Learners Who Are Deaf or Learners Who Are Deaf or Hard of HearingHard of Hearing

EDSP 6644EDSP 6644

by Linda Jodockby Linda Jodock

Facts about Learners with Hearing Facts about Learners with Hearing ImpairmentsImpairments

Most people who are deaf have some residual hearing.Most people who are deaf have some residual hearing.

Deafness poses more adjustment difficulties than does blindness due to inability to Deafness poses more adjustment difficulties than does blindness due to inability to understand and speak oral language.understand and speak oral language.

The phenomenon of a Deaf culture is natural; too much mainstreaming may diminish The phenomenon of a Deaf culture is natural; too much mainstreaming may diminish its influence.its influence.

Lipreading refers only to visuals arising from the lips’ movements. Speechreading is a Lipreading refers only to visuals arising from the lips’ movements. Speechreading is a more accurate term to describe the attention some hearing impaired give to facial more accurate term to describe the attention some hearing impaired give to facial cues and movements of the tongue and jaw.cues and movements of the tongue and jaw.

Speechreading is extremely difficult to learn. Very few become proficient.Speechreading is extremely difficult to learn. Very few become proficient.

ASL is a true language with its own set of grammatical rules.ASL is a true language with its own set of grammatical rules.

Some within the Deaf community have argued for the need for a critical mass of deaf Some within the Deaf community have argued for the need for a critical mass of deaf students in order to have effective educational programs. Separate placements are a students in order to have effective educational programs. Separate placements are a way of fostering Deaf culture.way of fostering Deaf culture.

Deaf children born to deaf parents fare better in academic and social areas due to Deaf children born to deaf parents fare better in academic and social areas due to their parents ability to communicate with them in ASL.their parents ability to communicate with them in ASL.

Definition and ClassificationDefinition and Classification

Division between deaf and hard of Division between deaf and hard of hearinghearing

Two extreme points of Two extreme points of view betweenview between professionals: professionals: A physiologicalA physiological orientation versus an orientation versus an educational orientationeducational orientation BeethovenBeethoven

The Physiological ViewpointThe Physiological Viewpoint Dependent on the measurable degree of impairment: those Dependent on the measurable degree of impairment: those

who can’t hear sounds above a certain intensity are “deaf”; who can’t hear sounds above a certain intensity are “deaf”; others with hearing impairment are consideredothers with hearing impairment are considered

“ “hard of hearing”.hard of hearing”.

Hearing sensitivity is measured in “decibels”. Zero decibels Hearing sensitivity is measured in “decibels”. Zero decibels is designated as the point at which the average person with is designated as the point at which the average person with normal hearing can detect the faintest sound. Each normal hearing can detect the faintest sound. Each increasing number of decibels that a person cannot detect increasing number of decibels that a person cannot detect indicates a degree of hearing impairment.indicates a degree of hearing impairment.

The physiological point of view maintains that impairments The physiological point of view maintains that impairments of 90 dB or greater be classified as deaf. (This is about the of 90 dB or greater be classified as deaf. (This is about the loudness of a lawn mower.)loudness of a lawn mower.)

Those with lesser impairments are hard of hearing.Those with lesser impairments are hard of hearing.

The Educational ViewpointThe Educational Viewpoint

The concern is for how much the hearing The concern is for how much the hearing impairment is likely to affect the child’s impairment is likely to affect the child’s ability to speak and develop language.ability to speak and develop language.

The close causal link between hearing The close causal link between hearing impairment and delay in language impairment and delay in language development causes these professionals development causes these professionals to categorize on the basis of spoken to categorize on the basis of spoken language abilities.language abilities.

““Hearing impairment” covers a range from Hearing impairment” covers a range from mild to profound and includes those who mild to profound and includes those who are deaf or hard of hearing. are deaf or hard of hearing.

