This article was downloaded by: [University of Kiel]On: 27 October 2014, At: 06:41Publisher: RoutledgeInforma Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House,37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Innovations in Education & Training InternationalPublication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information:http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/riie19

Learning Spaces for Higher EducationRobert Cannon a & Zig Kapelis ba Advisory Centre for University Education , The University of Adelaideb Faculty of Architecture and Town Planning , The University of AdelaidePublished online: 09 Jul 2006.

To cite this article: Robert Cannon & Zig Kapelis (1976) Learning Spaces for Higher Education, Innovations in Education &Training International, 13:2, 13-24, DOI: 10.1080/1355800760130203

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1355800760130203

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the “Content”) containedin the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make norepresentations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of theContent. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, andare not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon andshould be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable forany losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoeveror howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use ofthe Content.

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematicreproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in anyform to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions

Learning Spaces for Higher Education

Robert Cannon, Advisory Centre for University Education, The University of Adelaide

Illustrated b y Zig Kapelis, Faculty of Architecture and Town Planning, The University of Adelaide

Abstract: Effective teaching and learning in higher edu-cation are often restricted because of the nature of avail-able learning spaces. Both the planning and the use oflearning spaces needs careful attention. Contributionsfrom architects, users, educationists and students can be

helpful in formulating decisions regarding the physicalfacilities for presenting information, for teacher-studentinteraction and for other learning activities considereddesirable in higher education.

Introduction

Spaces for teaching and learning should facilitatethe effective implementation of appropriate meth-ods and media. In planning and in using spaces atleast three educational questions must beconsidered.

(a) How will information be presented to stu-dents, or presented by students?

(b) What kinds of interaction will there bebetween students and teachers?

(c) What other kinds of activity (e.g., practicalwork) will students be required to engage in?

The answers to each of these questions will helpto determine the physical facilities that will needto be provided in each learning space.

The purpose of this paper is to assist teachers andadministrators responsible for planning new learn-ing spaces or for renovating existing spaces. Itsuggests ways in which spaces may be arrangedand used to achieve particular needs in the presen-tation and display of information, in interactionbetween teachers and learners and in other learn-ing activities. The discussion is largely educationalbut draws ideas from other disciplines, especiallyfrom Architecture.

Physical Facilities for Teaching and Learning

The variety of methods of teaching and learning inhigher education depend on the provision of cer-tain minimum physical facilities for their effectiveimplementation. These physical facilities are anappropriate and comfortable environment whichtakes into consideration lighting, acoustics, cli-

matic control and furnishings, and makes provisionfor the use of audio-visual media. Opportunitiesto alter the spatial relationships between learners,teachers and some of these physical facilities isoften desirable to help achieve certain aims inteaching, especially those aims best achieved bysmall group methods.

In the discussion which follows the physicalfacilities and the possible relationships within alearning space are described for some of themajor teaching methods used in higher education.These methods are the lecture, seminars and con-ferences, small-group methods, and individualizedlearning. Discussion of laboratories has beenomitted for the reason that their design and equip-ment tends to be highly specialized and orientedto the needs of particular disciplines.

Clearly, physical facilities will vary according tothe size and purpose of a learning space. However,there are important design considerations thatapply to most spaces. These considerations aremore fully discussed elsewhere (Green, et al.,1966), and in a wide range of technical literaturebut they include most of the criteria listed below.

Lighting

Lighting systems need to be suitable for all theactivities which occur in the learning space. Theseactivities need to be carefully identified at theplanning stage. Activities may include note-taking,the projection of slides, films and overhead trans-parencies, the viewing of television, displays ofvarious kinds (charts, maps, chalkboard) discussionand certain kinds of practical work.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f K

iel]

at 0

6:41

27

Oct

ober

201

4

14 PLET, Vol.13, No.2 - May 1976

Appropriate levels of illumination (for given activi-ties) on screen and display surfaces, working sur-faces (desks or tables) and surroundings need to beconsidered.

