What is What is Learning?Learning?

A Relatively Permanent Change in A Relatively Permanent Change in Behavior as the Result of Practice Behavior as the Result of Practice or Experienceor Experience..Learning is only through observation.Learning is only through observation.Psychologists main concern is Psychologists main concern is conditioning.conditioning.Limits to LearningLimits to LearningThe Limitations of the OrganismThe Limitations of the Organism1. Biological Predispositions1. Biological PredispositionsNo activity can be learned that the No activity can be learned that the organism can’t & doesn’t have the organism can’t & doesn’t have the capacity to learn.capacity to learn.2. Learning Experiences2. Learning ExperiencesHuman ChoiceHuman ChoiceIgnoranceIgnorance

Learning & the BrainLearning & the Brain4 Levels of 4 Levels of Complexity for Complexity for Learning in the Learning in the BrainBrain

1. 1. Molecular changesMolecular changes within the single within the single neuron.neuron.

2. 2. CommunicationCommunication among the neurons among the neurons at the synapsesat the synapses..

3. The higher circuits of interconnected 3. The higher circuits of interconnected neurons neurons ((neural pathwaysneural pathways).).

4. The activity within whole assemblies 4. The activity within whole assemblies of neurons that might control of neurons that might control complex complex behavior patternsbehavior patterns..

Classical Classical ConditioningConditioning

Ivan Pavlov’s Conditioning Experiments

Conditioned the Salivation Response in DogsConditioned the Salivation Response in Dogs

The Pairing of Stimuli over TimeThe Pairing of Stimuli over Time

Elements of Classical ConditioningElements of Classical Conditioning

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

Unconditioned Response (UCR)Unconditioned Response (UCR)

Conditioning (Neutral) Stimulus (CS Conditioning (Neutral) Stimulus (CS or NS)or NS)

Conditioned Response (CR)Conditioned Response (CR)When enough pairings of the UCS & CS occur, this response is When enough pairings of the UCS & CS occur, this response is created.created.

Classical Conditioning uses pre-existing natural responses (e.g. Classical Conditioning uses pre-existing natural responses (e.g. reflexes) and makes them respond on cue.reflexes) and makes them respond on cue.

Pavlov’s ExperimentPavlov’s ExperimentThe natural The natural response is:response is:UCS > UCRUCS > UCRPaired the CS Paired the CS (NS) with the (NS) with the UCS and got the UCS and got the UCRUCRAfter enough After enough pairings the CS pairings the CS or NS produced or NS produced the CRthe CRRepeated pairings over time establishes Repeated pairings over time establishes responses.responses.

The Classical Conditioning The Classical Conditioning ProcessProcess

Classical Conditioning in Classical Conditioning in HumansHumans

Emotional respondingEmotional respondingLoving, liking, & dislikingLoving, liking, & disliking

Immune system Immune system respondingrespondingT-cells’ responseT-cells’ response

Desentization TherapyDesentization TherapyRelief from phobic responsesRelief from phobic responses

Hunger PangsHunger PangsTime, smell, & appearance of foodTime, smell, & appearance of food

Operant ConditioningOperant ConditioningJ.B Watson & B.F. J.B Watson & B.F. SkinnerSkinnerThe Main Law of The Main Law of Behavioristic Behavioristic Psychology:Psychology:What you reinforce, you’re What you reinforce, you’re going to get more of.going to get more of.

Thorndike’s Law of Effect

Rewards increase a rewarded Rewards increase a rewarded responseresponseCreates a C/E relationship in the Creates a C/E relationship in the environmentenvironment

Important TermsImportant TermsStimulus GeneralizationStimulus Generalization

Stimulus DiscriminationStimulus Discrimination

Extinction (Extinguishing)Extinction (Extinguishing)

Secondary ReinforcementSecondary Reinforcement

Spontaneous RecoverySpontaneous Recovery

SuperstitionSuperstition

ReinforcementReinforcementIncreases The Increases The Strength of a Strength of a ResponseResponse

Positive & Positive & Negative Negative ReinforcementReinforcement

Primary & Primary & Secondary Secondary ReinforcementReinforcement

Shaping Shaping BehaviorBehavior

Use of Successive Use of Successive ApproximationsApproximations8 Steps:8 Steps:

1.1. Decide on the goalDecide on the goal2.2. Decide which behaviors Decide which behaviors

there are to build fromthere are to build from3.3. Decide on a reinforcerDecide on a reinforcer4.4. Plan the programPlan the program5.5. Begin the programBegin the program6.6. Decide when to shift Decide when to shift

criteria for reinforcementcriteria for reinforcement7.7. If the program is lost, go If the program is lost, go

to an earlier step or add to an earlier step or add a new one and go ona new one and go on

8.8. Continue to the goalContinue to the goal

Reinforcement ProceduresReinforcement Procedures

Reinforcement Schedules1. Continuous Reinforcement

2. PartialReinforcement

2. PartialReinforcement

Ratio(Number)

Ratio(Number)

Interval(Time)

Interval(Time)

Fixed RatioFixed Ratio Variable RatioVariable Ratio Fixed IntervalFixed Interval Variable IntervalVariable Interval

PunishmentPunishmentThe use of anything that will decrease the strength of a responseUsed to stop a behavior

Conditions for Punishment to work:It must be quick, appropriate, & useful.

Doesn’t work as well as reinforcementCan produce Learned Helplessness

Comparing Classical & Operant Comparing Classical & Operant ConditioningConditioning

Reinforcement is important in bothReinforcement is important in both

Classical Classical Operant Operant Reward Response Reward

In Classical, a C/E relationship must be established between the UCS & CS (NS)

In Operant, reinforcement schedules make the response resistant to extinction

Non-rewarding produces extinction in both

Spontaneous recovery can occur even after an appropriate response has been established

Stimulus generalization & stimulus discriminationStimulus generalization & stimulus discriminationOccur in both

New learning can be based on old learningNew learning can be based on old learningAssimilation – fitting new information into what is already known

Accommodation – refining the data into the current schema

Cognitive LearningCognitive LearningLatent LearningLatent LearningLearning not immediately seen in behavior

Cognitive MapsCognitive MapsHypothetical representation of a learned event

A strategy for doing somethingA series of S-R sequences

Insight LearningInsight LearningThe “Ah-ha!” experience4 Criterion:It appears all of a suddenThe first performance is without errorThe solution is well-rememberedThe solution is highly transferable

More on Cognitive LearningMore on Cognitive Learning

Learning SetsLearning SetsLearning how to learnLearning how to learn

Learning strategiesLearning strategies

Observational Observational LearningLearningBandura’s learning theoryBandura’s learning theory

Imitation of observed Imitation of observed behaviorbehavior

Principles:Principles:

Vicarious learning, vicarious Vicarious learning, vicarious reinforcement, and vicarious reinforcement, and vicarious punishmentpunishment

Learning StyleLearning StyleYour characteristic approach to a Your characteristic approach to a learning situation based on your learning situation based on your cultural background & unique cultural background & unique pattern of abilitiespattern of abilities