Educationally Oriented DefinitionsEducationally Oriented Definitions

A deaf person is one whose hearing ability A deaf person is one whose hearing ability precludes successful processing of precludes successful processing of linguistic information through audition, linguistic information through audition, with or without a hearing aid.with or without a hearing aid.

A person who is hard of hearing generally, A person who is hard of hearing generally, with the use of a hearing aid, has residual with the use of a hearing aid, has residual hearing sufficient to enable successful hearing sufficient to enable successful processing of linguistic information processing of linguistic information through audition through audition (Brill, MacNeil, &(Brill, MacNeil, & Newman, 1986, p.67, as cited in Hallahan, Kauffman, &Newman, 1986, p.67, as cited in Hallahan, Kauffman, & Pullen). Pullen).

Onset of DeafnessOnset of Deafness For educators, the close relationship between hearing impairment and For educators, the close relationship between hearing impairment and

language delay is crucial. An earlier onset means more difficulty for the language delay is crucial. An earlier onset means more difficulty for the child in developing the language of a hearing society. child in developing the language of a hearing society.

A congenitally deaf child is born deaf.A congenitally deaf child is born deaf. An adventitiously deaf child acquires deafness sometime after birth.An adventitiously deaf child acquires deafness sometime after birth.

Two other frequently used terms specifically refer to language acquisition: Two other frequently used terms specifically refer to language acquisition: prelingual deafness – acquired at birth or prior to speech or language prelingual deafness – acquired at birth or prior to speech or language

development;development; postlingual deafness – occurs after the development of speech and postlingual deafness – occurs after the development of speech and

language.language.

There is a growing sentiment among the deaf community that deafness There is a growing sentiment among the deaf community that deafness should not be considered a disability, but rather a cultural difference. should not be considered a disability, but rather a cultural difference. These tend to refer to themselves as “Deaf”.These tend to refer to themselves as “Deaf”.

Those who refer to themselves as “deaf” with the lowercase usually try to Those who refer to themselves as “deaf” with the lowercase usually try to maintain their contact with mainstream society and usually acquired their maintain their contact with mainstream society and usually acquired their deafness later in life.deafness later in life.

PrevalencePrevalence About 0.13 percent of the population from six to seventeen About 0.13 percent of the population from six to seventeen

years old as identified by the US Department of Education years old as identified by the US Department of Education is deaf.is deaf.

It’s likely that students who are hard of hearing are far It’s likely that students who are hard of hearing are far more prevalent.more prevalent.

Authorities suspect that many hard of hearing who could Authorities suspect that many hard of hearing who could benefit from special education are not being served.benefit from special education are not being served.

Twenty-five percent of deaf students in the US come from Twenty-five percent of deaf students in the US come from Hispanic homes.Hispanic homes.

Relatively large numbers come from other non-English-Relatively large numbers come from other non-English-speaking immigrants.speaking immigrants.

Deafness makes native languageDeafness makes native language acquisition difficult, let alone secondacquisition difficult, let alone second language acquisition.language acquisition.

Helen KellerHelen Keller

Anatomy and Physiology of the EarAnatomy and Physiology of the Ear

Anatomy and Physiology Anatomy and Physiology Three sections:Three sections: Outer ear – the auricle and the external auditory canal. The auricle Outer ear – the auricle and the external auditory canal. The auricle

protrudes from the side of the head.protrudes from the side of the head. Middle ear – the tympanic membrane (eardrum) is the boundary Middle ear – the tympanic membrane (eardrum) is the boundary

between the outer and middle ears. The middle ear is made up of between the outer and middle ears. The middle ear is made up of three tiny bones (ossicles): malleus (hammer), incus (anvil), and three tiny bones (ossicles): malleus (hammer), incus (anvil), and stapes (stirrup). All are contained in an air filled-space. They stapes (stirrup). All are contained in an air filled-space. They conduct the vibrations of the eardrum to the oval window, the link conduct the vibrations of the eardrum to the oval window, the link between the inner and middle ear. between the inner and middle ear.

