Learning, Lecture Presentation slides by Imran Ahmad Sajid

8/2/2019 Learning, Lecture Presentation slides by Imran Ahmad Sajid

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Learning

Imran Ahmad Sajid,

T.A., ISSG, UOP

April, 2012


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Definition

acquiring of knowledge (James E. Mazur).

Learning is relatively permanent change inbehaviour brought about by experience (Rod

Plotnik, 1989).

Knowledge: Information in the mind, e.g. facts, ideas, truths, principles, objects, images


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Forms of learning

Conditioning

Classical conditioning

Operant/operational/instrumental/functional

conditioning

Cognitive learning

Latent learning

Observational learning


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Classical conditioning is a form of learning in

which people (or any organism) learns to

associate two stimuli that occur in sequence.

Classical conditioning occurs when a person

forms a mental association between two

stimuli, so that encountering one stimulus

means the person thinks of the other.

Condition: to make people or animals act or react in a particular way bygradually getting them used to a specific pattern of events.


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Terminologies used

Classical conditioning was discovered by Ivan PetrovichPavlov in 1900s.

Neutral Stimulus: a stimulus that, before conditioning, hasno effect on the desired response.

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): a stimulus that bringsabout a response without having been learned.

Unconditioned response (UCR): a response that is naturaland needs no training.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Once-neutral stimulus that has

been paired with an unconditioned stimulus to bring abouta response formerly caused only by the unconditionedstimulus.

Conditioned response (CR): a response that, afterconditioning, follows a previously neutral stimulus.


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Principles of Classical Conditioning

Process

1. The acquisition phase is the initial learning of

the conditioned responsefor example, the

dog learning to salivate at the sound of the

bell.

Acquisition: the act of acquiring something


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2. Extinction is used to describe the elimination

of the conditioned response by repeatedlypresenting the conditioned stimulus without

the unconditioned stimulus.

If a dog has learned to salivate at the sound ofa bell, an experimenter can gradually

extinguish the dogs response by repeatedly

ringing the bell without presenting foodafterward.


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3. Spontaneous Recovery.

Extinction does not mean, however, that the doghas simply unlearned or forgotten the associationbetween the bell and the food.

After extinction, if the experimenter lets a fewhours pass and then rings the bell again, the dogwill usually salivate at the sound of the bell onceagain.

The reappearance of an extinguished responseafter some time has passed is called spontaneousrecovery.


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4. Generalization

After an animal has learned a conditionedresponse to one stimulus, it may also respond tosimilar stimuli without further training.

If a child is bitten by a large black dog, the childmay fear not only that dog, but other large dogs.

This phenomenon is called generalization.

Less similar stimuli will usually produce less

generalization. For example, the child may show little fear of

smaller dogs.


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5. Discrimination

The opposite of generalization is

discrimination, in which an individual learns to

produce a conditioned response to one

stimulus but not to another stimulus that issimilar.

For example, a child may show a fear response

to freely roaming dogs, but may show no fearwhen a dog is on a leash or confined to a pen.


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Application of Classical Conditioning

classical conditioning explains some cases of

phobias, which are irrational or excessive fears

of specific objects or situations.

classical conditioning explains many

emotional responsessuch as happiness,

excitement, anger, and anxietythat people

have to specific stimuli.


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classical conditioning procedures are used to

treatphobias and other unwanted behaviors,such as alcoholism and addictions.

To treat phobias of specific objects, the therapistgradually and repeatedly presents the feared

object to the patient while the patient relaxes. Through extinction, the patient loses his or her

fear of the object.

In one treatment for alcoholism, patients drinkan

alcoholic beverage and then ingesta drug thatproduces nausea.

Eventually they feel nauseous at the sight orsmell of alcohol and stop drinking it.


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Operant or Instrumental Conditioning is atype of learning in which voluntary behavior isstrengthened if it is reinforced and weakened

if it is punished. Note: Skinner referred to this as Instrumental Conditioning/Learning

The term operant conditioning refers to thefact that the learner must operate, or perform

a certain behaviour, before receiving a rewardor punishment.


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Edward L. Thorndikes Law of Effect

This law states thatbehaviors that arefollowed by pleasantconsequences will be

strengthened, and will bemore likely to occur in thefuture.

Conversely, behaviors

that are followed byunpleasant consequenceswill be weakened, andwill be less likely to be

repeated in the future.

Thorndikes Puzzle box


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B.F. Skinner Experiments

American psychologist B. F. Skinner became

one of the most famous psychologists in

history for his pioneering research on operant

conditioning.

In fact, he coined the term operant

conditioning.


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Beginning in the 1930s, Skinner spent severaldecades studying the behavior of animalsusually rats or pigeonsin chambers that

became known as Skinner boxes. Like Thorndikes puzzle box, the Skinner box was

a barren chamber in which an animal could earnfood by making simple responses, such as

pressing a lever or a circular response key. A device attached to the box recorded the

animals responses.


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Principles of Operant Conditioning

1. Reinforcementrefers to any process that strengthens aparticular behaviorthat is, increases the chances thatthe behavior will occur again.

Positive reinforcement: a method of strengthening

behavior by following it with a pleasant stimulus.