During the projection of film or slides, student's,writing surfaces should be adequately lit to facili-tate note-taking. In larger spaces, such as lecturetheatres, supplementary lighting should be pro-vided on chalkboards, display surfaces for chartsand maps and on demonstration areas.

An appropriate means of controlling the lightingsystem, and any natural light sources, needs to beprovided. However, the lecturer's control shouldbe as simple as possible. If lights are arranged inbanks in lecture theatres it is essential to be ableto switch them on and off in rows across the ceil-ing paralleling the seating rows. This arrangementfacilitates projection of films or slides and at thesame time, enables a sufficient level of illuminationto be provided for note-taking.

A common error is to place bright room lightingimmediately in front of overhead projectionscreens. This gives a 'washed out' image on thescreen and makes the projected image difficult, ifnot impossible, to read.

Acoustics

Good acoustics are essential in all learning spaceswhere emphasis is often placed upon listening.Acoustic considerations include the distributionof sound within the space, the passage of soundbetween spaces and levels of background noise.Acoustic design may include the installation ofamplification systems for recorded sounds, film,and television. However, an acoustically welldesigned theatre for up to 400 students, shouldneed no speech reinforcement system, providedthere is no interference from outside noise.

Climatic Control

Learning spaces should be comfortable in terms oftemperature, humidity and ventilation.

Furnishing

Furnishings include seating, writing and work sur-faces, lecture benches, room dividers, storage units,curtains and floor coverings. Furnishings shouldmeet minimal functional, aesthetic, and economiccriteria. These criteria need to be identified earlyin the planning stages since furnishings are animportant part of the total facility for teachingand learning.

(a) Seating

Seating can be fixed, moveable or combined. Fixed

seating has the advantage of assuring that everyoccupant is in the proper relationship to displaysurfaces and screens but has limitations in flexi-bility. Fixed seating is perhaps most useful inlecture theatres. Moveable seating permits flexi-bility in arranging rooms to meet particularrequirements but can sometimes result in com-plete disorder of arrangement if not suitably con-trolled. Combined seating consists of moveableseats arranged behind fixed writing surfaces. Someseats have their own tablet arms for writing butthese arms are frequently too small for studentneeds. Seminar rooms might be furnished withlounge-type chairs, shown in figure 1.

(b) Writing and Work Surfaces

Where moveable seating (without tablet arms) isprovided, it is desirable to have a flexible arrange-ment of tables which can be used for seminar ordiscussion groupings. Alternative arrangements ofrectangular and trapezoidal tables are illustratedin figure 2 to show how this might be achieved.

(c) Lecture Benches

"These are often large forbidding objects whichstretch across the front of the lecture theatre, pro-viding a large number of drawers and cupboards -most of which are empty — and also, incidentlyand unfortunately providing a divisive influencebetween the lecturer and his audience." (Austwick,1969)

Figure 1. Seminar rooms may include comfort-able, moveable furniture and facilities for makingcoffee and tea.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f K

iel]

at 0

6:41

27

Oct

ober

201

4

>

OVBKHEA

Figure 2. Flexible arrangements of rectangularand trapezoidal tables permit a variety of group-ings for seminars and tutorials.

A moveable lecturer's bench is illustrated in figure3 which overcomes some of these difficulties. Thebench provides reasonable storage for notes, books,the lecturers' coat and bag, and as well, is designedto afford easy use of the overhead projector. Thesame kind of bench (but of different dimensions)could be used in conference or seminar rooms.

(d) Screens for Room Divisions

Moveable screens are useful to 'break-up' largerrooms into small work areas (figure 7). Thesescreens can often be used as display surfaces and,in some cases, projection screens, or as chalkboards.

Audio-Visual Facilities

Physical facilities need to be provided to assist inthe presentation of information and to allow forappropriate variations in presentation.

Traditionally the teacher and the chalkboard havebeen the main sources of information for studentsin lectures. Modern spaces should provide facili-ties for a wide range of audio-visual media such asprojection, television and sound distribution sys-tems. A list of these media, together with design

Learning Spaces foi Higher Education IS

considerations, is given in table 1. The informationin table 1 can be applied to both lecture spacesand seminar rooms.

