Learn English Grammar Course 4
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Transcript of Learn English Grammar Course 4
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Nouns
compound nouns countable & uncountable menu - nouns nationalities
noun gender plurals use of capital letters
NOUNS
COMPOUND NOUNS
Formation
Words can be combined to form compound nouns. These are very common,and new combinations are invented almost daily. They normally have two parts.
The second part identifies the object or person in question (man, friend,tank, table, room. The first part tells us what !ind of object or person it is,or what its purpose is ( police, boy, water, dining, bed "
What type / what purpose What or who
police man
boy friend
water tan!
dining table
bed room
The two parts may be written in a number of ways "
#. as one word.$%ample" policeman, boyfriend
. as two words joined with a hyphen.$%ample" dining-table
'. as two separate words.$%ample" fish tank.
There are no clear rules about this - so write the common compounds that you!now well as one word, and the others as two words.
The two parts may be !"amp#es
noun $ noun bedroomwater tankmotorcycle
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printer cartridge
noun $ %erbrainfallhaircuttrain-spotting
noun $ ad%erb
hanger-on
passer-by
%erb $ nounwashing machinedriving licenceswimming pool
%erb $ ad%erb&lookouttake-off drawback
ad'ecti%e $ noun greenhousesoftwareredhead
ad'ecti%e $ %erb dry-cleaning public speaking
ad%erb $ nounonlooker bystander
ad%erb $ %erb&
outputoverthrow upturninput
ompound nouns often have a meaning that is different from the two separatewords.Stress is important in pronunciation, as it distinguishes between a compoundnoun (e.g. greenhouse and an adjective with a noun (e.g. green house.)n compound nouns, the stress usually falls on the first syllable"
a *greenhouse + place where we grow plants (compound nouna green 'house + house painted green (adjective and nouna *bluebird + type of bird (compound nouna blue 'bird + any bird with blue feathers (adjective and noun& any common compound nouns are formed from phrasal verbs (verb adverbor adverb verb.$%amples" breakdown, outbreak, outcome, cutback, drive-in, drop-out, feedback, flyover, hold-up, hangover, outlay, outlet, inlet, makeup,output, set-back, stand-in, takeaway, walkover.
NOUNS
COUNT()*! (ND UNCOUNT()*! NOUNS
Countab#e nouns are for thin+s we can count
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$%ample" dog, horse, man, shop, idea.
They usually have a singular and plural form.
$%ample" two dogs, ten horses, a man, six men, the shops, a few ideas.
Uncountab#e nouns are for the thin+s that we cannot count
$%ample" tea, sugar, water, air, rice.
They are often the names for abstract ideas or qualities.
$%ample" knowledge, beauty, anger, fear, love.
They are used with a singular verb. They usually do not have a plural form. Wecannot say sugars, angers, knowledges.
!"amp#es of common uncountab#e nouns"
money, furniture, happiness, sadness, research, evidence, safety, beauty,knowledge.
We cannot use a/an with these nouns. To e%press a quantity of one of thesenouns, use a word or e%pression li!e"some, a lot of, a piece of, a bit of, a great deal of...
$%amples"
There has been a lot of research into the causes of this disease.
e gave me a great deal of advice before my interview.
They*ve got a lot of furniture. an you give me some information about uncountable nouns/
0ome nouns are countable in other languages but uncountable in $nglish. 0omeof the most common of these are"
accommodationadvicebaggagebehaviourbreadfurnitureinformation
luggage
newsprogresstraffictraveltroubleweatherwor!
)! C(,!FU* with the noun 'hair' which is normally uncountab#e in $nglish"
She has long blonde hair
)t can also be countab#e when referring to individual hairs"
My father's getting a few grey hairs now
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0ee also 1djectives - omparisons of quantity
S!CT-ON M!NU
2oun 3ender The 4lural of 2ouns
ountable and 5ncountable nouns ompound 2ouns 4roper 2ouns 2ationalities
NOUNS
2ouns answer the questions .What is it. and .Who is it. They give names tothings, people and qualities.