Negative reinforcement: Negative reinforcementis amethod of strengthening a behavior by following it withthe removal or omission of an unpleasant stimulus.

1. Escape: In escape, performing a particular behavior leads to theremoval of an unpleasant stimulus.

2. Avoidance: In avoidance, people perform a behavior to avoidunpleasant consequences.


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2. Punishmentweakens a behaviour, reducing

the chances that the behavior will occur again.

Positive: involves reducing a behavior by

delivering an unpleasant stimulus if the behavioroccurs.

Negative: involves reducing a behavior by

removing a pleasant stimulus if the behavioroccurs.


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Types of Reinforcement and Punishment

Positive

Reinforcement

Negative

Reinforcement

Punishment

Stimulus is Added Removed Added or removed

Desired effect on

behaviour

Increases in response

strength

Increase in response

strength

Decrease in

response strength

Example Giving a raise for

good performanceleads to increase in

good performance

Taking an aspirin to

relieve a headacheleads to a higher future

likelihood of taking

aspirin

Penalizing for

misbehaving leadsto a decrease in

frequency of that

behaviour

stimulus Behaviour/action


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3. Shaping is a reinforcement technique that is used toteach animals or people behaviours that they havenever performed before.

In this method, the teacher begins by reinforcing aresponse the learner can perform easily, and thengradually requires more and more difficult responses.

For example, to teach a rat to press a lever that is overits head, the trainer can first reward any upward headmovement, then an upward movement of at least oneinch, then two inches, and so on, until the rat reachesthe lever.


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4. extinction is the elimination of a learned

behavior by discontinuing the reinforcer of

that behavior.A behaviour learned is not always permanent.

If a rate has learned to press a lever because it receives food for doing so, its

lever-pressing will decrease and eventually disappear if food is no longer

delivered.


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5. Generalization anddiscrimination occur inoperant conditioning in much the same way thatthey do in classical conditioning.

In generalization, people perform a behaviourlearned in one situation in other, similarsituations.

For example, a man who is rewarded with

laughter when he tells certain jokes at a bar maytell the same jokes at restaurants, parties, orwedding receptions.

Generalizing Pakhtoons or Punjabis or Sardars etc.


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Discrimination is learning that a behavior will

be reinforced in one situation but not in

another.

The man may learn that telling his jokes in

church or at a serious business meeting will

not make people laugh.


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Application of Operant Conditioning

Parents

Teachers

Behavior therapists use shaping techniques to teachbasic job skills to adults with mental retardation.

Therapists use reinforcement techniques to teach self-care skills to people with severe mental illnesses, suchas schizophrenia, and use punishment and extinctionto reduce aggressive and antisocial behaviors by theseindividuals.

to treat stuttering, marital problems, drug addictions,impulsive spending, eating disorders, and many otherbehavioral problems.


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Comparison of Classical & Operant

Conditioning

Learning occurs by

pairing of twostimuli, no matterwhat the learnerdoes.

Responses learned inClassical Conditioningare stereotyped andreflexes.

Learning depends on

what the learnerdoeslearning occurswhen a reinforcerconsistently follows aparticular response.

Responses are regularlyfollowed byreinforcement orreward.

Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning


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Cognitive Approaches to Learning

Cognitive learning theory is an approach to the

study of learning that focuses on the thought

processes ( ) that underlie learning.

Rather than concentrating solely on external

stimuli, responses, and reinforcements,

Cognitive-Social Learning theorists focus on theunseen mental processes that occur during

learning.


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1. Latent Learning

Latent learning is learning in which a new

behaviour is acquired but is not demonstrated

until some incentive is provided for displaying

it.

Latent: hidden; present but unexpressed


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Tolmans Maze Experiment

Maze: puzzle made of connecting parts.


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Rats: one mazetrial/day

One group found foodevery time (red line)

Second group neverfound food (blue line)

Third group foundfood on Day 11 (greenline)

Sudden change, day12

Learning isnt the

same as performance


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Cognitive-mapa mental representation of

spatial locations and directions.


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2. Observational Learning

Learning through observing the behaviour of

another person called a model(Robert S.

Feldman., 2005. p.211).


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Essential Factors for Observational Learning

a. Attention,

b. Retention,

c. Reproduction, and

d. Motivation


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a. Attention

First, the learner must pay attention to the

crucial details of the models behavior.

A young girl watching her mother bake a cake

will not be able to imitate this behavior

successfully unless she pays attention to many

important detailsingredients, quantities,

oven temperature, baking time, and so on.


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b. Retention

Retentionthe learner must be able to retain

all of this information in memory until it is

time to use it.

If the person forgets important details, he or

she will not be able to successfully imitate the

behavior.

Retention: the ability to remember things


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c. Reproduction

Third, the learner must have the physical skills

and coordination needed for reproduction of

the behavior.

The young girl must have enough strength and

dexterity to mix the ingredients, pour the

batter, and so on, in order to bake a cake on

her own.


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d. Motivation

Finally, the learner must have the motivationto imitate the model.

That is, learners are more likely to imitate a

behavior if they expect it to lead to some typeof reward or reinforcement.

If learners expect that imitating the behaviorwill not lead to reward or might lead topunishment, they are less likely to imitate thebehavior.


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