Learning Theories

Skinner to Vygotsky

Behaviorism (Skinner, Thorndike)

Based on the concept that all learning can be studied through observed behaviors.

Stimulus-Response is key to learning.– Stimulus: Events encountered in learning.– Response: What happens in reaction to

stimulus.– Reinforcement: Appropriate S-R interaction is

rewarded, inappropriate S-R interaction is punished.

Behaviorism (Skinner, Thorndike)

Readiness: A series of S-R can be connected if geared towards a larger goal.

Practice: S-R events should take small, repeated steps to allow for reinforcement.

Gestalt Theory (Wertheimer)

The “Ah-ha” theory. Higher order thinking skills.– “Groupings” based on characteristics are key.– Learning takes place through the discovery of

the relationship between elements.– Gaps in groupings leads to exploring

possibilities.

Progressivism (Dewey)

Education is a lifetime event. It should not be viewed as a preparation for life.– Schooling should be related to the life of the

student.– Students should explore problem resolution

situations (projects). Subject matter should be presented to help resolve problem.

– The relationships in the classroom should be of working together to complete projects.

Genetic Epistemology (Piaget)

Cognitive structure (mind and intelligence) pass through biological developmental stages.– Sensorimotor (0-2 years): Motor actions– Preoperation (3-7): Intuitive, reactional– Concrete operational (8-11): logical with

concrete referents. – Formal operations (12-15): Movement to

abstractions

Genetic Epistemology (Piaget)

Cognitive structures change through adaptation:– Assimilation: interpretations of events through

present cognitive structures– Accommodation: change to cognitive structure

to explain environment.

Constructivism (Bruner)

Learning is an active process through which the learner connects new information to previously learned information.– Discovery based– Connect to students’ interests– Spiral based structure to teaching (provides

students the opportunity to add to schema)

Social Development (Vygotsky)

Learning take place through social interaction.Learning progresses through stages that expose

students to knowledge just beyond present state. (ZPD)– Requires assistance from someone more advanced in

this area.

Students use socially constructed tools (language, gestures, etc.) to negotiate meaning.

LANGUAGE www.ucalgary.ca/~mueller/P365/language.ppt

Language is fundamental to thinking and cognition, even isomorphic with cognitive processes in North American psychology

Explanations of language learning

Psycho-linguists, e.g., Chomsky– “Language Acquisition Device” innate– “preparedness”?

Psychologists, e.g., Skinner– Reinforcement

• Sudden? Full strength? Creative?

– Pavlov’s “second signal system” Cognitive science

Linguistic relativism?

Sapir - Whorf hypothesis:Language habits predispose

interpretation;“cold” means differently in Calgary compared to

Cancun?

Post-modernism …. Can anyone understand anyone else?

Linguistic universality?

For example, color words actually do not proliferate without number, just about a dozen common ones across cultures

“Eskimos” do not have hundreds of words for “snow”

Gender differences?

Men: language is for– Negotiation– Preserving independence– Avoiding failure

Women: language is for– Establishing connections– Establishing support & confirmation– reaching consensus

Linguistic “Determinism” -- not

Linguistic “relativism” does not imply “determinism” -- can differences in thinking overcome any absent words (thoughts and language not one and same)

Even relativism overstated, e.g., note the “cooperative principle” (Grice) -- presumed to be seeking mutual understanding (but also Verbal Self Defense! http://www.worldvsdleague.com/)

How is language acquired?

Innate processes? Experience, learning? Something else? Several things?

Theories of Second Language Acquisition (SLA)

Adapted from Ellis, R. (1986) “Understanding Second Language Acquisition

Acculturation Model (J. Schumann)

SLA is one aspect of acculturationThe degree of acculturation will control the

degree of SLA– Social distance

• Factors which interact between the native and target groups.

– Psychological distance• Affective factors which impact on the individual

learner.

Good Learning L1 & L2 groups are of equal

status Both groups hope for learner to

assimilate in target group Both groups believe that L2

group shares social sphere Small, non-cohesive L2 group L2’s culture is compatible with

target group Both groups have positive

attitudes for other group L2 group will be in target

language for extended time period

Bad Learning One group has higher status

than other Target group attempt to

limit assimilation L2 group maintains own

social sphere Larger, cohesive L2 group Cultures come into conflict One or both groups have

negative feelings for other group

L2 use of target language is temporary

Social Distance

Psychological DistanceLanguage shock

– fear, doubt, and confusion when using target language

Culture shock– fear, stress, disorientation due to negotiating new

cultureMotivationEgo boundaries

– How much risk they are willing to take

Pidginization Hypothesis– Interlanguage development (the individual languages

developed by those in the early stages of SLA) becomes fossilized when social & psychological distances are great.

