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LEARNER GUIDE
UNIT STANDARD: IDENTIFY JOB OPPORTUNITIES WITHIN THE
PERFORMING ARTS INDUSTRY
SAQA ID: 114546
NQF LEVEL: 03
CREDITS: 04
LEARNING UNIT:
TITLE: Further Education and Training Certificate: Performing Arts
NQF LEVEL: 04
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able of Contents
TABLE OF CONTENT
LEARNER INFORMATION .................................................................................... 5
NOTES TO THE LEARNER ..................................................................................... 6
LEARNER GUIDE INTRODUCTION ........................................................................ 9
Purpose ....................................................................................................................................... 9
Specific Outcomes ........................................................................................................................ 9
Assessment Criteria ..................................................................................................................... 10
To qualify .................................................................................................................................... 10
What is a credit? .......................................................................................................................... 10
Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL) ............................................................................................... 10
Range of Learning ........................................................................................................................ 11
Learner Support Pack ................................................................................................................... 11
Responsibility .............................................................................................................................. 11
Learner Support ........................................................................................................................... 12
Assessment ................................................................................................................................. 13
DURATION OF PROGRAMME ............................................................................. 15
ICONS .............................................................................................................. 16
LEARNING MAP ................................................................................................ 17
UNIT: 114545 IDENTIFY JOB OPPORTUNITIES WITHIN THE PERFORMING ARTS
INDUSTRY ........................................................................................................ 18
COMPETENCIES ............................................................................................... 18
........................................................................................................................ 18
........................................................................................................................ 18
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MODULE: 1- IDENTIFY THE KEY ROLE-PLAYERS IN THE PERFORMING ART`S
INDUSTRY FOR OWN CAREER-PATH PLANNING. ................................................. 19
........................................................................................................................ 19
........................................................................................................................ 19
1.1 KEY ORGANISATIONS WHICH FUND THE PERFORMING ARTS ARE IDENTIFIED IN
ORDER TO KNOW WHO TO APPROACH FOR FUNDING (SO 1, AC 1) ....................... 20
1.2 KEY LOBBYING BODIES AND TRADE UNIONS FOR PERFORMING ARTISTS ARE
IDENTIFIED IN ORDER TO ENSURE THAT RIGHTS OF THE ARTIST WILL BE
PROTECTED (SO 1, AC 2) .................................................................................... 21
1.3 POTENTIAL EMPLOYERS ARE IDENTIFIED FOR OWN CAREER-PATH PLANNING.
(SO 1, AC 3) ....................................................................................................... 24
MODULE: 2- INVESTIGATE EDUCATION AND CAREER OPPORTUNITIES IN THE
PERFORMING ARTS. ......................................................................................... 31
........................................................................................................................ 31
........................................................................................................................ 31
2.1 CAREER OPPORTUNITIES IN THE PERFORMING ARTS, MEDIA, ADVERTISING,
MARKETING, AND RELATED ARTS FIELDS ARE IDENTIFIED (SO 2, AC 1) ............... 32
ART & DESIGN CAREER EDUCATION .................................................................. 34
ART & DESIGN CAREER PROJECTIONS ................................................................ 35
MODULE: 3- DEVELOP ENTREPRENEURIAL SKILLS, KNOWLEDGE, ATTITUDES AND
VALUES. ........................................................................................................... 39
........................................................................................................................ 39
........................................................................................................................ 39
SELF-ASSESSMENT............................................................................................. 59
LEARNER EVALUATION FORM ........................................................................... 60
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UNIT STANDARD
UNIT STANDARD NUMBER:
114546
LEVEL ON THE NQF:
03
CREDITS:
04
FIELD:
Field 02 - Culture and Arts
Sub Field:
Performing Arts
PURPOSE:
The purpose of this unit standard is to prepare learners to be resourceful in positioning themselves within the performing arts` industry. In order to be successful in the arts in South Africa, it is necessary to understand the various options available, become innovative in finding gaps in the market, take initiative to create work where none exists and find ways of marketing oneself and one`s skills. It is also important for learners at Level 4 to research and access information about possible further study opportunities at Levels 5 and above in order to ensure life-long learning and skills development
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Details Please Complete details
Name of learner
Name of Mentor
Type of Business
Facilitator
Date started
Date of completion and assessment
Learner information
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Notes to the Learner
Dear Learner,
Welcome to this Learning Programme. We trust that this Learning Programme will
be of great value to you during your studies and in your future career.
To succeed in anything in life requires a lot of hard work.
It will be expected of you to work through this study guide with a great deal of
attention. It provides you with information on how to work through the material,
details exactly what will be expected of you and what objectives you need to
achieve during the study of this Learning Programme. You will have to:
Complete your assignments with dedication and submit them in time.
Complete the self study sections for your own benefit. The self study sections
provide you with the opportunity to practice what you have learnt.
Act as adult learners.
The theory you are learning helps you to understand why you are doing things in
a specific way. It also gives you a way to compare what you are doing to the way
others do things. However, the only way to become competent is by doing the
actual work according to the unit standards. This Learning Programme provides
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The Learning approach will be:
Learning is a (1) active, (2) constructive, (3) cumulative and (4) goal-directed process.
Active
You have to participate and complete tasks.
Constructive
The learning content will be to your benefit.
Goal Oriented
Certain goals have to be met to complete the qualification competently.
Cumulative
The learning content builds on your existing experience.
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The result of this is that you as learner will have to do the following:
Actively participate in the learning process.
Be constructive and actively convert your learning by integrating the new knowledge and
skills you gain in this learning programme with previous experience.
The cumulative character of learning implies that we need to build new knowledge and skills
into you existing knowledge and skills. Therefore, your have to resort and refer to what you
already know to ensure that this learning programme is of value to you.
You also have to be goal-directed. Work according to and achieve the learning programme
objectives as well as your personal learning objectives. Know what the learning program’s
objectives are!
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Purpose The purpose of this unit standard is to facilitate learning and to ensure
that learners are able to cope with learning in the context of
learnerships, skills programmes and other learning programmes. Many
adult learners in the FET band have not been in a learning situation for
a long time, and need learning and study strategies and skills to enable
successful progression. Learners competent at this level will be able to
deal with learning materials, to access and use useful resources, to
seek clarification and help when necessary, and apply a range of
learning strategies. They do this with an understanding of the features
and processes of the workplaces and occupations to which their
learning programmes refer.
Specific Outcomes Specific outcomes describe what the learner has to be able to do
successfully at the end of this learning experience.
Learner Guide Introduction
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Assessment Criteria
The only way to establish whether a learner is competent and has
accomplished the specific outcomes is through the assessment process.
Assessment involves collecting and interpreting evidence about the
learners’ ability to perform a task.
This Learning Programme includes assessments in the form of self-
assessments, group exercises, quizzes, projects and a practical training
programme whereby you are required to perform tasks on the job. You
are also expected to collect a portfolio of evidence, signed by your
supervisor that you have successfully performed these tasks.
To qualify To qualify and receive credits towards your qualification, a registered
assessor will conduct an evaluation and assessment of your portfolio of
evidence and competency.
What is a credit?
A credit is the formal recognition that you have the necessary
knowledge, skills and understanding in a particular field of study. One
(1) credit = 10 notional hours of learning. ‘Notional hours’ are time
spent on homework, assignments, practicing on the job, classroom
time, or any other time spent to become competent in the particular
standard or qualification.
Recognition of Prior
Learning
(RPL)
RPL is a way of recognising what you already know and can do. You
can receive recognition of existing competency regardless of where,
how and when it was acquired.
For RPL assessment, you need to submit evidence of a skill or
experience. This can be done by compiling a portfolio, being
interviewed, giving a practical demonstration, completing a project, or
by writing a formal ‘test’.
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Range of Learning This describes the situation and circumstance in which competence
must be demonstrated and the parameters in which the learner
operates.
Learner Support
Pack
Every learner will receive at least the following resources during this
Learning Programme:
Learner Guide.
Learner Workbook.
The learner workbook must be used in conjunction with this learner
guide for developmental and formative assessment activities.
Responsibility The responsibility of learning rests with you, so . . .
Be proactive and ask questions.
Seek assistance and help from your facilitator, if required.
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Learner Support
Please remember that as the programme is outcomes based – this
implies the following:
a) You are responsible for your own learning. Make sure you
manage your study, research and portfolio time responsibly.
b) Learning activities are learner driven. Make sure you use the
learner guide and workbook in the manner intended, and are
familiar with the portfolio guide requirements.
c) The facilitator is there to reasonably assist you during contact,
practical and workplace time of this programme – make sure
that you have his/her contact details.
