Learning Disability

L E A R N I N G D I S A B I L I T Y

A condition that produces a gap between someone's ability and his or her performance.

Learning disabilities can affect a person’s ability in the areas of :

• Listening• Speaking• Reading• Writing• Spelling• Reasoning• Mathematics

Types of Learning Disabilities

• Dyslexia• Dyscalculia• Dysgraphia• Dyspraxia• Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

D Y S L E X I A

• the name for specific learning disabilities in reading.

• often characterized by difficulties with accurate word

recognition, decoding and spelling.

• may cause problems with reading comprehension and

slow down vocabulary growth.

• may result in poor reading fluency and reading out loud.

• neurological and often genetic.

• not the result of poor instruction.

• with the proper support, almost all people with dyslexia

can become good readers and writers.

Dyslexia: Warning Signs by AgeYoung Children School-Age Children Young Adult

Trouble with : Trouble with : Trouble with :

Recognizing letters, matching letters to sounds and blending sounds into speech

Mastering the rules of spelling Reading at the expected level

Pronouncing words, for example saying “mawn lower” instead of “lawn mower”

Remembering facts and numbers

Understanding non-literal language, such as idioms, jokes, or proverbs

Learning and correctly using new vocabulary words

Handwriting or with gripping a pencil Reading aloud

Learning the alphabet, numbers, and days of the week or similar common word sequences

Learning and understanding new skills; instead, relying heavily on memorization

Organizing and managing time

RhymingReading and spelling, such as reversing letters (d, b) or moving letters around (left, felt)

Trouble summarizing a story

Following a sequence of directions Learning a foreign language

Trouble with word problems in math Memorizing

How is Dyslexia treated?• Expose your child to early oral reading, writing, drawing, and

practice to encourage development of print knowledge, basic letter formation, recognition skills and linguistic awareness (the relationship between sound and meaning).

• Have your child practice reading different kinds of texts. This includes books, magazines, ads and comics.

• Include multi-sensory, structured language instruction. Practice using sight, sound and touch when introducing new ideas.

• Seek modifications in the classroom. This might include extra time to complete assignments, help with note taking, oral testing and other means of assessment.

• Use books on tape and assistive technology. Examples are screen readers and voice recognition computer software.

• Get help with the emotional issues that arise from struggling to overcome academic difficulties.

D Y S C A L C U L I A

Refers to a wide range of lifelong learning disabilities involving math.

There is no single type of math disability.

Two major areas of weakness can contribute to math learning

disabilities:

Visual-spatial difficulties, which result in a person having trouble

processing what the eye sees

Language processing difficulties, which result in a person having trouble

processing and making sense of what the ear hears

Dyscalculia: Warning Signs by AgeYoung Children School-Age Children Young Adult


Difficulty learning to countTrouble recognizing printed numbers

Trouble learning math facts (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division)

Difficulty estimating costs like groceries bills

Difficulty tying together the idea of a number (4) and how it exists in the world (4 horses, 4 cars, 4 children)

Difficulty developing math problem-solving skills

Difficulty learning math concepts beyond the basic math facts

Poor memory for numbers Poor long term memory for math functions

Poor ability to budget or balance a checkbook

Trouble organizing things in a logical way - putting round objects in one place and square ones in another

Not familiar with math vocabulary

Trouble with concepts of time, such as sticking to a schedule or approximating time

Difficulty measuring thingsTrouble with mental mathDifficulty finding different approaches to one problem

Avoiding games that require strategy

How is Dyscalculia identified?Below are some of the areas that may be addressed:

• Ability with basic math skills like counting, adding, subtracting, multiplying and dividing

• Ability to predict appropriate procedures based on understanding patterns—knowing when to add, subtract, multiply, divide or do more advanced computations

• Ability to organize objects in a logical way• Ability to measure—telling time, using money• Ability to estimate number quantities• Ability to self-check work and find alternate ways to solve

problems.

How is Dyscalculia treated?Helping a student identify his/her strengths and weaknesses is

the first step to getting help. Following identification, parents, teachers and other educators can work together to establish strategies that will help the student learn math more effectively. Help outside the classroom lets a student and tutor focus specifically on the difficulties that student is having, taking pressure off moving to new topics too quickly. Repeated reinforcement and specific practice of straightforward ideas can make understanding easier.

How is Dyscalculia treated?Other strategies for inside and outside the classroom include:

• Use graph paper for students who have difficulty organizing ideas on paper.

• Work on finding different ways to approach math facts; i.e., instead of just memorizing the multiplication tables, explain that 8 x 2 = 16, so if 16 is doubled, 8 x 4 must = 32.

• Practice estimating as a way to begin solving math problems.

• Introduce new skills beginning with concrete examples and later moving to more abstract applications.

• For language difficulties, explain ideas and problems clearly and encourage students to ask questions as they work.

• Provide a place to work with few distractions and have pencils, erasers and other tools on hand as needed.