$%amples" dog, bicycle, man, girl, beauty , truth, world .
NOUN 0!ND!,
)n general there is no distinction between masculine, feminine and neuter in$nglish nouns. owever, gender is sometimes shown by different forms ordifferent words.
$%amples"
Different words"
Mascu#ine Feminine
manfatheruncleboyhusband
womanmotherauntgirlwife
Different forms"
Mascu#ine Feminine
actor
princeherowaiterwidower
actress
princessheroinewaitresswidow
0ome nouns can be used for either a masculine or a feminine subject"
$%amples"
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cousin teenager teacher doctor
coo! student parent friend
relation colleague partner leader ary is a doctor. She is a doctor
4eter is a doctor. He is a doctor.
1rthur is my cousin. He is my cousin.
6ane is my cousin. She is my cousin.
)t is possible to ma!e the distinction by adding the words 'male' or 'female'.$%ample" a female student7 a male cousin8or professions, we can add the word *woman*$%ample" a woman doctor7 a woman journalist.)n some cases nouns describing things are given gender.$%amples"
) love my car. She (the car is my greatest passion. 8rance is popular with her (8rance*s neighbours at the moment.
) travelled from $ngland to 2ew 9or! on the :ueen $li;abeth, she (the
:ueen $li;abeth is a great ship.
NOUNS
T1! P*U,(* OF NOUNS
ost nouns form the plural by adding -s or -es2
Sin+u#ar P#ura#
boat boats
hat hats
house houses
river rivers
1 noun ending in -y preceded by a consonant ma!es the plural with -ies.
Sin+u#ar P#ura#
a cry cries
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a fly flies
a nappy nappies
a poppy poppies
a city cities
a lady ladies
a baby babies
There are some irregular formations for noun plurals. 0ome of the mostcommon ones are listed below.
$%amples of irregular plurals"
Sin+u#ar P#ura#
woman women
man men
child children
tooth teeth
foot feet
person people
leaf leaves
half halves
!nife !nives
wife wives
life lives
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loaf loaves
potato potatoes
cactus cacti
focus foci
fungus fungi
nucleus nuclei
syllabus syllabi<syllabuses
analysis analyses
diagnosis diagnoses
oasis oases
thesis theses
crisis crises
phenomenon phenomena
criterion criteria
datum data
0ome nouns have the same form in the singular and the plural.
$%amples"
Sin+u#ar P#ura#
sheep sheep
fish fish
species species
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aircraft aircraft
0ome nouns have a plural form but ta!e a singular verb.
$%amples"
news The news is on at =.'> p.m.athletics thletics is good for young people.linguistics !inguistics is the study of language.darts "arts is a popular game in $ngland2billiards #illiards is played all over the world.
0ome nouns have a plural form and ta!e a plural verb.
$%amples"
trousers y trousers are too tight.
$eans er $eans are blac!.glasses Those glasses are his.
others include"
savings, thanks, steps, stair, customs, congratulations, tropics, wages,spectacles, outskirts, goods, wits
NOUNS
COUNT()*! (ND UNCOUNT()*! NOUNS
Countab#e nouns are for thin+s we can count
$%ample" dog, horse, man, shop, idea.
They usually have a singular and plural form.
$%ample" two dogs, ten horses, a man, six men, the shops, a few ideas.
Uncountab#e nouns are for the thin+s that we cannot count
$%ample" tea, sugar, water, air, rice.
They are often the names for abstract ideas or qualities.
$%ample" knowledge, beauty, anger, fear, love.
They are used with a singular verb. They usually do not have a plural form. Wecannot say sugars, angers, knowledges.
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!"amp#es of common uncountab#e nouns"
money, furniture, happiness, sadness, research, evidence, safety, beauty,knowledge.
We cannot use a/an with these nouns. To e%press a quantity of one of these
nouns, use a word or e%pression li!e"some, a lot of, a piece of, a bit of, a great deal of...
