Learning

Dr. Hani Hamed Dessoki, M.D. Psychiatry

Associate Prof. Psychiatry

Acting Head, Psychiatry Department

Beni Suef University

2012

Stimulus Response

LearningLearning

• LearningLearning is the is the acquisition and acquisition and development of development of memories and and behaviors, including , including skills, , knowledge, , understanding, , values, and , and wisdom..

LearningLearning• LearningLearning refers to relatively refers to relatively

permanent changes in behavior permanent changes in behavior resulting from practice or resulting from practice or experienceexperience

• Innate behaviorsInnate behaviors are inborn, are inborn, emerge during certain periods, emerge during certain periods, and are not the result of learningand are not the result of learning

مقدمةمقدمة

المخلوقات • كافة عن البشري الكائن بها يتميز يكاد وقدرة سمة التعلم المخلوقات يعد كافة عن البشري الكائن بها يتميز يكاد وقدرة سمة التعلم يعد. األخرى, الحية الكائنات بعض في وجودها من الرغم على .األخرى األخرى, الحية الكائنات بعض في وجودها من الرغم على األخرى

التغير • في وتتمثل البشري الكائن لدى تحدث حيوية عملية إلى يشير التغير التعلم في وتتمثل البشري الكائن لدى تحدث حيوية عملية إلى يشير التعلمالقابل الخارجي السلوك خالل من عليها ويستدل الخبرات وفي القابل السلوكي الخارجي السلوك خالل من عليها ويستدل الخبرات وفي السلوكي

. والقياس .للمالحظة والقياس للمالحظة

التغيرات • جملة في تتجلى ديناميكية عملية أنه على التعلم إلى النظر التغيرات يمكن جملة في تتجلى ديناميكية عملية أنه على التعلم إلى النظر يمكنوالبيئة الفرد بين التوازن تحقيق بهدف الفرد خبرات وفي والبيئة السلوكية الفرد بين التوازن تحقيق بهدف الفرد خبرات وفي السلوكية

. به .المحيطة به المحيطة

Goals: are the things we aim for

Responses: are how we react to events

Effort: is it required for success?

Strategies:how to reach success

Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning• Certain stimuli can elicit a reflexive responseCertain stimuli can elicit a reflexive response

– Air puff >> eye-blinkAir puff >> eye-blink– Smelling food >> can produce salivationSmelling food >> can produce salivation

• The The reflexive stimulusreflexive stimulus ( (UCSUCS) and ) and responseresponse ((UCRUCR) are unconditioned) are unconditioned

• The The neutral stimulusneutral stimulus is referred to as the is referred to as the conditioned stimulusconditioned stimulus ( (CSCS))

• In classical conditioning, the In classical conditioning, the CSCS is repeatedly is repeatedly paired with the reflexive stimulus (paired with the reflexive stimulus (UCSUCS))

• Eventually the Eventually the CSCS will produce a response ( will produce a response (CRCR) ) similar to that produced by the similar to that produced by the UCSUCS

Pavlov’s ExperimentPavlov’s Experiment

Generalization – Learning on stimulus A changes behavior regarding stimulus B

Discrimination – Learning on stimulus A doesn’t change behavior regarding stimulus B

Extinction – Loss of learned behavior after training stops

Spontaneous Recovery – Exhibiting learned behavior after extinction has occurred.

Extinction (Deconditioning)Extinction (Deconditioning)

• Pairings of the CS and UCS lead to Pairings of the CS and UCS lead to conditioning whereas presentation of conditioning whereas presentation of the CS only leads to loss of the the CS only leads to loss of the conditioned responseconditioned response

• Extinction refers to loss of response to a Extinction refers to loss of response to a CS presented without the UCSCS presented without the UCS– Extinction is not forgettingExtinction is not forgetting

• Extinction is useful in clinical situationsExtinction is useful in clinical situations– Extinction of a phobia can be treated by Extinction of a phobia can be treated by

exposure to the CS onlyexposure to the CS only

Operant/Skinnerian Operant/Skinnerian ConditioningConditioning

• Organisms must make responses Organisms must make responses that have consequencesthat have consequences– PunishmentPunishment

– Reinforcement Reinforcement

– The response can be associated with The response can be associated with cues in the environmentcues in the environment• We put coins in a machine to obtain foodWe put coins in a machine to obtain food• But we refrain when an Out of Order But we refrain when an Out of Order

sign is placed on the machinesign is placed on the machine

Key Aspects of Operant Key Aspects of Operant ConditioningConditioning

• In operant conditioning, the In operant conditioning, the stimulus is a cue, it does not stimulus is a cue, it does not elicit the responseelicit the response

• Operant responses are Operant responses are voluntaryvoluntary

• In operant conditioning, the In operant conditioning, the response elicits a reinforcing response elicits a reinforcing stimulusstimulus

Key Terms of Operant Key Terms of Operant ConditioningConditioning

• ReinforcementReinforcement is any procedure is any procedure that increases the responsethat increases the response

• PunishmentPunishment is any procedure that is any procedure that decreases the responsedecreases the response

• Types of reinforcers:Types of reinforcers:– PrimaryPrimary: : e.g. food or watere.g. food or water

– SecondarySecondary: : money or powermoney or power

PunishmentPunishment

• Positive PunishmentPositive Punishment – – presenting a presenting a stimulus that leads to a lowered stimulus that leads to a lowered likelihood for a response to occur likelihood for a response to occur in the futurein the future

• Negative PunishmentNegative Punishment – – removing a removing a stimulus that leads to a lowered stimulus that leads to a lowered likelihood for a response to occur likelihood for a response to occur in the futurein the future

Two Types of Reinforcers and Punishers.