Inner ear – the size of a pea and a maze of passageways, it’s often Inner ear – the size of a pea and a maze of passageways, it’s often called a “labyrinth”. Its two sections are the vestibular mechanism called a “labyrinth”. Its two sections are the vestibular mechanism and the cochlea.and the cochlea.

a. The vestibular mechanism is responsible for the sense of a. The vestibular mechanism is responsible for the sense of balance.balance.

b. The cochlea, when stimulated by the movement of the oval b. The cochlea, when stimulated by the movement of the oval window, begins to flow with fluid. The cochlear nerve is then window, begins to flow with fluid. The cochlear nerve is then stimulated, and an electrical impulse is sent to the brain, and stimulated, and an electrical impulse is sent to the brain, and sound is heard. sound is heard.

Identification of Hearing ImpairmentIdentification of Hearing Impairment

Screening tests – An initiative by the Screening tests – An initiative by the American Academy of Pediatricians has American Academy of Pediatricians has resulted in 93% of newborns being resulted in 93% of newborns being screened for hearing (AAP, 2007). Some screened for hearing (AAP, 2007). Some tests involve computers to measure tests involve computers to measure otoacoustic emissions of the cochlea to otoacoustic emissions of the cochlea to test its functioning. test its functioning.

Many elementary schools have routine Many elementary schools have routine screening programs.screening programs.

Individually measured tests rather than Individually measured tests rather than group tests and those performed in an group tests and those performed in an audiologist’s office are the most accurate.audiologist’s office are the most accurate.

Pure-Tone AudiometryPure-Tone Audiometry This test is designed to establish the individual’s threshold for This test is designed to establish the individual’s threshold for

hearing at a variety of frequencies, measured in hertz (Hz) units. hearing at a variety of frequencies, measured in hertz (Hz) units. The pitch is higher with more vibrations per unit of time of a sound The pitch is higher with more vibrations per unit of time of a sound wave and lower with fewer vibrations.wave and lower with fewer vibrations.

Audiologists are concerned with measuring sensitivity to sounds Audiologists are concerned with measuring sensitivity to sounds ranging from 0 to about 110 dB. ranging from 0 to about 110 dB.

The zero decibel level is frequently called the zero hearing-The zero decibel level is frequently called the zero hearing-threshold level or audiometric zero.threshold level or audiometric zero.

Each increment in the decibel scale is based on ratios. Therefore, Each increment in the decibel scale is based on ratios. Therefore, 20 dB is ten times more intense than 10 dB, and 30 dB is one 20 dB is ten times more intense than 10 dB, and 30 dB is one hundred times more intense than 10 dB. (Normal conversation is hundred times more intense than 10 dB. (Normal conversation is at about 60 dB and a power lawn mower is at about 90 dB.)at about 60 dB and a power lawn mower is at about 90 dB.)

The audiologist tests each ear separately in the range of 0 to 110 The audiologist tests each ear separately in the range of 0 to 110 dB and 125-8,000 Hz until it’s established at what level of dB and 125-8,000 Hz until it’s established at what level of intensity (dB) can detect the tone at a number of frequencies. For intensity (dB) can detect the tone at a number of frequencies. For each frequency, there is a level of hearing impairment. For each frequency, there is a level of hearing impairment. For example, a 50-dB hearing impairment at 500 Hz means that example, a 50-dB hearing impairment at 500 Hz means that individual requires 50 dB to detect the 500 Hz sound whereas an individual requires 50 dB to detect the 500 Hz sound whereas an average person would have heard it at 0 dB.average person would have heard it at 0 dB.

Speech AudiometrySpeech Audiometry

Audiologists use speech audiometry to test Audiologists use speech audiometry to test individual’s detection and understanding individual’s detection and understanding of speech.of speech.

The speech reception threshold (SRT) is The speech reception threshold (SRT) is the decibel level at which one is able to the decibel level at which one is able to understand speech.understand speech.