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Assessment
How will I be prepared for assessment?
During the programme developmental activities will be conducted to
assist you in preparing for final assessment. For your own benefit,
make sure that you participate fully in all the developmental and
formative assessment activities!
What will I finally be required to do for assessment?
Final assessment will be conducted on the following submission of
evidence:
Knowledge questionnaire.
Portfolio of evidence.
Structured interview.
What will be assessed in the above?
All assessments are conducted strictly in accordance with the unit
standard requirements. Assessment is a way of measuring what you
know and are able to do. When you have learnt something, you should
be able to apply what you have learnt. You may be assessed when you
are sure that you are ready to be assessed. If you do not achieve the
standard the first time, you can be coached or trained further and then
be assessed again later. You will be assessed in a number of ways and
at regular intervals. You will also sit a formal examination at the end of
your studies.
When do I start preparing for assessment?
Right from the start – make sure you are familiar with the assessment
guide/portfolio guide, and start preparing and collecting evidence from
the onset of the programme.
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Formative Assessment
In order to gain credits for this programme you will need to show an assessor that you are
competent in the unit standard. The activities in this programme are designed not only to
bring about your competence but also to prove that you have mastered competence. You
are required to create a file called your portfolio of evidence (POE) to show your assessor
that you have mastered the outcomes of the unit standard. Where you see the POE icon,
you must remove the worksheet from your learner guide and place it in your POE.
Summative assessment
Not all the specific outcomes will be formatively assessed during the programme or in the
workplace. The objective is to create independent and self-sufficient learners. This means
that you will also be required to do independent research and assignments outside the
training room. This work will also need to be presented in your POE. Your assessor and you
will conduct a pre assessment meeting to discuss the assessment process and how you will
collect evidence of your competence. When you are ready, you will advise your assessor that
you are ready for the assessment. The summative assessment activities are indicated at the
end of the learning guide. If your summative assessment is conducted using observation,
role plays or verbal assessment, place a signed copy of the checklists, once completed by the
assessor/assessment panel, in your POE.
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The total proposed duration of this programme is as follows
Unit Standard Theoretical Learning (30%) Workplace Learning (70%) Total
Hours
No Time/Notional Hours Time/Notional Hours
114545 28 12 40
Duration of Programme
ICONS
Icons Type of assessment Description
Formative knowledge
assessment:
This comprises of questions
to assess your knowledge.
You must obtain at least 80%
in each assessment criterion.
Self-reflexive assessment You will be required to
answer a few reflexive
questions.
Teamwork Self-Assessment
Form
After you completed this
course, you will be required
to assess your own
behaviour regarding team
work.
Work place experience After you completed this
course, you will be required
to assess your own
behaviour regarding work
experience.
Project research After you completed this
course, you will be required
to assess your own
behaviour regarding reseach.
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Learning Map
Module: 01-Identify the key role-players in the
performing art`s industry for own career-path planning
Module:02-Investigate education and career opportunities in the
performing arts.
Module:03-Develop entrepreneurial skills,
knowledge, attitudes and values.
Module: 04-Reflect on own career path in the performing
arts.
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UNIT: 114545 Identify job opportunities within the performing arts
industry
Competencies
Knowledge
of:
knowledge of potential funding organisations, relationships with agents, producers and casting directors, a knowledge of trade unions, collaboratives, companies, licensing agents, ticketing organisations, educational institutions etc.].
roles and job opportunities that exist across a range of performing arts media.
needs of communities and how they could translate into opportunities for entrepreneurship in the performing arts.
and labour practises.
Skills to:
and skills in order to investigate suitable education and career opportunities in the performing arts, media, advertising, marketing, and related arts fields
to make an economic contribution to self and society in the performing
arts and related fields
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Module: 1- Identify the key role-players in the performing art`s
industry for own career-path planning.
Specific Outcome
On completion of this section you will be able to: Identify the
key role-players in the performing art`s industry for own career-
path planning.
Assessment Criteria
Key organisations which fund the performing arts are identified in
order to know who to approach for funding (SO 1, AC 1)
Key lobbying bodies and trade unions for performing artists are
identified in order to ensure that rights of the artist will be
protected (SO 1, AC 2)
Potential employers are identified for own career-path planning.
(SO 1, AC 3)
The potential for self-employment is identified. (SO 1, AC 4)
Opportunities for life-long training and enrichment in the
performing arts are identified. (SO 1, AC 5)
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1.1 Key organisations which fund the performing arts are identified in
order to know who to approach for funding (SO 1, AC 1)
Create a Funding Plan for Your Organization
Laying out a funding development plan is the first step to becoming proactive in grant seeking and
grant writing. Both non-profit and for-profits organizations can benefit from a good plan for getting
funding. Here are the parts of an all-purpose funding development plan:
Mission statement: A mission statement tells funders your purpose or vision for being a
structured nonprofit or for-profit organization. The mission statement should include the name
of your organization, its structural status (nonprofit or for-profit), the year it was formed, and its
purpose (reason for organization).
Make this statement clear and impactful, reflecting your vision. If you already have a mission
statement, maybe it creates more confusion than clarity. Take a long look at your existing
mission statement and ask yourself whether you need to rewrite that statement.
Assessment of funding needs: What programs and services do you want to offer? Where is
the funding coming from — internal or external sources? Ask and answer questions about your
organization's financial strengths, as well as its financial weaknesses. Also, consider what
funding opportunities are available to your organization and what threats to funding your
organization faces.
Funding goals: How much money do you need to raise from external funding sources for
each program or service?
Your goals should be global and futuristic; they should describe where you want to be when
the grant money runs out.
Funding objectives: What benchmarks do you want to set to assure that you reach these
funding goals?
Your goals can’t stand alone. You’ll never accomplish anything if your goals aren’t supported
by objectives. Objectives act as benchmarks or reference points; they’re measurable steps
that must be taken in order to achieve your goals. And every goal must have at least one
objective.
Action plan: What are the annual tasks, over three to five years that must be completed in
order to make your funding development plan a reality?
In the action plan part of your organization’s funding development plan, you need to sort your
funding needs into categories of for each program or service that needs external funding or
grant monies.
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Monitoring and evaluation of funding objectives: How can your organization track and
prove that the project’s measurable objectives were met and at what levels? What are your
evaluation tools?
You need to determine how your organization will track and evaluate your funding plan’s
objectives. In this part of the funding development plan, make sure to mention who'll conduct
the monitoring and evaluation activities and who'll see or review the evaluation findings or
reports.
After you write your funding development plan, stick to it. Before writing any grant requests, first
make sure that the grant fits into your plan. Be organized, stay focused, and follow your funding
plan’s road map to success and stability
1.2 Key lobbying bodies and trade unions for performing artists are
identified in order to ensure that rights of the artist will be protected
(SO 1, AC 2)
South Africa - Social dialogue
Trade union freedom
Section 23 of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 and the Labour Relations
Act, 1995 guarantee the right of individuals to form, join and participate in the legal activities of
trade unions.
South Africa has a vibrant trade union movement that played a major role in the struggle
against apartheid. The major trade union federation – the Congress of South African Trade
Unions (COSATU) – is a political alliance partner of the ruling party, the African National
Congress (ANC). There are at least three other national trade union federations that adopt a
more politically independent stance.
The Performing Arts Workers Equity (PAWE) is a member of COSATU, but it is relatively weak.
In accordance with COSATU’s policy that there be one union representing one industry, PAWE
and the Musicians Union of South Africa (MUSA) are in the process of merging to form one
union – the Creative Workers Union of South Africa (CWUSA) - to represent the entertainment
industry. This initiative is relatively new, and it will be a while before the union has developed
sufficient credibility and national membership to be a force.
All public sector workers may belong to trade unions except workers who are employed by the
National Defence Force, the National Intelligence Agency and the South African Secret Service.
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In terms of the Labour Relations Act, it is illegal to prevent or pressurize a worker from forming
or joining a trade union.
Union prerogatives
Section 8 of the Labour Relations Act, 1995 states that trade unions have the right to determine
their constitution and rules, to hold elections for its office-bearers, to plan and organize its
administration and lawful activities and to join and participate the activities of national and
international federations of trade unions.
Consultations of the Unions by the State
On issues of economic policy, government has created a forum for business, the unions and
government to meet and discuss matters of mutual concern before policy is adopted and
implemented. In the arts sector, no such forum exists. If there is consultation with the arts
sector, it is on an ad hoc basis. After the initial close consultation between government and the
arts sector around new cultural policies (post-1994), the last 8 years have been characterised
by a lack of consultation, and even hostility on the part of government towards organisations
formed by artists, particularly those that have challenged it on various issues.