These distances limit inputThe use of language remains at the

communicative stage– Communicative function: transmission of referential

(basic) information– Integrative function: language that marks a person as

member of group– Expressive function: language that displays “linguistic

virtuosity”

Accommodation Theory (H. Giles)

Similar to Acculturation Theory in that both attempt to explain how group relations impact SLA– Acculturation: Actual distance between groups– Accommodation: Perceived distance between

groupsSocial distances are in constant negotiation

Motivation is primary factor in SLA– It is a reflex of how learners define themselves in

ethnic terms

Factors that impact identity– Identification with specific “ingroup” (native)– Inter-ethnic comparisons: One group is better than

other– Perception of ethno-linguistic vitality– Perception of ingroup boundaries: hard boundaries

(separation from other group), soft boundaries (blending of language and culture)

– Identification and status with ingroup social categories: occupation, religion, etc.

Ethnic speech markers are used to show relationships in particular settings– Upward Convergence: User is positively

motivated towards outgroup. Attempts to limit speech markers

– Downward divergence: User is negatively motivated towards outgroup, accentuates speech markers.

Variable Competence Model (R. Ellis)

The way a language is learned is a reflection of how it is used.– Product: continuum of discourse types ranging

from entirely planned to entirely unplanned– Process: Distinction between linguistic

knowledge (rules) and the ability to use this knowledge (appropriate use of language as well as correct use)

Language develops as user applies the knowledge of language to contextual situations– Variable competence: user possesses a

heterogeneous rule system– Variable application of procedures: user applies a

variety or procedures to confirm language knowledge

Language acquisition is the result of making sense of language events

– There is a single knowledge store containing the variable rules for language use (automatic & analyzed)

– The learner has a capacity for language use with both primary (unplanned & unanalyzed) and secondary (planned & analyzed) discourse processes

– L2 performance is variable based on use of the processes mentioned above

– Language development occurs:• acquisition of new L2 rules through participation

discourse events• activation of L2 rules so they become part of

unplanned discourse

Unplanned discourse

Planned discourseL2 Knowledge

analytic

auto

mat

ic

primary

processessecondary

processes

Acquisition Acquisition

Use Use

Variable Competence Model of SLA (R. Ellis)

MotivationMotivation affects level of language

acquisition– Integrative Motivation: occurs when person

learning a second language does so in order to be identified with or become part of target group.

– Instrumental Motivation: occurs when person learning second language see it as a tool for personal or professional progress.

Those with Integrative Motivation tend to acquire second language better.

Theories of Steve Krashen

Learning vs. Acquisition (1)

Second language is developed through formal study of structure

Language learned through formal instruction

Language learning occurs at conscious level

Second language follows a pattern similar to first language

Language is naturally acquired.

Language acquisition occurs at subconscious level

Learning vs. Acquisition (2)

Language learning develops explicit knowledge of language

Formal instruction of language structure needed to provide key information

Language acquisition develops implicit understanding of language structure

Formal teaching of language structure does not improve acquisition

Second language develops in a natural order

Efforts to teach forms and structures for which students are not ready will not improve acquisition– Grammar-based approaches do not work– Allow time to development to take place

Input Hypothesis

Language acquisition occurs through interaction just beyond present ability

Comprehensible input (I+1) occurs when contextual clues provide for language clues

Affective Filter

Input is effected by a variety of affective events.

Lowering stress increase probability of acquisition

Monitor Hypothesis

Grammar learning will appear through the use of a monitor

Monitor examines output

It takes time to develop

Language provides information.

Common Underlying Proficiency (CUP)– Contrary to popular

belief, information learned in one language is available in the second.

What this means:

Information provided in one language becomes available in the other, once second language development reaches that point.

Different types of language.

Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS)– Common, everyday

language needed to function socially.

Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP)– Language needed in

academic environment.

Different types of language.

Problems arise when BICS is considered academically proficient.– Students are moved out of programs without

needed support.– Students are judged as being intellectually

inferior, which can be internalized by the student.

Threshold Hypothesis

There is a dynamic relationship between languages and cognitive development in bilingual students.– The better developed both languages are the

better the probability of positive cognitive development

– Students with limited native language development are more likely to suffer negative cognitive development

Threshold Hypothesis

First Threshold

Second Threshold

Top Floor: Balanced BilingualsChildren have age-appropriate ability in both languages

and positive cognitive advantage.

Middle Floor: Less Balanced BilingualsChildren have age-appropriate ability in one language,

not both. No cognitive advantage or disadvantage.

Lower Floor: Limited BilingualsChildren have low levels of ability in both languages

and probable cognitive disadvantage.

Provide Instruction in a Demanding, yet Contextualized Format.