

difference between “strongly agree, and “agree is considered equivalent

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Questionnaire, cont’d

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▪ Categorical response – type of closed question that offers the participant only two responses, such as yes or no

▪ Possible responses include yes/no, true/false, female/male, etc.

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Questionnaire, cont’d

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Appearance and design▪ Appearance has been shown to affect response

rate▪ Provide written instructions for completion▪ First few questions should be easy to answer▪ Short questionnaires have higher response rates

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Questionnaire, cont’

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Conduct a pilot study Send questionnaire to colleagues or

acquaintances Revise and send to sample of population

of interest Analyze results as part of pilot study Revise again and use

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Questionnaire, cont’d

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Write the cover letter Be professional and concise Explain purpose and importance Assure respondent of their privacy and

anonymity Use institutional letterhead if applicable Rewards and incentives may be used,

including money

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Questionnaire, cont’d

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Send the questionnaire Include self-addressed, stamped envelope E-mail, fax, and the internet may also be used

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Questionnaire, cont’d

http://www.surveymonkey.com/?cmpid=us:ps:google&gclid=CPb-u_7WmqACFQVaagodQSSdTw

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Follow-up Wait at least 10 days for follow-up Wait another 10 days then send another

questionnaire Keep in mind that respondents are “self-

selected” and this biases your results

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Questionnaire, cont’d

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Analyze the results These topics will be discussed later in class

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Questionnaire, cont’d

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Delphi survey method – survey technique that uses a series of questionnaires in such a way that the respondents (usually experts) reach a consensus about the subject Survey is sent to respondents (experts) Results are sent to respondents and

they are asked to reconsider their answers

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Delphi Survey Method

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Essentially the same as the questionnaire except questioning is done orally instead of in writing

Higher response rate but smaller samples than questionnaire

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Personal Interview

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Advantages of the personal interview: More adaptable Interviewer can

observe the respondent

Greater rate of return than questionnaire

Easier to explain questions

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Personal Interview, cont’d

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Normative survey – survey method that involves establishing norms for abilities, performances, beliefs, and attitudes

Similar to questionnaire except that tests are administered

AAHPERD Youth Fitness Test (1958)National Children and Youth Fitness

Study (1985, 1987)

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