Access and Movement of People

The arrangement of the space and its facilitiesshould permit easy access and circulation of peoplewithin it. Access problems include the arrival anddeparture of students (especially in lecture theatresafter a lecture has commenced, if the only accessis located adjacent to the lecturer) and access toseating between aisles. Whenever possible, accessshould be through doors placed at the back of the

Figure 3. A moveable lecturer's bench.

mjr

H1

\ L)

Figure 4. This moveable board has both chalk-board and felt board surfaces. The board can beused as a screen for room division as well.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f K

iel]

at 0

6:41

27

Oct

ober

201

4

16 PLET, Vol.13, No.2 - May 1976

Table 1. Some factors influencing the design of spaces for teaching and learning.(N.B. This information is of a summary nature only. It will be necessary to refer to more detailed technical data andprofessional advice when planning a particular learning space.)

Factor Minimum criteria for effectiveness Space and design consideration

Lecturer a. Audible.

b. Visible to all students.

c. Able to conduct and controldemonstrations.

d. Able to control audio-visual mediaand lighting system.

a. Acoustic design to avoid need for speechamplification system.

b. Lines of sight and internal geometry ofspace (figure 12).

c. Suitable lecturer's bench and workingsurfaces for demonstrations.

d. Controls on, or adjacent to, lecturer'sbench. Proximity and ease of operationof overhead projector, display boards,screens and lights.

Display boards (including oneor more of the following com-bination: chalkboard, white-board, pin-board).

Visible (i.e., not blocked from viewby other facilities or by students).Ease of use, cleaning, manipulation(e.g. of roller and sliding boards).

Arrangement of boards at front of space (orin a corner, see conference rooms shown infigure 5). Position and height of boards(tops of chalkboards should be about 2 mfrom the floor).Relationship between display boards, screensand lecturer. Location of mobile boards (ofthe type shown in figure 4).

Maps and charts VisibleEase of manipulation

Availability of display surface (could be onpin-board or on magnetic chalkboard withmagnetic devices); or fixtures on which tohang charts; or fixed rollers to store and todisplay frequently used maps or charts.

Screens (for slide andfilm projection)

a. Correct size for location.

b. Accurate reflection or trans-mission of light.

c. Picture must be satisfactory overas wide a viewing angle aspossible.

d. Visible and correct position fortype of room.

a. Screen width - 1 /6 of the length of theteaching space.

b. Alternative screen types are translucent(for rear-projection); matt white; alumi-nised; beaded; lenticular.

c. Viewing angle depends on screen type.For the common matt white screens thehorizontal viewing angle should notexceed 60°.

d. In large spaces the bottom edge of thescreen should be about 2 m from thefloor. Screens may be placed across acorner of the space.

Multiple screens (usually twoor three adjacent screens forcomparison of simultaneouslyprojected slides).

As for 'Screens' above. Figure 13.Further details on screens is given in Green(1966).

Overhead projector screen Visible(May also be adjustable for slide andfilm projection.)

Screen should be high and tilted forward atthe top to avoid 'keystoning'. (Keystoningrefers to projected image wider at the topthan bottom.)See figures 8 and 14)

Audio aids (e.g., tapes,cassettes, radio broadcasts).

Audible.Ease of use and control.

Amplification and distribution system.Location of speakers.Tape and cassette players may be perma-nently installed or provision may be made atlecturer's bench to plug into the systemprovided.Radio reception facilities.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f K

iel]

at 0

6:41

27

Oct

ober

201

4

Learning Spaces foi Higher Education 17

Table 1 - continued

Factor Minimum criteria for effectiveness Space and design considerations

Film projector Projected images visible.Sound audible.Ease of use and control.

Location of projector for either front pro-jection or for rear projection.Control of projector.Choice of lens appropriate to type of film,size of screen, and location of projector.Location of speakers and/or provision toplug into sound system.Suitable room darkening and light controlfacilities.