At provincial levels, the situation is more nuanced in that provincial government departments
responsible for arts and culture have engaged constructively with artist organisations around
policy and strategic matters.
Main activities of unions over the past five years and current demands
The three unions that exist are relatively new, e.g. the SA Script Writers Association (SASWA),
or in decline, e.g. the Performing Arts Workers Equity (PAWE), or in consultation around the
establishment of a new union. Much of the last five years have been taken up with vision,
capacity, funding and administrative challenges within the unions themselves.
Other NGOs within the arts sector have been more active than unions in the defence of the
rights of workers, largely as a consequence of the ineffectiveness of the unions.
In the last five years, the primary concerns of these NGOs have included:
i) monitoring the management of policy and projects by government and public funding bodies
and intervening where necessary to protect their members’ interests
ii) offering training courses for their members to help them to be effective within the unfolding
conditions e.g. how to draft budgets, devising publicity and marketing campaigns, fund-raising
to the private sector, etc.
iii) gathering and distributing information through regular newsletters to keep members informed
of developments within the sector
iv) hosting forums, competitions and events to develop the sector but also to provide
opportunities for members to have outlets for their creative work
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v) building internal capacity through training, leadership seminars, mentorships, etc.
vi) undertaking research into the creative industries as a basis for reflecting on the gains made
in the last eleven years, and setting a vision and strategies for further development of the sector
in the next five years
The current trade unions are not engaged in ancillary activities at the moment. The most active
trade union is the SA Script Writers Association that runs regular training courses in
scriptwriting and related fields for its members.
Law or regulations governing these matters: Trade union matters are governed by the Labour
Relations Act, 1995.
Collective agreements
The Labour Relations Act, 1995 provides for the establishment of Bargaining Councils in which
registered trade unions and registered employer organisations within a particular industry
participate in order to debate and conclude collective agreements for their sector. There are no
examples of significant social benefits obtained through collective agreements.
There are no collective agreements per sector. Mainly because there are no unions or
employer bodies per sector. Again the main problem is articulated in the research document
produced by the Performing Arts Workers Equity in 2000 where it states “…as the (Labour
Relations Act) excludes self-employed workers/independent contractors, they would
be…excluded from the ambit of collective agreements concluded in terms of the Act. The
situation at present is that most performing arts workers labour under individual contracts which
are generally prejudicial to their interests.” The same would hold true for artists in other areas
such as the visual arts, literature, film, etc.
Promotion of social dialogue
there are no bodies that exist specifically for the promotion of social dialogue. Public discourse
and debate around the arts have been largely absent in the last eight years since the adoption
of the White Paper on Arts, Culture and Heritage. It is an irony that now that freedom of
creative expression and freedom to debate and express opinions are constitutionally
guaranteed (whereas they were restricted under apartheid), there has been a decline in the
substance, range and regularity of public discourse around the arts.
Where social dialogue takes place, it is on an ad hoc basis as the consequence of the
programmes or initiatives of non-government organisations operating in the creative industries.
Status of such bodies : The bodies engaged in, or promoting social dialogue around arts-related
issues are mainly non-government organisations.
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Mediation and/or appeals
The Labour Relations Act, 1995 establishes the Commission for Conciliation, Mediation and
Arbitration (CCMA) for labour-related disputes. Public funding bodies have their own
mechanisms for appeal, but there are no bodies that exist primarily for the resolution of general
disputes within the cultural sector.
1.3 Potential employers are identified for own career-path planning.
(SO 1, AC 3)
Acting
For actors, monologues and speeches are the "calling card" that they use to demonstrate their
skills to casting directors.
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For actors in theater, film, and TV, the "audition is a systematic process in which industry
professionals make final casting decisions. Industry professionals may consist of casting directors,
producers, directors or agency representatives".[1] In film and television, the audition is called a
screen test, and it is filmed so that the casting director or director can see how the actor appears
on screen. Auditions are found in major media outlets (such as newspaper or radio),audition
websites, and through a talent/casting agency. One of the benefits to hiring an agent is that the
agent has connections with casting directors and performing companies. However, the agent will
take a cut (often 10%-20%) of the performer's earnings. Although an actor's talents comprise
crucial criteria in the casting process, an almost equal amount of attention is given to an actor's
"type", (a combination of personality, looks and general casting intuition) as required for a
particular production.
Actors who are selecting an audition piece, select a monologue by a character who is close to their
own age and wears neutral clothing that allows freedom of movement. Auditionees are careful not
to go over the stated time limit, and do not direct their speech to the audition panel if they are doing
an on-stage audition. The exception to the last "rule" is in cases where the audition panel requests
that the auditionee interacts with them (e.g., a director may ask the actor to speak the lines while
looking directly at the director). An actor who is doing an audition normally warms up before the
audition, just the same way an athlete would. Just as with any interview outside of the performing
arts world, an auditionee takes care to dress well. Even if the clothing is simple, it is clean and of
good quality. Auditionees know casting directors are also considering "whether or not the actor will
be easy to work with, that they know what they are doing and can take direction well".
Audition pieces are not always from the show the actor is being considered for; an actor wishing to
be cast in Hamlet may not do a monologue from that play. Most performers do have a range of
audition pieces and select something appropriate; an actor auditioning for Hamlet would have a
dramatic Shakespearean monologue ready, and not perform a monologue from an Oscar Wilde
comedy, or a contemporary playwright. Some auditions involve cold reading, or performing a script
that the actor is not familiar with. Auditions often involve monologues or speeches, but not always.
In some cases, an auditionee is asked to read a scene (with a second person reading the other
character).
For most auditions, auditionees must bring a professional 8"X10" photo called a "head shot" and a
resume that indicates their acting experience and training. It is recommended that actors bring
additional copies of the head shot and resume, in case there are additional members of the casting
team present at the audition. The casting agent or company may "call back" an auditionee days,
weeks, or even months after the initial audition for a second audition. At a major audition for a
professional company, the time limits are strictly enforced.
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A musical theater performer may be given a moment to tell the piano accompanist the tempo, and
state their name and audition number to the audition panel. Then, once the auditionee starts acting
or singing, the clock starts running. A buzzer sounds when the time limit runs out, which may be a
minute and a half, two minutes, or three minutes, depending on the company. At this point, the
auditionee is expected to stop and leave to free up the stage for the next auditionee.
Right before the audition, the casting director may give new instructions that were not in the
advertisement; for example, due to time constraints, the time limit for the monologues might be cut
in half, or the vocal selections might be cut. Actors know that it is important that they follow these
last-minute instructions, and not be "thrown off balance" by these changes. At an audition, a
director may ask for changes in the delivery of the lines or in other aspects of the performance.
The goal may be to see if the auditionee is versatile or because the director disagrees with the
initial approach used by the auditionee. In either case, the behavior of the auditionee is important;
if the auditionee is cooperative in making the changes, it shows that he or she will be easy to work
with. If a script is provided beforehand, actors try to memorize as much as possible, because this
shows that they have prepared and it allows them to look up from the script and show their facial
expressions more.
It is also important to note that film auditions are different from theatre auditions. For film auditions,
actors and actresses are given sides which are often a few pages of the script with the roles that
they are auditioning for. These sides are often given 1-3 days before the audition.
In addition, nowadays technology has increase the trend of video-taped auditions. To find their
talent, casting directors are able to request auditions from actor and actresses from a different
state or country.
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ROLE PLAY
Activity:01
Instructions Identify Key organisations which fund the performing arts in
order to know who to approach for funding (SO 1, AC 1)
Method individual Activity
Media Method Flipchart
CCFO
DEMONSTRATING
Marks 10
Notes:
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PRESENTATION
Activity:02
Instructions Identify Key lobbying bodies and trade unions for performing
artists in order to ensure that rights of the artist will be protected
(SO 1, AC 2)
CCFO
COMMUNICATING
Method Group Activity
Media Method Flipchart
Notes:
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REASECH PROJECT
ACTIVITY : 03
Instructions Identify Potential employers for own career-path planning. (SO
1, AC 3)
CCFO
COLLECTING
Method Individual Activity
Media Method Flipchart
Mark 10
Notes:
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SIMULATION
ACTIVITY:04
Instructions Identify The potential for self-employment. (SO 1, AC 4)
CCFO
ORGANISING
Method Group Activity
Media Method Flipchart
Mark
Notes:
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Module: 2- Investigate education and career opportunities in the
performing arts.