$%amples"
There has been a lot of research into the causes of this disease.
e gave me a great deal of advice before my interview.
They*ve got a lot of furniture.
an you give me some information about uncountable nouns/
0ome nouns are countable in other languages but uncountable in $nglish. 0omeof the most common of these are"
accommodationadvicebaggagebehaviourbreadfurnitureinformationluggage
newsprogresstraffictraveltroubleweatherwor!
)! C(,!FU* with the noun 'hair' which is normally uncountab#e in $nglish"
She has long blonde hair
)t can also be countab#e when referring to individual hairs"
My father's getting a few grey hairs now
0ee also 1djectives - omparisons of quantity
NOUNS
US! OF C(P-T(* *!TT!,S W-T1 NOUNS
apital letters are used with"
Names and tit#es of peop#e
a. Winston hurchillb. arilyn onroec. the :ueen of $nglandd. the 4resident of the 5nited 0tatese. the eadmaster of $tonf. ?octor athews
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g. 4rofessor 0amuels.
Note" The personal pronoun *)* is always written with a capital letter.
Tit#es of wor3s4 boo3s etc2
a. War and 4eaceb. The erchant of @enicec. rime and 4unishmentd. Tristan and )solde
Months of the year
6anuary 6uly
8ebruary 1ugust
arch 0eptember
1pril Actober
ay 2ovember
6une ?ecember
Days of the wee3
onday 8riday
Tuesday 0aturday
Wednesday 0unday
Thursday
Seasons
0pring
0ummer
1utumn
Winter
1o#idays
hristmas $aster 2ew 9ear*s ?ay
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Bo%ing ?ay ay ?ay Than!sgiving ?ay
0eo+raphica# names...names of countries and continents
1merica $ngland 0cotland
hina 4eru 1lbania
1frica $urope 1sia
names of re+ions4 states4 districts etc2
0usse% alifornia :ueensland
4rovence Tuscany @aud
8lorida osta Brava Tyrol
names of cities4 towns4 %i##a+es etc2
Condon ape Town Dome
8lorence Bath Wagga Wagga
@ancouver Wellington 4e!ing
names of ri%ers4 oceans4 seas4 #a3es etc2
the 1tlantic the ?ead 0ea the 4acific
Ca!e Ceman Ca!e @ictoria Ca!e ichigan
the Dhine the Thames the 2ile
names of +eo+raphica# formations
the imalayas the 1lps the 0ahara
(d'ecti%es re#atin+ to nationa#ity nouns
8rance - 8rench music
1ustralia - 1ustralian animals
3ermany - 3erman literature
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)srael )sraeli an )sraeli
6amaica 6amaican a 6amaican
6apan 6apanese a 6apanese
e%ico e%ican a e%ican
orocco oroccan a oroccan
2orway 2orwegian a 2orwegian
4eru 4eruvian a 4eruvian
the 4hilippines 4hilippine a 8ilipino
4oland 4olish a 4ole
4ortugal 4ortuguese a 4ortuguese
Dumania Dumanian a Dumanian
Dussia Dussian a Dussian
0audi 1rabia 0audi, 0audi 1rabian a 0audi, a 0audi 1rabian
0cotland 0cottish a 0cot
0erbia 0erbian a 0erb
the 0lova! Depublic 0lova! a 0lova!
0weden 0wedish a 0wede
0wit;erland 0wiss a 0wiss
Thailand Thai a Thai
The 501 1merican an 1merican
Tunisia Tunisian a Tunisian
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Tur!ey Tur!ish a Tur!
@ietnam @ietnamese a @ietnamese
Wales Welsh a Welshman<Welshwoman
9ugoslavia 9ugoslav a 9ugoslav
2ote" We use the & nationality ad$ective ending in -ese or -ish with a pluralverb, to refer to all people of that nationality"he (hinese are very hard-wor!ing.he Spanish often go to sleep in the afternoon.