Television Television images visible.Sound audible.Ease of use and control.

Depends on nature of television system inuse, e.g.,a. Closed circuit television system to relay

demonstration at lecturer's bench to lec-ture theatre will require: camera andcamera stand; connections to video sys-tem; suitably located monitors (eithercolour or black-and-white) on moveablestands or fixed to ceiling; or 'telebeam*system (television projector)

b. video and broadcast distribution systemwill require: off-air reception facilities;videotape or videocassette player(s) forcolour or black-and-white programmes;suitably located monitors (either colouror black-and-white).

The maximum viewing distance from amonitor is 12 X screen image width.System needs to be able to cope with varietyof software formats (e.g., monochrome video-tapes, or colour videocassettes).See Educational Facilities Laboratories(1968) for further technical data.

Slide Projector Projected images visible.Ease of use and control.

Location of slide projector(s).Control of projector(s) (remote control con-nections may be provided on or adjacent tolecturer's bench).Choice of lens appropriate to screen size.Suitable room darkening and light controlfacilities.

Opaque projector Projected images visible.Ease of use and control.

Location of projector in readily accessibleposition (the projector may require its ownmoveable table or trolley).Suitable room darkening and light controlfacilities.

Computer Displays visible.Accessible computer terminal orcomputer display outlet.

Computer terminal and/or display monitors(may be integrated with closed circuittelevision system).

learning space to avoid distractions to teachersand learners. There will also be fire and safetyregulations to consider in providing access.

The Lecture

The lecture is discussed in greater details in Halland Cannon (1975). Some of the points raised in

their book have implications for the building andequipping of lecture theatres and lecture rooms.These points are listed below.

1. Lectures are as effective as other methods ofimparting information (but not more so).

2. For appropriate aims, the lecture is an economi-cal way of using staff and student time.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f K

iel]

at 0

6:41

27

Oct

ober

201

4

18 PLET, Vol.13, No.2 - May 1976

Figure 5. Grouping and layout of lecture theatres,(above) Circular and irregular grouping of theatres,(top left) alternating lecture theatres,(bottom left) Lecture theatre with adjacent con-ference and small-group spaces.

Figure 6. The design of this lecture theatre in theLaw School of the University of Sydney allowsstudents to face each other for discussions andconferences.(From a photograph supplied by the University ofSydney.)

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f K

iel]

at 0

6:41

27

Oct

ober

201

4

Leaning Spaces for Higher Education 19

P|ge5gNTAnON OF A P A P B *

Figure 7. A Iternative arrangements for furnishings in seminar and small group rooms.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f K

iel]

at 0

6:41

27

Oct

ober

201

4

20 PLET, Vol.13, No.2 - May 1976

Figure 8. Overhead and slide projection screen.

3. The uninterrupted 50 minute lecture is a poormethod for learning. Lecture effectiveness maybe improved if there can be student participa-tion, application of what is learned, feedbackto the learner and variety in presentation ofinformation and in interaction.

Such an arrangement at the Sydney UniversityLaw School is illustrated in figure 6. This arrange-

. ment also enables students to face others acrossthe room in large-group discussion.

(b) Feedback Systems

Feedback systems (or student response monitors)allow a lecturer to immediately evaluate under-standing or the effectiveness of a presentation.These systems consist of a response unit of four orfive buttons to each student position connected toa computer and display screen at the lecturer'sbench. The computer can analyse data and displayit within seconds. In planning such a system it isnecessary to know the number and location ofstudent positions and to provide conduit forwiring.

(c) Individual Works

It is possible to set problems for students to solveindividually in lectures. This enables new know-ledge to be applied immediately and provides a testof understanding. During problem solving thelecturer may wish to move around and help stu-dents in difficulties. Space for movement betweenrows of students needs to be provided for this.