Specific Outcome
On completion of this section you will be able to: Investigate
education and career opportunities in the performing arts.
Assessment Criteria
Career opportunities in the performing arts, media, advertising,
marketing, and related arts fields are identified (SO 2, AC 1)
Needs and requirements of these career opportunities are
identified and evaluated (SO 2, AC 2)
Educational opportunities are investigated in order to facilitate life-
long learning and continuous development (SO 2, AC 3)
Educational institutions and learnerships are investigated for
suitability to learner`s needs (SO 2, AC 4)
The shortcomings and pitfalls of careers in the performing arts are
identified and possible solutions suggested. (SO 2, AC 5)
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2.1 Career opportunities in the performing arts, media, advertising,
marketing, and related arts fields are identified (SO 2, AC 1)
Art & Design Career Paths
A full list of all the career opportunities open to artists and designers would be nearly impossible to
write – and just as difficult to read. Their careers open to the artistically-minded individual are
nearly infinite. Here’s just a snippet of the fields within art & design that are available to
aesthetically creative people.
Careers in graphic arts revolve around the use of images, colors, and designs to convey ideas,
emotions, or messages. Graphic arts are generally associated with advertising and marketing, but
can also include fine arts like drawing, painting, printmaking, and calligraphy.
Fashion careers involve anything related to the design, creation, or marketing of clothes and
accessories. Careers in fashion can encompass a wide range of roles within the product cycle,
from clothing design, to the production of fabrics and the fabrication of the garments themselves, to
retail purchasing and consumer marketing.
Animation and motion picture careers are dedicated to the creation of films, television shows,
cartoons, web-based shorts and animations, and anything else involving the creation of moving
pictures for public consumption. Those working in animation and motion picture careers can
produce works for everything from entertainment to education to advertising.
Careers in performing arts are those which revolve around the visual arts – acting, dance, or
music being the major forms. With performance art, the artist’s face and body are the medium
through which they express themselves.
Architecture and physical design is the design and implementation of physical structures and
spaces. Careers within the field include landscape architects, urban planning, interior design, and
anything else related to the creation and refinement of inhabitable spaces.
Art & Design Career Salaries
Art & design salaries vary wildly across all professions, and can have very wide ranges even within
specific jobs. Area, experience, talent, and exposure can all have a huge impact on how much an
artistic individual can hope to earn from his or her work. Based on the sample of careers discussed
above, here’s a sample of the salary ranges that art & design careers can expect to bring in.
Graphic arts salaries can vary the most among all artistic professions.
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Graphic designers can expect to earn just over $40,000 annually, while they too are greatly
affected by the industry in which they work. Designers working in interactive media and computer
systems can expect to earn closer to $50,000 per year, while those working in print media can
expect to earn about $31,000. Craft artists – those who create various pieces of art and sell them
at shows and demonstrations – earn, on average, just under $30,000 annually. Fine artists (such
as painters and illustrators) earn an average just above $42,000 per year. Salaried animators and
multimedia artists earn an average of about $56,000, while art directors (those responsible for
coordinating art departments within advertising and communications departments) earned an
average of $74,000.
Fashion salaries can range greatly as well. Fashion buyers – those responsible for buying clothing
at wholesale scales for retailers who then sell directly to consumers – earn an average of $66,000
annually. Fashion designers earn an average of approximately $74,000 – however it should be
noted that the path to becoming a successful fashion designer is often a difficult one. Of those who
actually make the clothing, patternmakers earn an average of about $18 an hour, while tailors and
dressmakers earn an average of about $12 an hour.
Animation and motion picture career salaries often depend highly upon the types of projects
being worked on. Camera operators, for instance, earn an average of about $41,000, with the
middle 50 percent earning between $29,000 and $60,000. Audio and video equipment technicians
earn just over $38,000, while sound engineers earn a median wage of $47,000 per year. Animators
and multimedia artists earn an average of around $64,000. Television and movie producers earn
also around $64,000 – though obviously, the most successful producers earn much, much more
than this. Likewise, the median hourly salary for actors and actresses is about $17 an hour (with
those in performing arts companies earning less at about $14 an hour, and those in motion
pictures earning much more at closer to $30 an hour). However, we’ve all read about the incredible
salaries of the most famous movie and television stars, so the sky is the limit in terms of earning
potential for actors if you’re talented – and lucky – enough.
Architecture and physical design careers offer salaries that are often commensurate with
experience and education. Architects earn a median salary of around $70,000 per year, with the
lowest ten percent (often those just starting out) earning about $41,000, and the highest ten
percent earning nearly $120,000 per year. Landscape architects earn a median salary of around
$59,000. Interior designers usually earn around $44,000 annually, though this will vary
considerably depending on the market and the type of firm the designer works for.
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Art & Design Career Education
Graphic artists have wide latitude in the amount and type of education required to work in the
field: for many positions, talent and an eye for good design is all that is necessary to break into the
profession. However, graphic arts positions within the advertising and marketing field are highly
competitive, and often require at least a college degree. Likewise, advanced positions such as art
directors often require college or even graduate education in order to be competitive. And even for
self-employed fine artists and illustrators, post-secondary education can be a great boon to their
careers: advanced training in media manipulation, color theory, and other elements of design can
turn a good artist into a great one.
Careers in fashion require varying amounts of education. In order to be competitive in the fashion
designer job market, applicants often need to have a 2- or 4-year degree in fashion design
focusing on textiles, and fabric properties. Fashion buyers and wholesalers usually – though not
always – will hold bachelor’s degree in either fashion or a business discipline. And patternmakers,
tailors, and seamstresses sometimes have post-secondary training, though the majority learn their
skills on the job.
Animation and motion picture careers likewise require a wide range of education. Actors and
actresses often have some formal training beyond high school – or attended performing arts
schools. However, formal training is seldom required to gain employment: knowing the right people
and giving good auditions are key. Likewise, producers come from varied backgrounds, and there
are few formal educational requirements for landing producing roles. Audio/visual technicians and
engineers often hold college degrees.
Architecture and physical design careers nearly always require formal training in the field.
Architects require a professional degree – either a five-year undergraduate program, or a master’s
program following a bachelor’s. Additionally, architects must pass licensure exams and gain
experience working for licensed architects before becoming fully certified. Likewise, landscape
architects must pass licensure exams after receiving bachelor’s or master’s degrees and
accumulating work experience. Interior designers often require associate’s or bachelor’s degrees,
though in some cases two- or three-year certificate programs are sufficient to gain employment.
Featured Degrees in Art & Design
Schools and Degree Information in Web Design
Schools and Degree Information in Animation & Game Design
Schools and Degree Information for Graphic Design
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Art & Design Career Projections
Graphic artists can expect their job prospects to grow steadily over the next few years, about
keeping pace with the overall expected number of jobs being created nationally. Graphic designers
will see their job prospects grow by about 13 percent by 2018, slightly faster than the national
average for all occupations. However, those designers skilled in computer applications and web
animations will find more jobs open to them, as the demand for online media and interactive design
increases greatly. It is worth remembering, as mentioned before, that as many artists are self-
employed – and there is keen competition for funding, buyers, and freelance work – artists without
specific patrons or contracts may find it difficult to earn stable wages until their establish
themselves.
ROLE PLAY
Activity:05
Instructions Identify Career opportunities in the performing arts, media,
advertising, marketing, and related arts fields (SO 2, AC 1)
Method individual Activity
Media Method Flipchart
CCFO
DEMONSTRATING
Marks 10
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PRESENTATION
Activity:06
Instructions What are the Needs and requirements of these career
opportunities? (SO 2, AC 2)
CCFO
COMMUNICATING
Method Group Activity
Media Method Flipchart
Notes:
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REASECH PROJECT
ACTIVITY : 07
Instructions Explain why Educational opportunities are investigated in order
to facilitate life-long learning and continuous development (SO
2, AC 3)
CCFO
COLLECTING
Method Individual Activity
Media Method Flipchart
Mark 10
Notes:
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SIMULATION
ACTIVITY:08
Instructions Explain why Educational institutions and learnerships are
investigated for suitability to learner`s needs (SO 2, AC 4)
CCFO
ORGANISING
Method Group Activity
Media Method Flipchart
Mark
Notes:
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Module: 3- Develop entrepreneurial skills, knowledge, attitudes and
values.
Specific Outcome
On completion of this section you will be able to: Develop
entrepreneurial skills, knowledge, attitudes and values.
Assessment Criteria
Contracts are examined with insight. (SO 3, AC 1)
The roles of agents, personal managers and producers are
investigated, ensuring that the learner knows what can be
expected of these role-players (SO 3, AC 2)
Interview and audition situations are handled with confidence.