Testing each ear separately with a list of Testing each ear separately with a list of two-syllable words, the dB level at which two-syllable words, the dB level at which half of those words is understood is an half of those words is understood is an often-used estimate of SRT.often-used estimate of SRT.

Tests for the Young and Hard to Tests for the Young and Hard to TestTest

Play audiometry – examiner teaches the child to Play audiometry – examiner teaches the child to do various play activities when the signal is do various play activities when the signal is heard. heard.

Tympanometry – a rubber-tipped probe is Tympanometry – a rubber-tipped probe is inserted into the ear canal, sealing it off. The inserted into the ear canal, sealing it off. The effects of pressure and sound are measured to effects of pressure and sound are measured to assess the inner ear’s function.assess the inner ear’s function.

Evoked-response audiometry – Evoked-response audiometry – measures changes in brain wave measures changes in brain wave activity by using anactivity by using an electroencephalograph.electroencephalograph.

CausesCauses

These are classified with respect to the These are classified with respect to the type of impairment and its location.type of impairment and its location.

Three major classifications:Three major classifications:

1. conductive – transfer between middle 1. conductive – transfer between middle and outer earand outer ear

2. sensoneurial – problems in the inner ear2. sensoneurial – problems in the inner ear

3. mixed hearing impairment – a 3. mixed hearing impairment – a combination of the two.combination of the two.

Outer ear impairmentOuter ear impairment

Atresia – a condition where the Atresia – a condition where the external auditory canal does not external auditory canal does not form.form.

External otitis – “swimmer’s ear” – an External otitis – “swimmer’s ear” – an infection of the skin of the external infection of the skin of the external auditory canal.auditory canal.

TumorsTumors

Middle Ear ImpairmentsMiddle Ear Impairments

Usually, the mechanical action of the Usually, the mechanical action of the ossicles is interfered with in some way. ossicles is interfered with in some way. These problems can be corrected with These problems can be corrected with surgery or medical treatment.surgery or medical treatment.

Otitis media – infection of the middle ear Otitis media – infection of the middle ear caused by bacteria or virus. It’s linked to caused by bacteria or virus. It’s linked to abnormal functioning of the eustachian abnormal functioning of the eustachian tubes. It causes temporary conductive tubes. It causes temporary conductive hearing impairment. Untreated, it can lead hearing impairment. Untreated, it can lead to rupture of the tympanic membrane.to rupture of the tympanic membrane.

Inner Ear ImpairmentsInner Ear Impairments A person with this type of impairment may also have sound A person with this type of impairment may also have sound

distortion, balance problems, and roaring or ringing in the distortion, balance problems, and roaring or ringing in the ears.ears.

Can be hereditary or acquired – genetic factors are the Can be hereditary or acquired – genetic factors are the leading cause of deafness in children.leading cause of deafness in children.

• Over 400 different varieties of hereditary deafness have Over 400 different varieties of hereditary deafness have been identified.been identified.

• Mutation in the connexin-26 gene is the most common Mutation in the connexin-26 gene is the most common (20%).(20%).

Acquired impairments: meningitis (2Acquired impairments: meningitis (2ndnd most frequent most frequent cause), prematurity, viral infections, anoxia at birth, cause), prematurity, viral infections, anoxia at birth, prenatal infections of the mother (rubella, congenital prenatal infections of the mother (rubella, congenital syphilis, cytomegalovirus), Rh incompatibility, blows to the syphilis, cytomegalovirus), Rh incompatibility, blows to the head, antibiotics’ side-effects, excessive noise levels.head, antibiotics’ side-effects, excessive noise levels.

• The most frequent cause in newborns is cytomegalovirus The most frequent cause in newborns is cytomegalovirus (herpes).(herpes).

Psychological and Behavioral Psychological and Behavioral CharacteristicsCharacteristics

Functionality in a language-oriented world is difficult.Functionality in a language-oriented world is difficult. The hearing impaired population is usually deficient in the language shared The hearing impaired population is usually deficient in the language shared

by most of the hearing society. However, they can become proficient in by most of the hearing society. However, they can become proficient in sign language.sign language.