The Environment for Lectures

Lectures are often delivered in spaces capable ofaccommodating several hundred students and inother spaces (perhaps more appropriately calledlecture rooms or classrooms) with a capacity forabout 40 students or even less. Possible groupingand layout of lecture spaces is indicated in figure5.

Interaction between People in Lectures

The lecturer dominated pattern of interaction isonly one of several possible interactions that cantake place in lectures. Others that might beappropriate to achieve increased attention andlearning are described below (together with theimplications of these for the learning space).

(a) Buzz Groups

Small sub-groups of students in a lecture can dis-cuss a problem for two to five minutes and perhaps(if the lecture class is small enough and if timepermits) report to the whole group. The mainrequirement for buzz groups is to create an arrange-ment of seating and writing surfaces which enablestudents to face each other.

Figure 9. Audio-visual equipment trolley. Thetop of the trolley can be tilted up to the requiredangle for projection.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f K

iel]

at 0

6:41

27

Oct

ober

201

4

(d) Demonstrations

Small groups of students may be able to getheraround the lecturer's bench to witness a demon-stration. When numbers prevent this, demonstra-tions can be displayed using closed-circuit tele-vision (table 1).

Although interactions of these kinds can be usedin lecture theatres some of them are more suitablefor smaller groups. The needs of such groups canbe often better met in seminar or conferencerooms.

Seminars, Conferences and Small-Group Methods

Seminars can be described as group discussionfollowing the presentation of a paper or other work(Bligh, 1971). Conferences are similar, with per-haps less emphasis on presentation. Spaces forseminars and conferences should, therefore, affordpeople the opportunity of facing each other fordiscussion. Thus, although there must be reason-able facility for the presentation of information,there will need to be provision for a high degree ofinteraction between all participants and for flexi-

Figure 10. Space for individualized learning.

OUTLET T

MBMT

nu//y 7'<".'?.. . I

/

MSrHT

MATT WHITE

Learning Spaces for Higher Education 21

MM.HPNZ0N1AL

ScKetwWIDTH

W

MIN.PISWJCE

l Y ' f c w i N / T ^ . ^ . : ^

Internal geometry of a lecture theatre.

COWEDtS FOR,:• MEW SUPg

Figure 11. Carrel.

3*

Figure 13. The screens in this theatre allow simul-taneous projection onto three surfaces for pano-ramic effects or for comparison of two or threeslides.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f K

iel]

at 0

6:41

27

Oct

ober

201

4

22 PLET, Vol.13, No.2 - May 1976

bility in the arrangement of furnishings, fittingsand of audio-visual media. Green (1966) stresseshow 'flexibility' is a term

. . . with varied implications and with hazardsof misunderstanding and misinterpretation. Itincludes a concern for returning to the old aswell as changing to accommodate the new.

Three needs in the re-arrangement of space aredefined.

1. Hour-to-hour flexibility (or even minute-to-minute such as in the formation and breakingup of sub-groups in discussion).

2. Day-to-day flexibility which allows time for therelocation of heavy furniture and display equip-ment.

3. Term-to-term and year-to-year flexibility whichmay include the installation or removal ofdemountable partitions and possibly rewiring.This type of flexibility permits quick responseto curriculum changes.

The Environment for Seminars and Small Groups

The major consideration is to create an environ-ment in which the dual purposes of presentationdiscussion can be achieved comfortably. Figure 7presents some alternative arrangements withinthese types of rooms.

Figure 5(c) showed how a series of conferenceand small-group teaching rooms may be usefullygrouped adjacent to a larger lecture theatre. Suchgrouping is particularly useful for conferencesinvolving large numbers of people.

Each of the considerations described previously(lighting, acoustics, climatic control, furnishing,audio-visual media and access) needs to be con-sidered here as well. One difficulty is to establishan 'ideal' size for a seminar or small-group room.We know from studies of small groups that agroup size of six is about right for meaningfuldiscussion to take place (Davies, 1971). However,this number is clearly too small for most seminarsand for conferences. One solution is to provide anumber of spaces of varying capacities as shown infigure 5(c). Another is to divide a larger area withsuitable screens (figure 7) to reduce the effectivesize of the area and make it seem reasonably 'full'with comparatively small numbers of people.