• Positive reinforcement occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by a favorable stimulus (commonly seen as pleasant) that increases the frequency of that behavior. In the Skinner box experiment, a stimulus such as food or sugar solution can be delivered when the rat engages in a target behavior, such as pressing a lever.

• Negative reinforcement occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus (commonly seen as unpleasant) thereby increasing that behavior's frequency. In the Skinner box experiment, negative reinforcement can be a loud noise continuously sounding inside the rat's cage until it engages in the target behavior, such as pressing a lever, upon which the loud noise is removed.

• Positive punishment (also called "Punishment by contingent stimulation") occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by an aversive stimulus, such as introducing a shock or loud noise, resulting in a decrease in that behavior.

• Negative punishment (also called "Punishment by contingent withdrawal") occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by the removal of a favorable stimulus, such as taking away a child's toy following an undesired behavior, resulting in a decrease in that behavior.

Reinforcement/PunishmentReinforcement/Punishment

Two Types of Reinforcers and Punishers.

• The difference occurs due to whether you add or remove something.

• If you add something following a response = positive

• If you remove something following a response = negative

• Positive does not mean good:

• Negative does not mean bad.

Schedules of ReinforcementSchedules of Reinforcement

• ContinuousContinuous: reinforcement occurs : reinforcement occurs after every responseafter every response– Produces rapid acquisition and is Produces rapid acquisition and is

subject to rapid extinctionsubject to rapid extinction

• PartialPartial: reinforcement occurs after : reinforcement occurs after some, but not all, responsessome, but not all, responses– Responding on a partial reinforcement Responding on a partial reinforcement

schedule is more resistant to schedule is more resistant to extinction extinction

Partial Reinforcement Partial Reinforcement SchedulesSchedules

• RatioRatio: every nth response is reinforced: every nth response is reinforced– Fixed: every nth responseFixed: every nth response– Variable: on average, every nth responseVariable: on average, every nth response

• IntervalInterval: first response after some : first response after some interval results in reinforcementinterval results in reinforcement– Fixed: interval is x in length (e.g. 1 min)Fixed: interval is x in length (e.g. 1 min)– Variable: the average interval is xVariable: the average interval is x

ShapingShaping

• Shaping – rewarding Shaping – rewarding successive approximations successive approximations towards the final goaltowards the final goal–Used often in phobias…Used often in phobias…

–E.G. fear of snakes…E.G. fear of snakes…

Thorndike's law of effect

• Operant conditioning, sometimes called instrumental conditioning or instrumental learning, was first extensively studied by Edward L. Thorndike (1874-1949).

• In his Law of Effect, Thorndike theorized that successful responses, those producing satisfying consequences, were "stamped in" by the experience and thus occurred more frequently. Unsuccessful responses, those producing annoying consequences, were stamped out and subsequently occurred less frequently.

• In short, some consequences strengthened behavior and some consequences weakened behavior.

Summary Summary of of

ConditioningConditioning

Classical Conditioning AppliedClassical Conditioning AppliedJohn B. Watson's Little AlbertJohn B. Watson's Little Albert

• John B. Watson proposed that emotions (such as proposed that emotions (such as fear) can be conditioned in humans. fear) can be conditioned in humans.

• To study this, Watson conditioned an nine month To study this, Watson conditioned an nine month old child, old child, AlbertAlbert, to fear various neutral objects , to fear various neutral objects

(including a rabbit, a dog and some wool) by (including a rabbit, a dog and some wool) by repetitively pairing their presence with a loud noise. repetitively pairing their presence with a loud noise.

• Watson's experiment was successful and resulted in Watson's experiment was successful and resulted in little Albert displaying severe fear responses to the little Albert displaying severe fear responses to the

previously unfeared objects. previously unfeared objects. • The goal of Watson's experiment had been to prove The goal of Watson's experiment had been to prove

that behaviour is learned, in contrast to the then-that behaviour is learned, in contrast to the then-prevalent, prevalent, Freudian belief that behaviour came from belief that behaviour came from

the unconscious.the unconscious.

Types of learningSimple non-associative Types of learningSimple non-associative learninglearning

• HabituationHabituation

In psychology, habituation is an example of In psychology, habituation is an example of non-associative learning in which there is a non-associative learning in which there is a progressive diminution of progressive diminution of behavioral response probability with repetition of a response probability with repetition of a stimulus..

An animal first responds to a stimulus, but if it is neither rewarding nor harmful the animal reduces subsequent responses.

Types of learningSimple non-associative Types of learningSimple non-associative learninglearning

• Habituation is stimulus specific. It does not cause a general decline in responsiveness.