Sign language – under the pioneering work of the linguist, William Stokoe, Sign language – under the pioneering work of the linguist, William Stokoe, at Gallaudet University, ASL became recognized as a true language. Each at Gallaudet University, ASL became recognized as a true language. Each sign consists of three parts: handshape, location, and movement. (1960, sign consists of three parts: handshape, location, and movement. (1960, 1976)1976)

Nonuniversality of sign language – French sign language (promoted by Nonuniversality of sign language – French sign language (promoted by clergyman Michel de l’Eppe) is as foreign to an American deaf person as clergyman Michel de l’Eppe) is as foreign to an American deaf person as spoken French would be to a hearing American.spoken French would be to a hearing American.

Sign languages evolve with usage – Nicaraguan Sign Language is an Sign languages evolve with usage – Nicaraguan Sign Language is an example.example.

Milestones in language development in sign language mirror the Milestones in language development in sign language mirror the milestones in spoken language development – babbling, first words, and milestones in spoken language development – babbling, first words, and two-word phrases.two-word phrases.

Neurologically, left cerebral hemisphere of the brain is the Neurologically, left cerebral hemisphere of the brain is the primary site responsible for both spoken language and forprimary site responsible for both spoken language and for sign language. sign language. Louis Frisino:Louis Frisino:

““Black Labrador Puppy”Black Labrador Puppy”

Intellectual AbilityIntellectual Ability

Performance tests offer a fairer Performance tests offer a fairer assessment of intelligence, particularly if assessment of intelligence, particularly if they are offered in sign.they are offered in sign.

There is no There is no measurable measurable difference indifference in IQ between IQ between hearing andhearing and deaf persons.deaf persons. Marlee MatlisMarlee Matlis

Academic AchievementAcademic Achievement

Reading ability, reliant on English Reading ability, reliant on English language skills, is most affected.language skills, is most affected.

Average hearing impaired student leaves Average hearing impaired student leaves school with a deficit of 5 years in reading school with a deficit of 5 years in reading (Kyle and Harris, 2006, as cited in Hallahan, Kauffman, & Pullen).(Kyle and Harris, 2006, as cited in Hallahan, Kauffman, & Pullen).

Those students with deaf parents have Those students with deaf parents have higher reading achievement and better higher reading achievement and better language skills than those with hearing language skills than those with hearing parents.parents.

A supportive home environment is key to A supportive home environment is key to higher achievement.higher achievement.

Social AdjustmentSocial Adjustment Social development and personality development depend on communication just as in the hearing Social development and personality development depend on communication just as in the hearing

community.community. Two important factors:Two important factors: inclusioninclusion hearing status of the parentshearing status of the parents In inclusionary settings, research has shown that very little interaction occurs between the hearing In inclusionary settings, research has shown that very little interaction occurs between the hearing

peers and the deaf students. Some interventions using cooperative learning have been successful peers and the deaf students. Some interventions using cooperative learning have been successful in increasing interactions.in increasing interactions.

Students who are deaf feel more emotionally secure if there are others who are deaf that they can Students who are deaf feel more emotionally secure if there are others who are deaf that they can communicate with.communicate with.

A need for social interaction leads many to associate primarily with others who are deaf.A need for social interaction leads many to associate primarily with others who are deaf. The Deaf Culture – a unifying influence of sign language is the first of six factors marking this The Deaf Culture – a unifying influence of sign language is the first of six factors marking this

community as a true culture:community as a true culture: 1. Linguistic differentiation – many are bilingual in English and sign language.1. Linguistic differentiation – many are bilingual in English and sign language. 2. Attitudinal deafness – self-perception as deaf although hearing impaired2. Attitudinal deafness – self-perception as deaf although hearing impaired 3. Behavioral norms – more physical contact; frank discussions3. Behavioral norms – more physical contact; frank discussions 4. Endogamous marriage – 90% ingroup marriage4. Endogamous marriage – 90% ingroup marriage 5. Historical awareness of significant5. Historical awareness of significant people and events pertaining to deafness.people and events pertaining to deafness. 6. Voluntary organizational networks – 6. Voluntary organizational networks – Goya’s Goya’s