Interactions between People in Seminars and SmallGroups

Participation in discussion and listening to presenta-tions are only two ways in which interaction cantake place. The space provided and its facilitiescan be used for a diversity of purposes, as illus-trated in figure 7. These purposes may include

simulations, role play, debates and workshops.

Flexible arrangements, such as those illustrated,necessitate moveable furniture and fittings, includ-ing chairs, tables, screens (for projection), screens(for dividing up spaces), benches, equipmenttrolleys, chalkboards and display boards.

Because there will be a high degree of movementand considerable noise (for example, from severalsub-groups working simultaneously) it is impor-tant to plan for the acoustic difficulties that willbe encountered. Curtains, soft floor coverings andsound absorbing screens will be useful for thispurpose. (Curtains can serve the additional pur-pose of providing blackout to windows.)

There are a wide variety of teaching and learningactivities which are collectively described as"tutorials". Generally, a tutorial involves allmembers of a small group in discussion. On manyoccasions, tutorials involve a tutor or a student inexplanation and exposition. For this reason, it isoften necessary to include facilities for the presen-tation of information to others in the group. Thenature of the presentation facilities will dependupon the aims of teaching departments using thetutorial rooms.

The size of the tutorial room needs to be sufficientto accommodate from about six to twenty peopleand must allow space for reasonable movementaround the room and the operation of audio-visualor other equipment.

The furnishing of tutorial rooms should includetables and chairs that can be arranged to enableparticipants to face each other. (In some cases itmay be desirable to dispense with tables and havean arrangement of comfortable chairs and smallcoffee-tables, as shown in figure 1.)

A character conducive to informality and inter-action can be introduced in tutorial rooms throughthe use of carpeting, the careful selection of furnish-ings, and facilities for the preparation of coffeeand tea.Audio-Visual Facilities

Appropriate facilities for using audio-visual mediain seminar and conference rooms and in tutorialrooms may be chosen by referring to table 1.

Projection screens are always a problem, especiallyin smaller spaces, because of the different needs ofoverhead projector screens need to be tilted in thevertical plane. A mounting bracket of the typeshown in figure 8 permits screen movement andmakes it suitable for both overhead and slide orfilm projection.

It is unlikely that each small-group teaching roomwill be equipped with audio-visual aids. In this

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f K

iel]

at 0

6:41

27

Oct

ober

201

4

,WALL MOON TCP

Figure 14. Overhead projection screen.

case, equipment trolleys that can be moved fromroom to room will be most useful (figure 9).

Individualized Learning

Five examples of individualized learning are pro-grammed learning, the audio-tutorial method, theKeller Plan, modular instruction and. tape-slides.Space requirements for the implementation of eachexample depend on the nature of the aims and onthe content of courses offered using these methods.Space requirements could range from a singlecarrel for one student working from a programmedlearning text to whole rooms full of equipment,laboratory benches, carrels, discussion rooms andprivate studies for Keller Plan or audio-tutorialcourses.

Some of the common features of each type ofindividualized learning are:

1. an emphasis on.student activity in the learningprocess;

2. the opportunity for students to work indepen-dently at their own pace;

3. the use of a variety of media such as books,models, real objects and specimens, slides,audio and video tapes and film.

The spatial implications of these three featuresare:

Learning Spaces for Higher Education 23

1. a need to provide appropriate working areas tomeet the requirements of varied activities.These work areas could include access to labora-tories and machinery workshops, as well as tocarrels;

2. each student will require a place to study inde-pendently free of the distractions surroundinghim;

3. facilities for media needs to be provided usuallyon an individual basis but sometimes on a groupbasis as well. Where media are used storage andsupervision of equipment and materials needsto be considered. Teaching materials (slides,tapes, specimens) may be stored and issuedfrom a service area within the learning space.