(SO 3, AC 3)
Tools are developed to market the performing artist. (SO 3, AC 4)
Personal presentational skills are demonstrated. (SO 3, AC 5)
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Economics and the Free Society
Over the past four years economic themes have recurred frequently in the pages of Literature of
Liberty. This emphasis accords with the vital importance of economic theory and policy in the daily
lives of each of us. For some time we have suffered accelerating economic crises, shortages,
dislocations, and the sapping of human ambition as a consequence of our “age of inflation.” Taxes,
an expansionary monetary policy, regulations, price controls, subsidies, and centralized
government planning in general have spread a cloud of uncertainty on our immediate economic
horizon.
What are the origins of these challenges to economic freedom? The opening set of eight
summaries explores the historical and ethical dimensions of modern critiques of the free market
and capitalism. Is the market compatible with justice and freedom? Differing responses to this
question are heard from Chipman, Cohen, and Wilbanks. Nelson's and Horne's summaries
rehearse, respectively, economic and ethical arguments critical of the free market and commercial
society. Next, Samuels underlines the academic confusion surrounding the scientific status of
policy recommendations of free trade. Steensgard and Kinser then offer historical theories to the
alleged origins of capitalism. Finally, the last five summaries report particular economic studies that
suggest the advantages of freedom and individual choice in the economic world.
Whether favoring or condemning the market principle, modern scholarship allows us to reflect on
the intellectual underpinnings of anti-market opinions.
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The Compatibility of Justice & the Market
Lachlan Chipman
Foundation Professor of Philosophy at the University of Wollongong and Visiting Professor in
Jurisprudence at the University of Sydney
“Liberty, Justice and the Market.” The Center for Independent Studies, Occasional Papers #6
[Australia], (December 1981).
Many doubt the idea that a free market not only is the most efficient way of organizing the
economic affairs of society but also can do so in a manner consistent with the fundamental
principles of freedom and justice. Professor Chipman, author of Liberty, Equality and Unhappiness,
past president of the Australasian Association of Philosophy, and current president of the
Australian Society for Legal Philosophy, challenges us to reject the notion that a necessary conflict
exists between the market principle and liberty and justice. He counterargues that these principles
are symbiotic and support one another.
The author argues firstly that one who values liberty ought, to be consistent, value justice and the
market economy. Secondly, he reasons that one who values justice ought similarly to value liberty
and the market. Thirdly, he argues that one who values the free market ought also to value liberty
and justice.
Professor Chipman seeks to undermine the following beliefs: (1) The free market largely interferes
with people's freedom; restrictions on market activity would, therefore, increase people's freedom.
(2) The free market needs to be interfered with to bring about a more just distribution of goods and
services. (3) The state is the proper and potentially effective instrument for ensuring that wealth,
goods, and services are “correctly” distributed, which means distributed to those with the greatest
needs and on some sort of equal basis.
Professor Chipman clarifies various notions of individual liberty and accepts Robert Nozick's notion
that the legally permissible would be those goals achievable without violence, theft, or deception.
He traces necessary but defensible inequalities of wealth to allowing personal freedom and
forbidding coercion. He concludes that legitimately acquired wealth ought not to be redistributed by
government; the market itself has several ways to provide for the needy and improve their
condition with the state's direction. Chipman would restrict the role of the state in a free, liberal
society to preventing violence, theft, deception, and violation of contracts.
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Is Capitalism Free and Just?
G.A. Cohen
“Freedom, Justice and Capitalism.” New Left Review No. 126(March-April 1981):3–16.
Professor Cohen, a Marxist analytic philosopher and author of Karl Marx's Theory of History,
argues that principled opponents of capitalism must develop a far more logically rigorous case. The
strategy for such an anti-capitalist case, he reasons, would be to meet libertarian defenses of the
legitimacy of private property on the very grounds that libertarians and classical liberals value.
Since libertarians affirm that private property is legitimate on the grounds of human freedom and
justice, the opponent of private property must demonstrate that, on the contrary, it violates both
freedom and justice. Sound arguments are required, not just assertions that capitalists follow their
class interests in defending property. Lack of conceptual clarification, Cohen states, can explain
why capitalist ideology can be sincerely believed by both the rich and the poor.
Capitalism, as an ideology of private property, is defended by the economic argument (private
property allows good economic consequences), the freedom argument (economic freedom, even
apart from its consequences, is good because freedom is good), and the justice argument
(property is morally right). The author concentrates in his “critique of ruling ideology” on the
freedom argument and sketches the outline of his response to the justice argument.
Cohen rejects as logically weak the socialist attack on capitalist freedom that either laments the
human price of unrestricted freedom or dismisses capitalism as mere “bourgeois freedom.” He
recommends a more powerful logical attack: socialists should argue against the capitalist that
capitalism is “inimical to freedom in the very sense of ‘freedom’ in which...a person's freedom is
diminished when his private property is tampered with.”
Cohen maintains that libertarians and classical liberals misuse the slippery notion of freedom. If
libertarians were consistently to favor a society in which there are no social and legal constraints
on individual freedom, then they must oppose private property which uses the state or some other
agency to restrict the freedom of someone to use any property that does not belong to him.
Libertarians do not see that private property constrains freedom since they tend to view property as
a permanent given, a “part of the structure of human existence in general.” Yet if we are serious in
our neutral definition of freedom then we must admit that property withdraws liberty from those who
do not own it. “I am unfree whenever someone interferes justifiably or otherwise with my actions.”
Libertarians, when pressed, will admit in the case of defending legitimate private property, that one
is justified in reducing the freedom of the trespasser. We thus see that they earlier were using a
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moralized definition of freedom. Their ultimate ground for defending private property, then, is not
neutral freedom (they would admit the imprisoned trespasser is unfree). They finally must rest their
case on the grounds of justice. They thus represent “interference with rightfully held private
property as unjust and therefore, by virtue of the moralized definition, invasive of freedom.” Social
democrats and Marxists must address this defense of property as a just entitlement. The author
briefly outlines what such a counterargument (designed to reveal the structural injustice of private
property) would look like.
Is Free Enterprise Coercive?
Jan J. Wilbanks
Marietta College
“Free Enterprise and Coercion.” Reason Papers No. 7(Spring 1981):1–20.
Is the capitalist economic system necessarily coercive as Marx and others judged when they
analyzed workers in a free market as alienated from their labor and engaged in coerced, non-
voluntary activity? Recently, new versions of this anti-capitalist charge have been levelled by
Professors Lawrence Crocker (“Coercion and the Wage Agreement”) and Andrew McLaughlin
(“Freedom versus Capitalism”).
Professor Crocker denies that a free-enterprise market economy (FEME) provides the best
framework for a free society, claiming that “coercive wage agreements are fairly common features”
in a market economy, especially during hard times. Crocker's argument advances through
hypothetical examples. First, he outlines what he judges to be a clear case of coercion in a FEME,
involving the sale of fire-fighting equipment to needy victims in an emergency. Next, he attempts to
demonstrate that the more dubious case of a wage agreement made by needy workers in a FEME
also involves coercion. He contends that the wage-agreement case shares the crucial moral
feature of the fire-fighting equipment case. Finally, he asserts that we can legitimately extrapolate
from these foregoing cases to a wider range of situations in the FEME, because the FEME exhibits
generally the analogous features present in the two mentioned natural emergency cases.
The author scrutinizes a number of Professor Crocker's ambiguous terms, such as property, and
argues that Crocker has not, in fact, demonstrated that coercive wage agreements are fairly
common features of a FEME. Crocker has not convincingly shown that the fire-fighting equipment
example taken from Gideon is a clear case of coercion in a FEME, and he has not shown that the
wage-agreement cases he bases on the fire-fighting example are instances of coercion. Therefore,
Crocker has not provided an adequate foundation for suggesting that a FEME may not actually
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offer the best framework for a free economy. In addition, to refute Crocker's anti-market case with
his dubious criterion of coercion is to provide strong grounds for suggesting that a FEME is a sine
qua non of a free society—if by the latter we mean a society in which no one is permitted to
aggress against the person or property of another.
Next, the author attacks Professor McLaughlin's anti-market notion of covert “systematic coercion,”
which is alleged to occur when there is a systematic structuring of alternatives that a person faces
in a choice situation. In effect, the capitalist system coerces one to enter that economy to survive.
From this claim, capitalism and FEME are judged to be antithetical to freedom.