Deaf Olympics, National Theatre of the Deaf Deaf Olympics, National Theatre of the Deaf “Old Men Eating Soup”“Old Men Eating Soup”

Erosion of Deaf CultureErosion of Deaf Culture There is a concern among those within the Deaf community that There is a concern among those within the Deaf community that

the increase in inclusion is eroding the cultural values of the Deaf the increase in inclusion is eroding the cultural values of the Deaf culture. culture.

Authorities recommend that schools involve members of the Deaf Authorities recommend that schools involve members of the Deaf community in developing classes in Deaf history and culture.community in developing classes in Deaf history and culture.

Deaf Activism – the Gallaudet experience:Deaf Activism – the Gallaudet experience: 1. Deaf President Now Movement – From 1864 to the 1980’s, 1. Deaf President Now Movement – From 1864 to the 1980’s,

Gallaudet had never had a hearing president. When a second Gallaudet had never had a hearing president. When a second hearing president was announced in March of 1988, there followed hearing president was announced in March of 1988, there followed 8 days of protest, resulting in the naming of a deaf president and 8 days of protest, resulting in the naming of a deaf president and a majority of deaf members on the board.a majority of deaf members on the board.

2. Unity for Gallaudet Movement – In 2006, Fernandes’ appointment 2. Unity for Gallaudet Movement – In 2006, Fernandes’ appointment as president was protested. Although she is deaf, she was as president was protested. Although she is deaf, she was considered too progressive, favoring inclusion of those with considered too progressive, favoring inclusion of those with cochlear implants as well as those who had not grown up with sign cochlear implants as well as those who had not grown up with sign language. She was replaced by Robert Davilla. language. She was replaced by Robert Davilla.

Deaf ActivismDeaf Activism

The cochlear implant – the procedure involves surgically implanting The cochlear implant – the procedure involves surgically implanting electronic elements behind the ear and in the inner ear. A small electronic elements behind the ear and in the inner ear. A small microphone picks up sound and sends it to a small computerized speech microphone picks up sound and sends it to a small computerized speech processor which sends coded signals to an external coil worn behind the processor which sends coded signals to an external coil worn behind the ear. This coil sends the signals to electrodes implanted in the inner ear, ear. This coil sends the signals to electrodes implanted in the inner ear, and they are sent to the auditory nerve.and they are sent to the auditory nerve.

It’s recommended for those with profound sensorineural loss in both ears. It’s recommended for those with profound sensorineural loss in both ears. In children, most implants occur between the ages of two and six.In children, most implants occur between the ages of two and six.

The debate – the Deaf community views these implants as invasive both The debate – the Deaf community views these implants as invasive both physically and culturally.physically and culturally.

In order for the implants to be most effective, intensive oral instruction is In order for the implants to be most effective, intensive oral instruction is recommended. Since many in the Deaf community favor manual (ASL) recommended. Since many in the Deaf community favor manual (ASL) instruction over oral teaching methods, this is problematic. They are instruction over oral teaching methods, this is problematic. They are concerned that not enough exposure to sign language will occur for them concerned that not enough exposure to sign language will occur for them to preserve their heritage.to preserve their heritage.

Another scientific discovery which could help sustain Deaf culture involves Another scientific discovery which could help sustain Deaf culture involves the connexin-26 mutation. In vitro fertilization could ensure that only the connexin-26 mutation. In vitro fertilization could ensure that only fertilized eggs containing this mutation would be implanted. fertilized eggs containing this mutation would be implanted.