Study and Work Areas

Spaces for independent study frequently need tobe complemented by spaces for other activities.Figure 10 illustrates one arrangement for a subjectin which laboratory work is associated with (forexample) a programmed text or a tape-slide pro-gramme. In this arrangement carrels are groupedtogether so they can share common facilities suchas lighting, acoustics, furnishings and service areas.Group facilities are provided where these are anintegral part of the course (as in Keller Plancourses). These rooms can be used for discussion,project work, testing, and counselling students:

In other courses it might be undesirable to separatefunctions so discretely. Postlethwait has describedthe physical facilities used in a botany course atPurdue University taught by the audio-tutorialmethod. These facilities include a 'learning centre'(comprising service area, bulletin boards, carrels,display tables, study table and reference library)an adjacent workroom and preparation room, alecture theatre, small group rooms and a green"house. (Postlethwait, etal., 1972). These facilitiesfor individualized learning are indicative of thespecial requirements of the discipline concerned(in this case, Botany).

Carrels

Carrels will vary in design but generally includesome provision for using audio-visual media.Special purpose carrels may include wiring foraudio and video programmes from a remote con-trol room, and gas, water, air, and electrical ser-vices. However, most carrels will not need theseservices except for power outlets. A simple carrelis illustrated in figure 11.

In determining the number of carrels needed for aparticular learning area it is important to takeaccount of each of the following: number of stu-dents who will use the area, the estimated number

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f K

iel]

at 0

6:41

27

Oct

ober

201

4

24 PLET, Vol.13, No.2 - May 1976

of carrel hours per week, and the number of hoursper week the learning area will be open to students.

Conclusion

Careful attention to the likely requirements for alearning space in terms of the presentation ofinformation, interactions and activities can helpto make spaces both suitable and adaptable to thedemands of modern teaching and learning. Newlearning spaces need to be planned on a co-operative basis. Contributions from architects,users, educationists, and students can be useful inavoiding many of the errors which have been madein designing and equipping of learning spaces inthe past (Smith, 1974).

References

Austwick, K. (1969) Spaces for learning andteaching, in D. Unwin, ed., Media and Methods,Instructional Technology in Higher Education.London: McGraw-Hill.

Bligh, D. A. (1972) What's the Use of Lectures?Melbourne: Penguin.

Davies, I. K., (1971) The Management of Learning.London: McGraw-Hill.

Educational Facilities Laboratories, (1968) Designfor ETV, Planning for Schools with Television.New York: Educational Facilities Laboratories.

Green, A. C, ed., et al. (1966) EducationalFacilities with New Media. Washington Depart-ment of Aduiovisual Instruction, National Educa-tion Association in collaboration with Centre forArchitectural Research, Rensselser PolytechnicInstitute.

Hall, W. C. and Cannon, R. A. (1975) UniversityTeaching. Adelaide: Advisory Centre for Univer-sity Education, The University of Adelaide.

Postlethwait, S. N., Novak, J., and Murray, H. T.(1972) The Audio-Tutorial Approach to Learning.3rd edition. Minneapolis: Burgess.

Smith, P., (1974) The Design of Learning Spaces.London: Council for Educational Technology.

Acknowledgement

Permission to use material from University Teach-ing, published by the Advisory Centre for Univer-sity Education, The University of Adelaide, SouthAustralia, 1975, is gratefully acknowledged.

Biographical Notes

Robert Cannon is lecturer in educational technology inthe Advisory Centre for University Education at TheUniversity of Adelaide and a council member of therecently formed Australian Society of Educational Tech-nology. His particular interest is in teaching and learningin higher education.

Address for correspondence: Advisory Centre for Uni-versity Education, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide,South Australia 5000.

Zig Kapelis is a lecturer in Architecture at The Universityof Adelaide. Previously he has been engaged on thedevelopment of teaching facilities at the University ofPittsburgh. His current interests include the study of theorganization of physical elements in the built environment.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f K

iel]

at 0

6:41

27

Oct

ober

201

4