D Y S G R A P H I A

A learning disability that affects writing, which requires a complex set of motor and information processing skills. Dysgraphia makes the act of writing difficult. It can lead to problems with spelling, poor handwriting and putting thoughts on paper. People with dysgraphia can have trouble organizing letters, numbers and words on a line or page. This can result partly from:

Visual-spatial difficulties: trouble processing what the eye sees

Language processing difficulty: trouble processing and making sense of what the ear hears

Dysgraphia: Warning Signs by AgeYoung Children School-Age Children Young Adult


Tight, awkward pencil grip and body position

Illegible handwriting Trouble organizing thoughts on paper

Avoiding writing or drawing tasks

Mixture of cursive and print writing

Trouble keeping track of thoughts already written down

Trouble forming letter shapesInconsistent spacing between letters or words

Saying words out loud while writing

Difficulty with syntax structure and grammar

Poor understanding of uppercase and lowercase letters

Concentrating so hard on writing that comprehension of what's written is missed

Large gap between written ideas and understanding demonstrated through speech

Inability to write or draw in a line or within margins

Trouble thinking of words to write

Tiring quickly while writing Omitting or not finishing words in sentences

How is Dysgraphia treated?There are many ways to help a person with dysgraphia achieve

success. Generally strategies fall into three main categories:• Accommodations: providing alternatives to written

expression• Modifications: changing expectations or tasks to minimize

or avoid the area of weakness• Remediation: providing instruction for improving

handwriting and writing skills

Here are examples of how to teach individuals with dysgraphia to overcome some of their difficulties with written expression.

Early Writers• Be patient and positive, encourage practice and praise effort. Becoming a good

writer takes time and practice.• Use paper with raised lines for a sensory guide to staying within the lines.• Try different pens and pencils to find one that’s most comfortable.• Practice writing letters and numbers in the air with big arm movements to improve

motor memory of these important shapes. Also practice letters and numbers with smaller hand or finger motions.

• Encourage proper grip, posture and paper positioning for writing. It’s important to reinforce this early as it’s difficult for students to unlearn bad habits later on.

• Use multi-sensory techniques for learning letters, shapes and numbers. For example, speaking through motor sequences, such as “b” is “big stick down, circle away from my body.”

• Introduce a word processor on a computer early; however do not eliminate handwriting for the child. While typing can make it easier to write by alleviating the frustration of forming letters, handwriting is a vital part of a person's ability to function in the world.


Young Students• Allow use of print or cursive—whichever is more comfortable.• Use large graph paper for math calculation to keep columns and rows

organized.• Allow extra time for writing assignments.• Begin writing assignments creatively with drawing, or speaking ideas into

a tape recorder.• Alternate focus of writing assignments—put the emphasis on some for

neatness and spelling, others for grammar or organization of ideas.• Explicitly teach different types of writing—expository and personal essays,

short stories, poems, etc.• Do not judge timed assignments on neatness and spelling.• Have students proofread work after a delay—it’s easier to see mistakes

after a break.


Young Students• Help students create a checklist for editing work—spelling, neatness,

grammar, syntax, clear progression of ideas, etc.• Encourage use of a spell checker—speaking spell checkers are available for

handwritten work.• Reduce amount of copying; instead, focus on writing original answers and

ideas.• Have student complete tasks in small steps instead of all at once.• Find alternative means of assessing knowledge, such as oral reports or

visual projects.


Teenagers and Adults• Provide tape recorders to supplement note taking and to prepare for

writing assignments.• Create a step-by-step plan that breaks writing assignments into small tasks

(see below).• When organizing writing projects, create a list of keywords that will be

useful.• Provide clear, constructive feedback on the quality of work, explaining

both the strengths and weaknesses of the project, commenting on the structure as well as the information that is included.

• Use assistive technology such as voice-activated software if the mechanical aspects of writing remain a major hurdle.

D Y S P A R A X I A

Dyspraxia is a disorder that affects motor skill development. People with dyspraxia have trouble planning and completing fine motor tasks. This can vary from simple motor tasks such as waving goodbye to more complex tasks like brushing teeth.

Category May Cause Troubles With

Ideomotor Dyspraxia Completing single-step motor tasks such as combing hair and waving goodbye.

Ideational Dyspraxia Multi-step tasks like brushing teeth, making a bed, putting clothes on in order, as well as buttoning and buckling

Oromotor Dyspraxia Coordinating the muscle movements needed to pronounce words

Constructional Dyspraxia Establishing spatial relationships, for instance, being able to accurately position or move objects from one place to another

Dyspraxia By Category

Dysparaxia: Warning Signs by AgeYoung Children School-Age Children Young Adult


Learning to walk, jump, hop, skip and throw or catch a ball

Poor pencil grip and letter formation and slow handwriting

Speech control—volume, pitch, articulation

Pronouncing words and being understood

Doing activities that require fine motor skills, like holding a pencil, buttoning, cutting with scissors

Writing and typing

Establishing left- or right- handedness

Playing sports, riding a bike and other activities requiring coordination

Over- or under- sensitivity to light, touch, space, taste, or smells

Bumping into things Sensing direction Personal grooming and other self-help activities

Moving the eyes—instead, moving the whole head

Speaking at a normal rate or in way that can be easily understood

Cooking or other household chores

Being sensitive to touch such as being irritated by clothing on skin, hair brushing, nail-cutting, or teeth-brushing

Making social connections due to speech challenges Clumsiness

How is Dysparaxia treated?There is no cure for dyspraxia. However, early identification and

intervention can greatly help. Depending upon the severity of the disability, work with occupational, speech and physical therapists can improve a person's ability to function and succeed independently.