Some deaf couples have actually used artificial insemination by a donor Some deaf couples have actually used artificial insemination by a donor who has a high probability of carrying genes causing deafness. who has a high probability of carrying genes causing deafness.

Oral ApproachesOral Approaches Auditory-Verbal Approach – Auditory-Verbal Approach – focus is exclusively on using audition to improve focus is exclusively on using audition to improve

speech and language development. speech and language development. assumes some residual hearing and relies heavily assumes some residual hearing and relies heavily

on amplification technology like hearing aids and on amplification technology like hearing aids and cochlear implants. cochlear implants.

heavy emphasis on speech training – many heavy emphasis on speech training – many children with hearing impairments must be children with hearing impairments must be explicitly instructed in how to produce speech explicitly instructed in how to produce speech sounds.sounds.

Granville Redmond:Granville Redmond:

““California Poppy Field” c. 1926California Poppy Field” c. 1926

Auditory-Oral ApproachAuditory-Oral Approach Similar to the auditory-verbal approach, but also Similar to the auditory-verbal approach, but also

stresses the use of visual cues like speechreading stresses the use of visual cues like speechreading and cued speech.and cued speech.

Speechreading’s goal is to teach children to Speechreading’s goal is to teach children to attend to a variety of stimuli in addition to the attend to a variety of stimuli in addition to the movement of the lips, contextual stimuli like movement of the lips, contextual stimuli like facial expressions and tongue and jaw facial expressions and tongue and jaw movement. (Sometimes referred to as lipreading) movement. (Sometimes referred to as lipreading)

Cued speech is a way of augmenting Cued speech is a way of augmenting speechreading by using hand shapes to represent speechreading by using hand shapes to represent certain specific sounds while speaking. There are certain specific sounds while speaking. There are 8 hand shapes for consonants and 4 for vowels.8 hand shapes for consonants and 4 for vowels.

Criticisms of the Oral ApproachCriticisms of the Oral Approach Critics object to the deemphasis of sign language in this Critics object to the deemphasis of sign language in this

approach; they assert that most children with profound or approach; they assert that most children with profound or severe hearing impairment are being denied access to a severe hearing impairment are being denied access to a language to communicate.language to communicate.

Good speechreaders are rare due to several factors:Good speechreaders are rare due to several factors: 1. speakers produce many sounds with very little movement 1. speakers produce many sounds with very little movement

of the mouthof the mouth 2. English has many homophenes – sounds that are visually 2. English has many homophenes – sounds that are visually

identical (p, b, m)identical (p, b, m) 3. variability among speakers3. variability among speakers 4. poor lighting4. poor lighting 5. rapid speaking5. rapid speaking 6. talking with one’s head turned 6. talking with one’s head turned

Educational ConsiderationsEducational Considerations For the educator, communication with the hard of hearing For the educator, communication with the hard of hearing

and those who are deaf is a major obstacle.and those who are deaf is a major obstacle. Oralism-manualism debate – Oralism involves teaching Oralism-manualism debate – Oralism involves teaching

speech. Manualism advocates use of manual speech. Manualism advocates use of manual communication. It predominated until mid-nineteenth communication. It predominated until mid-nineteenth century, when oralism began to gain favor. century, when oralism began to gain favor.

Currently, professionals recommend both – a total Currently, professionals recommend both – a total communication approach.communication approach.

The Deaf community believes this is inadequate and The Deaf community believes this is inadequate and advocates for a bicultural-bilingual approach;advocates for a bicultural-bilingual approach;

this promotes ASL as the first language and instruction in this promotes ASL as the first language and instruction in Deaf culture. Deaf culture.

Goya:Goya:

Self PortraitSelf Portrait

Total CommunicationTotal Communication Simultaneous use of speech with one of the Simultaneous use of speech with one of the

signing English systems, like fingerspelling- signing English systems, like fingerspelling- representing the letters of the English alphabet.representing the letters of the English alphabet.

Criticism of this method has focused on the use of Criticism of this method has focused on the use of signing English rather than ASL.signing English rather than ASL.