The author seeks to refute McLaughlin's distinction between overt coercion and systematic
coercion through linguistic considerations which show that “systematic coercion” is not a bona fide
form of coercion. Systematic coercion is misleading and does not apply to coercion as understood
in a politico-economic context. Systematic coercion can only be coercive to the extent that it
involves the threat of injury, overt or covert, by other individuals, and thus would amount to
coercion, properly construed. Thus McLaughlin's argument fails to undermine the contention that a
FEME can be a free society's framework.
Private Enterprise vs. Central Planning
Richard R. Nelson
Yale University
“Assesing Private Enterprise: An Exegesis of Tangled Doctrine.” The Bell Journal of Economics
(Spring 1981):93–111.
Professor Nelson seeks to refute the economic superiority of private enterprise over centralized
statist systems. He argues that the twin theorems of welfare economics (which relate competitive
equilibrium to a social optimum and which he regards as the basis of the case for capitalism) are
weak foundations for economists' faith in free enterprise. Nelson asserts that, if conventional
welfare economics were to consider more deeply the three prime virtues claimed for the enterprise
form of economic organization (administative parsimony, responsiveness, and innovativeness) it
would recognize how these criteria support a centralized economy rather than the free market.
Administration's task in any economic system is to respond to uncertain changes in demand and
supply, as well as to the challenge of innovation. Welfare economics, Nelson asserts, avoids the
problem of administrative response by assuming a steady state, which allows, however, even a
tight, centrally planned system to respond effectively.
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On the other hand welfare economics assumes that conditions more complex than static
equilibrium would confront a stylized central planning regime with the choice of either working with
crude decision rules or else suffering high administrative costs. Nelson counterargues that a
stylized private enterprise system would face a similar trade-off. Market transactions that ignore all
but a few dimensions of costs and benefits are cheaper than those which realistically consider
many. In a free enterprise regime, the trade-off is between leaving externalities and imposing a
more costly market-transactional structure.
The problem of unpredicted change leads to the question of responsiveness. In a dynamic
economy economic units have no assurance that their past decisions will work in the present
circumstances. Proenterprise literature contends that the capitalist system tracks the shifting
conditions of the market with low administrative overhead as opposed to the poorer performance of
a centralized economy.
Although he concedes that private enterprise responds quickly and at relatively low cost, Nelson
challenges whether its responses are well-directed. He argues that without a central mechanism to
direct firms (in dividing up increases or decreases in overall industrial capacity, for example), the
multitude of competitive firms in any industry would produce chaos rather than intelligent
responses to problems of output and inter-industry coordination.
Next, argues Nelson, although the diversity of private enterprise might appear better suited to
encouraging innovation and creativity than centralized bureaucracies, the market may in fact erect
obstacles to innovation. He alleges that a firm's fear of losing its technological secrets to rival firms
tends to discourage outlays for new research and development. In addition, as enterprises grow
larger, they suffer a decline in creativity and the ability to monitor performance. To support his
contention of free enterprise's weakness in R&D, Nelson points to the large governmental funding
of R&D in many capitalist countries.
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Nelson judges that the traditional arguments for private enterprise are economic prejudices and
result from faulty empirical observation.
Vicious Motivations & Commercial Society
Thomas A. Horne
Columbia University and Political Theory (Managing Editor)
“Envy and Commercial Society: Mandeville and Smith on Private Vices, Public Benefits.” Political
Theory 5(November 1981):551–569.
In the 18th century suspicions mounted about the morally and socially dangerous consequences
that the emergent commercial society might promote. Would the pursuit of wealth and private self-
interest dissipate the individual's concern for others and for the cultivation of benevolence and
public-spiritedness? Could a society that depended upon self-interest be morally justified?
Commercial society faces a difficulty if the criterion for evaluating the good society is how well any
society nurtures virtuous citizens who set limits to their desires and who can act for the public
good. Both Mandeville and Adam Smith addressed this problem and both came away with their
moral suspicions reinforced.
Commercial society is morally problematic since it ties its promise of material prosperity to
increasing an insatiable awareness of individual self-interest and vanity (in the sense of ever
striving to materially impress others). This moral problem was most provocatively formulated by
Bernard Mandeville (1670–1733) in his Fable of the Bees as “Private Vices, Public Benefits.”
Mandeville insisted on an ineradicable tension in commercial society which depended on private
vice (in the form of self-interest, vanity, pride, and envy as morally vicious but economically
beneficial prods) to produce material survival and progress. He represented as unavoidable the
dilemma of both disapproving of the socially disruptive vices of envy and pride and yet approving of
the socially indispensable economic productivity spurred on by those very vices.
Mandeville's critics and the defenders of commercial society needed to demonstrate that economic
activity could spring from motivations that, if not explicitly moral, were at least morally neutral.
Adam Smith took up the challenge, but both his works, The Theory of Moral Sentiments (1759) and
The Wealth of Nations (1776), reveal his ambiguous attitude toward commercial society. Smith
tried to find a middle position between Francis Hutcheson's claims for the importance of
benevolence as a human motivation and Mandeville's claim on the inevitability of a sadly
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necessary vice. Smith asserted that the pursuit of wealth need not come at the expense of virtue.
First, Smith argued, the self-interest necessary to economic life need not dominate all other
aspects of life. Second, many forms of self-interest are either virtuous or morally neutral. Third,
merchants and others need to adopt decent moral standards in order to do business.
While Smith's analysis of self-interest in the Wealth of Nations stresses the innocent desire for
profit to better one's material condition, a more sophisticated and morally troubling analysis runs
through The Theory of Moral Sentiments. In his analysis of admiration of the rich and vanity (the
desire to live better than others) Smith reveals disruptive forces that pit self-regard against the
interests of others. The socially disruptive motivation of envy threatens the stability of commercial
society.
Horne concludes by sketching what motivations and moral criteria commercial society needed to
justify itself, once it had jettisoned older notions of virtue. It, in effect, replaced virtue with freedom
as the moral standard of social organization. Mandeville's role in this shift was to undercut the
emphasis on motivation and, by consequence, to debunk the possibility of virtue. This may have
led Smith to investigate the relationship between commerce and liberty. Horne believes that the
moral problems of commercial society cannot be completely dissolved by appeals to freedom and
prosperity.
Economic Policy: Free Trade and Values
Warren J. Samuels
Michigan State University
“Economics and Science and Its Relation to Policy: The Example of Free Trade.” Journal of
Economic Issues 14(March 1980): 163–185.
For over a century, economists have debated the exact nature of their social role and the relation
of economic theory (or science) to policy. Disagreements have concerned the tension between, on
the one hand, the desire for analysis free of ideology and values, and, on the other, the reluctant
belief in the inevitability of values or ideology. The debates have also stirred doubts as to whether
economic principles apply, directly or indirectly, to matters of policy.
Prof. Samuels' article concentrates on the single principle of free trade to highlight the diverse
views among economists concerning the scientific status of their field of study and its practical
value. He reports the results of a 1977 probe which he conducted among members of the
departments of economics and agricultural economics at Michigan State University. The poll
consisted of one question: “What do you think is the relationship between the pro-free trade
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position and the status of economics as a science.” The responses to Samuels' query fell
essentially into four categories.
One group of economists affirmed that the position favoring free trade is grounded in economic
science. One writer, for example, said that, “under certain ideal conditions (perfect competition, no
externalities, etc.), free trade yields a Pareto optimum. This statement,” he continued “is no less
scientific than any other in economics.” The respondent added that his view was positive, not
normative economics. He believed that “free trade yielding a Pareto-optimum” is a “justification of
free trade” but perhaps not an actual affirmation of the free-trade policy position.
A second group of respondents, quite in conflict with the first, argued that there is no justified and
conclusive relation between the free-trade position and economics as a science. One economist
wrote: “Economics is concerned with the allocation of scarce resources among competing ends.
The science of economics does not define the end. Equation of economics as a science with free
trade implies that maximum ‘output’ is the only valid end.”
The third major group of economists took a position that economics cannot advocate a specific
policy, but can describe the likely consequences of alternative policies. “As a science,” one
respondent replied, “economics should strive to identify the magnitude and distribution of benefits
and costs associated with different institutions regulating trade under different situations. There is
no scientific—that is objective— basis for a universal conclusion favoring free trade.”
Finally, one respondent alone dealt specifically with the conflict between positive and normative
economics, as well as with the question of the conditional nature of propositions. He asked the
question: “Are free trade advocacy and economics as a science incompatible?” “Yes,” he
answered, “if you are a positivist. No, if you are a normativist and allocative efficiency is your only
criterion. Maybe, if you are a normativist and your criteria are both allocative efficiency and equity.