• Habituation is also commonly found in the case of odors. For example, one may not be able to smell one's own bad breath while being able to smell another's.

• Dishabituation is when a second stimulus is used, which briefly increases habituated response, it has been shown that this is a different mechanism from sensitization.

Types of learningSimple non-associative Types of learningSimple non-associative learninglearning

• Sensitization

Sensitization is an example of non-associative learning in which the progressive amplification of a response follows repeated administrations of a stimulus.

Types of learningSimple non-associative Types of learningSimple non-associative learninglearning

• A different type of sensitization is that of kindling, where repeated stimulation of hippocampal or amygdaloid neurons in the limbic system eventually leads to seizures in laboratory animals.

Imprinting

• Konrad Z. Lorenz being followed by his imprinted geese

• Imprinting is the term used in psychology and ethology to describe any kind of phase-sensitive learning (learning occurring at a particular age or a particular life stage) that is rapid and apparently independent of the consequences of behavior.

• It was first used to describe situations in which an animal or person learns the characteristics of some stimulus, which is therefore said to be "imprinted" onto the subject.

Observational learning (social learning or modeling)

• It is learning that occurs as a function of observing, retaining and, in the case of imitation learning, replicating novel behavior executed by others.

• It is most associated with the work of psychologist Albert Bandura, who implemented some of the seminal studies in the area and initiated social learning theory.

• It involves the process of learning to copy or model the action of another through observing another doing it.

Observational learning (social learning or modeling)

• Many mistake observational learning with imitation.

• The two terms are different in the sense that observational learning leads to a change in behavior due to observing a model.

• This does not mean that the behavior exhibited by the model is duplicated.

Learning by trail and error

• Primitive

• Young children and animals

• Less time with repetition

Learning by insight

• Planning

• Mental level before hand

• Adults

• Experiment of chimpanzee and banana

• Foresight

Electronic learning

Electronic learning or E-learning is a general term used to refer to computer-enhanced learning.

Learning helps our neurons GROW.

The more we learn, the more connections they make.

Factors affecting Learning

• Personal Factors

- Intelligence

- Previous Knowledge

- Acquired habits

- Physical state

- Psychological state

- Motivation

Factors affecting Learning

• Objective external Factors:

- Learned material

- Method of learning

Behavioral Therapies Based on Classical ConditioningBehavioral Therapies Based on Classical Conditioning

Psychotherapy GoalsPsychotherapy Goals• Psychotherapy can provide relief to a Psychotherapy can provide relief to a

client for issues relating to:client for issues relating to:

Eclectic Approach – combining techniques from Eclectic Approach – combining techniques from various theories to find the most appropriate various theories to find the most appropriate treatmenttreatment

Behavior TherapiesBehavior Therapies•Learning techniques are used to Learning techniques are used to

alter behaviors; these techniques alter behaviors; these techniques include:include:–Classical conditioningClassical conditioning

•Aversion therapy…Aversion therapy…

•Systematic desensitization…Systematic desensitization…

Aversion therapy

• This is a form of psychological therapy that is designed to eliminate, for example, sexual behaviour by associating an aversive stimulus such as nausea with sex.

• Because the aversive stimulus performs as a US and produces a UR, the association between the stimulus and behaviour leads to the same consequences each time.

• If the treatment has worked, the patient will not have a compulsion to engage in such behaviours again.

• This sort of treatment has been used to treat alcoholism as well as drug addiction.

Systematic DesensitizationSystematic Desensitization

Systematic desensitization

• Patients might learn that the object of their phobias or fears are not so fearful if they can safely relive the feared stimulus.

• However, anxiety often obstructs such recovery. This obstruction is overcome by reintroducing the fear-producing object gradually by a process known as reciprocal inhibitions.

• A person constructs a hierarchy of events leading to the feared situation.

• This hierarchy is approached step by step and anxiety is relieved at every level.

• The fear is eventually removed if the therapy is performed correctly.

Behavior TherapiesBehavior Therapies

–Operant Operant conditioningconditioning•Shaping – Shaping – focus on focus on target behaviortarget behavior

•Modeling – Modeling – observe and observe and imitate behaviors of othersimitate behaviors of others

MCQ

LearningLearning is the acquisition of : is the acquisition of : a- memories a- memories b- behaviorsb- behaviors c- knowledgec- knowledge d- all of the aboved- all of the above

MCQ

The following factors affect learningThe following factors affect learning:: a- a- Intelligence

b- Previous Knowledge

c- Motivation d- all of the aboved- all of the above

Hani Hamed Dessoki, MD Psychiatry Associate Prof. of Psychiatry

Acting Head, Psychiatry Department

Faculty of Medicine - Beni Suif University

APA membership

 

Mob: +20106071194

+20108833248

Telephone, clinic: 02 – 37603192

Mailing address: 42 El- Dokki St. Cairo, Egypt

Email: hanipsych@yahoo.com

Website: www.hanipsych.com

Clinic : 24 Gameet El- Dowal El- Arabia St. El- Mohandiseen, Cairo.

Beni Suef, Islam St.