A D H D• Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a group of

chronic disorders that begin in childhood and sometimes last into adult life.

• Problems generally associated with ADHD include inattention, hyperactivity and impulsive behavior. They can affect nearly every aspect of life. Children and adults with ADHD often struggle with low self-esteem, troubled personal relationships and poor performance in school or at work.

In most children diagnosed with ADHD, signs and symptoms appear between 4 and 6 years of age, although they sometimes may occur even earlier. They include the following:

Inattention• Often fails to pay close attention to details or makes careless mistakes in

schoolwork or other activities • Often has trouble sustaining attention during tasks or play • Often doesn't seem to listen when spoken to directly • Often doesn't follow through on instructions and fails to finish schoolwork,

chores or other tasks • Often has difficulty organizing tasks or activities • Often avoids or dislikes tasks that require sustained mental effort, such as

schoolwork or homework • Often loses things needed for tasks or activities, such as books, pencils,

toys or tools • Is often easily distracted • Is often forgetful

Hyperactivity-impulsive behavior• Often fidgets with hands or feet or squirms in seat • Often leaves seat in the classroom or in other situations where remaining

seated is expected • Often runs or climbs excessively when it's not appropriate, or, if an

adolescent might constantly feel restless • Often has difficulty playing quietly • Is often "on the go" or acts as if "driven by a motor" • Often talks excessively• Often blurts out the answers before questions have been completely

asked • Often has difficulty waiting his or her turn • Often interrupts or intrudes on others by butting into conversations or

games • Attention span often depends on the level of interest in a particular

activity. Most teenagers can listen to music or talk to their friends for hours but may be a lot less focused about homework.

Furthermore, symptoms may be different in boys and girls.

• Boys are more likely to be hyperactive, • Girls tend to be inattentive. In addition, girls who have trouble paying

attention often daydream, but inattentive boys are more likely to play or fiddle aimlessly. Boys also tend to be less compliant with teachers and other adults, so their behavior is often more conspicuous.

At the same time, children diagnosed with ADHD may have some things in common.

• They tend to be especially sensitive to stimuli such as sights, sounds and touch, for instance. And when overstimulated, they can quickly get out of control, becoming giddy and sometimes aggressive or even physically or verbally abusive.

• Children with the inattentive form of ADHD may seem to drift away into their own thoughts or lose track of what's going on around them.

Symptoms of ADHD in AdultsADHD always begins in childhood, but it may persist into adult life.

The core symptoms of :• distractibility • hyperactivity• Impulsive behavior are the same for adults as for children, but they

often manifest differently and far more subtly in adults. • Hyperactivity, in particular, is generally less overt in adults. Children

may race around madly; adults are more likely to be restless and to have trouble relaxing.

On the other hand, problems with organization and concentration often increase as people get older and their lives become more complicated and demanding.

Adults diagnosed with ADHD often say that their biggest frustration is their inability to focus and to prioritize, leading not only to missed deadlines but also to forgotten meetings and social engagements

How is ADHD treated?THERAPY

• Psychotherapy. This allows older children and adults with ADHD to talk about issues that bother them, explore negative behavioral patterns and learn ways to deal with their symptoms.

• Behavior therapy. This type of therapy helps teachers and parents learn strategies (contingency management procedures) for dealing with children's behavior. These strategies may include token reward systems and timeouts. Behavior modification using contingency management techniques has proved especially beneficial for people with ADHD.

• Family therapy. Family therapy can help parents and siblings deal with the stress of living with a child who has ADHD.

• Social skills training. This can help children learn appropriate social behaviors.

How is ADHD treated?• Support groups. Support groups can offer adults and children with ADHD

and their parents a network of social support, information and education.

• Parenting skills training. This can help parents develop ways to understand and guide their child's behavior.

• The best results usually occur when a team approach is used, with teachers, parents, and therapists or physicians working together. You can help by making every effort to work with your child's teachers and by referring them to reliable sources of information to support their efforts in the classroom.

How is ADHD treated?MEDICATIONS

• Drugs known as psychostimulants are the most commonly prescribed medications for treating ADHD in children and adults. Sometimes antidepressants may also be used — especially for adults and for children who don't respond to stimulants or who are depressed or have other problems.

• Although scientists don't understand exactly why these drugs work, stimulants appear to boost and balance levels of the brain chemicals dopamine, which is associated with activity, and serotonin, which is associated with a sense of well-being. Methylphenidate (Ritalin, Concerta), the primary medication used to treat ADHD, seems to increase levels of dopamine in the brain by blocking the activity of dopamine transporters, which remove dopamine after it has been released.

Learning Disability

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