But in your advocacy you step outside the bounds of what you can objectively say about the
specific case using knowledge from economic theory, including welfare economics.”
Prof. Samuels concludes with the comment that there are inevitably normative facets to social
science propositions. The meaningfulness of otherwise ostensibly positive “is propositions”
depends upon identifying the normative elements. Samuels suspects that, if such a process were
faithfully carried out, less disagreement would exist concerning the relation of economic analysis to
policy.
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Violence, the State & the Rise of Capitalism
Niels Steensgaard
University of Copenhagen, Denmark
“Violence and the Rise of Capitalism: Frederic C. Lane's Theory of Protection and Tribute.” Review
5(Fall 1981):247–273.
Frederic C. Lane formulated his theory of protection and tribute in the 1940s and 1950s. Professor
Steensgaard hopes to encourage a debate on Lane's model, especially on its usefulness for
understanding the interrelations between the economic and the political sphere in the process of
long-term social change. Was organized violence a cause of modern economic development?
In his essay “Economic Consequences of Organized Violence,” Lane seeks to subject the (usually
political) use of violence to economic analysis. The use of violence as a monopolistic “protection”
service and the “income” derived from the production of protection may structurally influence the
allocation of scarce resources and the pattern of demand, saving, and investment. Other economic
effects of organized violence appear. Other enterprises, producing other goods than protection,
may derive a profit from the variations in the cost and quality of protection. Lane termed “protection
rent” the extra income that some merchants derived from lower costs they paid for protection
services against bandits, pirates. Through a series of stages, mercantile profits from protection rent
became more important than tribute; finally, the use of violence increasingly comes under the
control of the consumers of protection, and industrial innovation becomes more important than
protection rent as a source of business profits.
Lane's model may help us approach the problem of surplus and analyze accumulation and the rise
of capitalism. Marxist studies of the rise of capitalism out of feudalism are defective since they
ignore the history of some of the largest preindustrial concentrations and accumulations of
resources. Lane's concepts of protection rent and tribute illuminate the unique development of the
European economy in the centuries before the Industrial Revolution. Since protection is a
commodity and tribute a profit, the use of violence can be analyzed in economic terms, even
though the monopolistic nature of the enterprises makes prediction limited. Granted, the world may
not become richer by violence, but the use of organized “protective” violence may create
disequilibria of a structural character that alter economic levels and patterns. Although profits made
by state-protected large trading companies and early colonial ventures might be dismissed as
plunder, economic analysis would also point to their historical role in structurally preparing the
preindustrial economy for changes. Likewise, we need to study, with the help of Lane's model, the
enormous concentration of demand (and its structural consequences) that resulted from the
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consolidation of the early modern state.
Steensgaard applies Lane's model in analyzing Levantine trade, merchants becoming producers of
their own protection (English East India Company and the V.O.C.), and the Atlantic trade. He
concludes that this model helps us understand the merchants' profits from long distance trade and
early colonization. He further asserts that the production of protection (organized violence) in
Europe remained a competitive business.
Lane's model is more useful in interpreting the origins of long-term structural change in early
modern Europe than other interpretations which suffer from one of two flaws. (1) Either they
generalize the concept of voluntary barter and confuse the model of the theoretical market with the
coercive (organized violence) reality of an age in which very few people were interested in buying
and selling unless they were under some kind of coercion; or (2) they rely upon the clumsy concept
of the feudal mode of production. Neither of these rival interpretations explains the most important
problem in early modern history, the coincidence of two unique historical phenomena: the rise of
the modern state and the rise of capitalism.
Steensgaard contends, in line with Lane's protection rent and tribute theory, that advantageous
structural consequences for rationalized markets flowed from state violence or “protection”
services. He also speculates on the following dialectic: parasitic empires grant increasing
autonomy to the market goose that lays the golden egg of tax revenues; the independent and
countervailing market displaces the empires, which become victims of their own greed.
Braudel's Ideological Theory of Capitalism
Samuel Kinser
Northern Illinois University
“Capitalism Enshrined: Braudel's Triptych of Modern Economic History.” The Journal of Modern
History 53(December 1981):673–682.
Fernand Braudel's three monumental volumes covering European economic history and the rise of
capitalism between 1400 and 1800 are impressive for their historical detail and grand sweep, but
they raise serious misgivings because of Braudel's ideological assumptions and procrustean
classifications and definitions.
After some 1500 pages, sparkling with rich nuggets of previously neglected information, Braudel
leaves unanswered the key questions concerning the genesis of capitalism's rise and dominance
in Europe. He fails to integrate the interworkings of the productive, consumptive, distributive, and
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circulatory systems of the world-wide economy whose growth and history he has minutely traced.
His value-laden definition of “capitalism” as the stage of economic growth characterized by large
profits through world-wide or inter-regional trade and arbitrage is too restrictive. By concentrating
on trade and circulation of goods for profit, Braudel's understanding of capitalism neglects why
production and technology surged forward during these 400 years. The multiplication of markets
(the orthodox exchangist view of the rise of capitalism) may not have been the cause so much as
the effect of the transformation in technology and labor productivity.
Braudel's three tomes of Civilisation matérielle, économie et capitalisme, XVe–XVIIIe siecle—
Volume I: Les Structures du quotidien: le possible et l'impossible; Volume II: Les Jeux de
l'échange; Volume III: Le Temps du monde (Paris: 1979)—challenge the view that modern
European economic life was a unified development towards the Industrial Revolution. By contrast
he maintains that economic activity between 1400 and 1800 moved along three nearly
independent lines: (1) “material life” or the “infra-economic” level of local self-sufficiency, (2)
“economy” proper marked by true market exchange, and (3) a higher level and upper limit of the
market economy, namely the domain of “capitalism,” distinguished by far-flung and eventually
world-wide trade and profitable arbitrage. In a parallel fashion this trinitarian scheme is reflected in
the subject matter of the three volumes: volume one describes the “primitive” economic routines of
isolated backward economies, volume two the accelerators of change (the creation of middle-sized
markets which trade the production surpluses of previously isolated towns and provinces, and
volume three the march of the European economy toward progress, freedom, and a world-wide
global market order familiar from Wallerstein's work.
Although he claims his interpretation is the result of neutral, empirical observation, Braudel's theory
is “doubly filtered”, first by his reliance on other historians and second by his debatable and overly
restricted notion of capitalism. In addition, Braudel's methodology professes deeply value-laden
“historical faiths”: the conviction that somewhat reified long-term economic forces always win out
over short-term ones, and that human activities form a scientifically analyzable totality—a rather
nebulous and mystical assumption which seeks to overcome the plurality and diversity of economic
activity in an elegant but arbitrary “coercive codification” of trinitarian patterns and tendencies.
Cognition, Choice, and Entrepreneurship
James M. Buchanan and Alberto Di Pierro
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
“Cognition, Choice, and Entrepreneurship.” Southern Economic Journal 46(January 1980):692–
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701.
Much of the conventional theory of entrepreneurial choice-under-uncertainty neglects the crucial
distinction between cognition and choice in economic decision making. Cognition or knowledge
about the components of an economic situation may tell us little about how human actors will
choose among identified economic alternatives. Hence, entrepreneurial talent may not be
amenable to analysis by the tools of modern decision theory. We should drop attempts to apply
irrelevant theory to an incompatible subject matter. Any theoretical analysis or modelling that
leaves no room for the creative and imaginative elements in such entrepreneurial choice muddies
the waters of our understanding of economic progress.
Professor Buchanan contrasts Frank H. Knight's analysis in Risk, Uncertainty, and Profit with
G.L.S. Shakle's in respect to their differing conceptions of uncertainty. Knight did not attempt to
explain entrepreneurial choice, but merely to explain profits by distinguishing between calculable
risk and incalculable uncertainty.
Next, Buchanan critiques the misapplication of formal theories of probability to choices. Bayesian
logic and stochastically determinate patterns of outcomes can indeed aid in analyzing an
individual's cognition of the structure in which he might or might not choose among alternatives,
but such knowledge cannot predict the individual's choice. An informed player in an economic
“game” might choose not to act on his knowledge if he felt the game was unfair. Cognitive
knowledge may thus be of little value in the development of an entrepreneurial skill or sense of
emergent outcomes which depend on free choice.
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Federal Expenditures ‘Crowd Out’ Private Investment
Richard J. Cebula, Christopher Carlos, and James V. Koch
Center for Study of Public Choice, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
“The ‘Crowding Out’ Effect of Federal Government Outlay Decisions: An Empirical Note.” Public
Choice 36,2(1981):329–336.