The advantage is that signing English uses the The advantage is that signing English uses the same word order as spoken English, allowing one same word order as spoken English, allowing one to speak and sign simultaneously.to speak and sign simultaneously.

ASL advocates believe this method is too slow ASL advocates believe this method is too slow and awkward and that word order is not the and awkward and that word order is not the critical element in learning to use and critical element in learning to use and comprehend English. They add that ASL evolved comprehend English. They add that ASL evolved over several generations of users while signing over several generations of users while signing English systems are relatively new. English systems are relatively new.

Bicultural-Bilingual ApproachBicultural-Bilingual Approach Many critics of total communication advocate this Many critics of total communication advocate this

approach.approach. Several variations, but most contain three features:Several variations, but most contain three features: 1. ASL is considered the primary language and English is 1. ASL is considered the primary language and English is

secondary.secondary. 2. People who are deaf play an important role in curriculum 2. People who are deaf play an important role in curriculum

and program development.and program development. 3. The curriculum includes instruction in Deaf culture. 3. The curriculum includes instruction in Deaf culture. Studies have shown a relationship between ASL usage and Studies have shown a relationship between ASL usage and

academic performance in English. academic performance in English. (Wilbur, 2000, as cited in Hallahan, Kauffman, & Pullen)(Wilbur, 2000, as cited in Hallahan, Kauffman, & Pullen)

“…“…a range of approaches will probably best serve the a range of approaches will probably best serve the needs of a range of deaf children.” needs of a range of deaf children.” (Schirmer, 2001, p.203, as cited in Hallahan, (Schirmer, 2001, p.203, as cited in Hallahan, Kauffman, & Pullen)Kauffman, & Pullen)

Douglas Tilden, sculptorDouglas Tilden, sculptor

Technological AdvancesTechnological Advances Hearing Aids – FM systems can be connected to a wireless lapel microphone on the Hearing Aids – FM systems can be connected to a wireless lapel microphone on the

teacher. teacher.

Captioning – television, movie, and video. Federal law requires it.Captioning – television, movie, and video. Federal law requires it.

Telephones – text phones. Federal government requires each state to provide a relay Telephones – text phones. Federal government requires each state to provide a relay service to allow communication through an operator.service to allow communication through an operator.

Video relay service – allows a sign language interpreter to serve as an intermediary Video relay service – allows a sign language interpreter to serve as an intermediary between hearing and non-hearing communicators. between hearing and non-hearing communicators.

Computer-assisted instruction – visual displays of speech patterns can help the Computer-assisted instruction – visual displays of speech patterns can help the hearing impaired learn speech. C-print transcribes speech with reduced keystrokes to hearing impaired learn speech. C-print transcribes speech with reduced keystrokes to a computer in a lecture setting. The deaf student can receive a real time display and a computer in a lecture setting. The deaf student can receive a real time display and a printout.a printout.

Internet – electronic mail, world-wide web, information access, on-line classes. All are Internet – electronic mail, world-wide web, information access, on-line classes. All are open to both the hearing and non-hearing world.open to both the hearing and non-hearing world.

Goya:Goya:

“ “The Parasol”The Parasol”

Transition to AdulthoodTransition to Adulthood

Besides Gallaudet University and the Besides Gallaudet University and the National Technical Institute for the Deaf, National Technical Institute for the Deaf, many other postsecondary institutions many other postsecondary institutions offer programs for those with hearing offer programs for those with hearing impairments. impairments.

A common accommodation – sign A common accommodation – sign language interpreterslanguage interpreters

Expanded transition programming, Expanded transition programming, postsecondary education, and public postsecondary education, and public awareness predict successful futures for awareness predict successful futures for the hearing impaired.the hearing impaired.

ReferencesReferences

Beethoven, L. Image retrieved November 27, 2009 from buzzle.comBeethoven, L. Image retrieved November 27, 2009 from buzzle.com

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