Does the evidence support the claim that government spending and expenditures “crowd out” or
contract private spending? The authors seek to answer this much-debated question by extending
the scope of Abrams' and Schmitz' 1978 study; they examine the crowding out effect of aggregate
federal government spending decisions upon purchases of new physical capital by private firms.
By limiting their analysis solely to private investment in new physical capital, they believe that they
can highlight the economic implications of crowding out for long-term inflation and short-term
unemployment that results from federal government expenditures. The authors employ
mathematical and quantitative models to test their hypotheses.
The authors empirically studied crowding out by examining the proportion of GNP devoted to
private investment in new physical capital as a function of the proportion of GNP devoted to federal
outlays. They studied three alternative models, all of which displayed evidence of (a) a definite
pattern in which government spending crowded out private investment and (b) only partial, i.e.
incomplete crowding out. These findings are compatible with earlier studies.
Two important policy implications flow from these findings. First, increases in federal government
outlays tend to diminish private-sector investment in new physical capital. To the degree that this
kind of crowding out occurs, private sector unemployment is generated. This clearly acts to
weaken the stimulatory direct effects of increased federal spending since it inhibits the private
sector. Second, to the extent that federal government spending leads to diminished investment in
new physical capital, this diminishes the rate of capital formation. This tends to worsen long-term
inflation by cutting down on the ability of “aggregate productive capacity” to keep pace with
“aggregate demand.”
These two implications cast grave doubts on the wisdom of the federal government's decisions to
increase federal outlays in various kinds of spending programs.
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The Mirage of Economic Efficiency
“Economic Efficiency: Touchstone or Mirage?” The Intercollegiate Review 17(Fall-Winter
1981):33–44.
Confusion over the different meanings of efficiency has led to the erroneous belief that market
“inefficiency” requires that a centralized political regime restore “efficiency” by state regulation and
planning. As an economist, Prof. Pasour: (1) discusses the elusive meaning of efficiency in a world
of uncertain and partial knowledge, (2) shows how “efficiency” as interpreted by conventional
welfare economics and its norm of “perfect competition” provides the rationale for government
intervention into allegedly “inefficient” markets, (3) explains why inefficiency or waste cannot
meaningfully be identified or measured by outside observers who lack the subjective evaluation of
the relevant individual decision makers, and (4) argues that we should use the “principles
approach” in analyzing government attempts to create efficiency rather than decide each issue
case by case.
We need to be careful in not confusing economic with technical efficiency. Efficiency is inescapably
subjective and cannot be known apart from the subjective values of the decision maker involved.
An outside observer merely imposes his own standards of value when he labels other persons'
actions “wasteful” or “inefficient.”
Nor should we misuse the efficiency concept by associating it with the “perfect competition” norm
in evaluating real-world markets. Since the highly idealized notion of perfect competition can never
be achieved in the real world, it is misleading to use it to discover that there is “market failure” (that
is, that the real world is not as efficient as an ideal world). The “perfect competition” model is a
device for justifying government intervention to correct “market failure” (such as “monopoly,”
spillovers, advertising, and other information problems). It is unlikely that imperfect politicians
subject to well-known interests will be any more efficient than market participants.
Efficiency can be a useful concept if improvements are attempted within the terms of the decision
maker's own subjective values. However, the efficiency concept is not useful for public policy in
evaluating other people, markets, or economic systems. Since costs and benefits are based on
subjective considerations, efficiency cannot be determined independently of values and ethical
considerations by some putatively neutral team of experts.
We need to evaluate government programs to achieve efficiency on the basis of economic
principles rather than by an unfocused “case-by-case” approach. Economists are led astray in
basing policy recommendations on the efficiency notion of Pareto-optimality, the cornerstone of
welfare economics. Economics would better recommend leaving social and economic activity to
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informal market principles and their decentralized, non-governmental enforcement.
Private Property and Energy Resources
Richard Stroup and John Baden
Center for Political Economy and Natural Resources at Montana State University, Bozeman
“Responsible Individuals and the Nation's Energy Future.” The Cato Journal 1(Fall 1981):421–438.
Employing some basic insights from the Austrian school of economics and the private property
rights paradigm, the authors find several reasons for believing that private property rights and free
markets in energy would better serve both national security and efficiency. By contrast collective
decision making of a political and democratic kind would create many problems. If we would
establish and recognize secure and transferable property rights to resources, then we could expect
that individuals who believe strongly in the advantages and profits from greater future energy
reserves would provide for more fuel storage, energy conversion facilities, and energy raw
materials for that anticipated future.
Investments in promising innovations are more likely to be funded in the private sector than in the
public sector. The economic equivalent of biotic diversity is automatically fostered when individuals
with different tastes, in various circumstances, are free to act and are also held responsible for
their actions. The decision makers will be better informed in the private than in the public sector,
when information is scarce and uncertainty is prevalent. Despite the greater degree of innovation,
we can expect a smaller level of waste from the private sector than from the equivalent public
sector innovations. This follows from the existence of the reality check of profit and loss in the
private sector, as well as the smaller degree of rational ignorance in that same sector. Finally, we
note that the public sector will be systematically unable to attract and hold successful forecasters in
any market so important as that of energy. It would appear that in the energy market, as in so
many other areas, that government is best which governs least.
Rent Control vs. Economic Reasoning
Michael A. Walker
Director of the Fraser Institute, Vancouver, B.C.
“A Short Course in Housing Economics.” In Rent Control: Myths & Realities: International Evidence
of the Effects of Rent Control in Six Countries. Edited by Walter Block and Edgar Olsen.
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Vancouver, B.C.: The Fraser Institute, 1981, pp. 37–52.
A common myth holds the following: “Rent control is a form of tenant protection adopted because
housing is a basic need like sunshine and fresh air and its provision ought not to be left to the
vagaries of the marketplace.” The author challenges this claim from the economist's point of view
and maintains the following: “Rent control is a form of price fixing that increases the shortage of
housing and ultimately reduces the ability of tenants to choose where and under what conditions
they live. In the course of exploring this criticism of rent control, the author examines: What is the
economic behavior of people as regards housing?; How are rents determined?; What are price
controls and what effects do they have in the short term and in the long term?
The author's summary of the economic analysis of rent control includes the four following
observations:
(1)The demand for housing services is determined by the wants for social standing and recreation
as well as by the need for elementary shelter. Accordingly, family income and the price of housing
relative to the price for other things have a substantial impact on the housing demanded.
(2)The supply of housing services arises principally from the relatively fixed number of houses or
apartments in existence at a particular point in time. However, new construction, renovations (such
as basement suites), and a reduction in the average time that apartments stand vacant provide
substantial flexibility in the supply of services, even in the shortterm. The principal determinant of
the supply of housing services is the expected rate of return on investment in housing relative to
the expected rate of return on comparable investments. Rents are a principal determinant of the
rate of return on housing.
(3) The notions of “surplus” and “shortage” have economic meaning only with respect to
inappropriate prices. A surplus exists because the price (or rent) is too high; a shortage exists
because the price is too low. The concept of shortage is sometimes confused with the notion of
“scarcity.” Everything is scarce, but there are shortages of very few things.
(4) Price control produces shortages because, if the price is kept below the market price, the
control becomes, in effect, a tax on the supplier. The amount of the tax is the difference between
the market price and the control price. The only way the supplier can avoid this tax is by not
supplying the commodity or service. Since the proceeds of the tax are, in effect, given to the
consumer, the consumer is encouraged to demand more. Thus, since price control taxes suppliers
and gives the proceeds to consumers, it leads inevitably to a widening gap between the amount
demanded and the amount supplied—that is, a shortage.
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In sum, rent control never lives up to its expected claims of cheap and plentiful housing. It
guarantees that the opposite will occur. Additional scholarship on the economic disadvantages of
rent control may be found in the author's book, Rent Control— A Popular Paradox (1965) as well
as in Professor Charles W. Baird's Rent Control: The Perennial Folly (1980).
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Self-Assessment
Self-Assessment:
You have come to the end of this module – please take the time to review
what you have learnt to date, and conduct a self-assessment against the
learning outcomes of this module by following the instructions below:
Rate your understanding of each of the outcomes listed below:
Keys: - no understanding
- Some idea
- Completely comfortable
NO OUTCOME
SELF
RATING
1. Identify the key role-players in the performing art`s industry for own career-path planning
2. Investigate education and career opportunities in the performing arts.
3. Develop entrepreneurial skills, knowledge, attitudes and values.
4. Reflect on own career path in the performing arts.
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Learner Evaluation Form
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