NOUNS
N(T-ON(*-T-!S
Country" ) live in %ngland 2
(d'ecti%e" e reads %nglish literature.
Noun" 0he is an %nglishwoman.
COUNT,5 (D6!CT-7! NOUN
1frica 1frican an 1frican
1merica 1merican an 1merican
1rgentina 1rgentinian an 1rgentinian
1ustria 1ustrian an 1ustrian
1utralia 1ustralian an 1ustralian
Bangladesh Bangladesh(i a Bangladeshi
Belgium Belgian a Belgian
Bra;il Bra;ilian a Bra;ilian
Britain British a Briton<Britisher
ambodia ambodian a ambodian
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hile hilean a hilean
hina hinese a hinese
olombia olombian a olombian
roatia roatian a roat
the ;ech Depublic ;ech a ;ech
?enmar! ?anish a ?ane
$ngland $nglish an $nglishman<$nglishwoman
8inland 8innish a 8inn
8rance 8rench a 8renchman<8renchwoman
3ermany 3erman a 3erman
3reece 3ree! a 3ree!
olland ?utch a ?utchman<?utchwoman
ungary ungarian a ungarian
)celand )celandic an )celander
)ndia )ndian an )ndian
)ndonesia )ndonesian an )ndonesian
)ran )ranian an )ranian
)raq )raqi an )raqi
)reland )rish an )rishman<)rishwoman
)srael )sraeli an )sraeli
6amaica 6amaican a 6amaican
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6apan 6apanese a 6apanese
e%ico e%ican a e%ican
orocco oroccan a oroccan
2orway 2orwegian a 2orwegian
4eru 4eruvian a 4eruvian
the 4hilippines 4hilippine a 8ilipino
4oland 4olish a 4ole
4ortugal 4ortuguese a 4ortuguese
Dumania Dumanian a Dumanian
Dussia Dussian a Dussian
0audi 1rabia 0audi, 0audi 1rabian a 0audi, a 0audi 1rabian
0cotland 0cottish a 0cot
0erbia 0erbian a 0erb
the 0lova! Depublic 0lova! a 0lova!
0weden 0wedish a 0wede
0wit;erland 0wiss a 0wiss
Thailand Thai a Thai
The 501 1merican an 1merican
Tunisia Tunisian a Tunisian
Tur!ey Tur!ish a Tur!
@ietnam @ietnamese a @ietnamese
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Wales Welsh a Welshman<Welshwoman
9ugoslavia 9ugoslav a 9ugoslav
2ote" We use the & nationality ad$ective ending in -ese or -ish with a plural
verb, to refer to all people of that nationality"
he (hinese are very hard-wor!ing.
he SNOUNS
T1! P*U,(* OF NOUNS
ost nouns form the plural by adding -s or -es2
Sin+u#ar P#ura#
boat boats
hat hats
house houses
river rivers
1 noun ending in -y preceded by a consonant ma!es the plural with -ies.
Sin+u#ar P#ura#
a cry cries
a fly flies
a nappy nappies
a poppy poppies
a city cities
a lady ladies
a baby babies
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trousers y trousers are too tight. $eans er $eans are blac!.glasses Those glasses are his.
others include"
savings, thanks, steps, stair, customs, congratulations, tropics, wages,spectacles, outskirts, goods, wits
panish often go to sleep in the afternoon.
Passi%e
active<passive equivalents form -past function get<have something done, % needs doing
T1! P(SS-7! 7O-C!
P(SS-7! T!NS!S (ND (CT-7! !8U-7(*!NTS
2otice that the tense of the verb to be in the passive voice is the same as thetense of the main verb in the active voice.
$%ample" to keep
T!NS! / 7!,) FO,M (CT-7! 7O-C! P(SS-7! 7O-C!
Simp#e present !eeps is !ept
Present continuous is !eeping is being !ept
Simp#e past !ept was !ept
Past continuous was !eeping was being !ept
Present perfect have !ept have been !ept
Past perfect had !ept had been !ept
future will !eep will be !ept
Conditiona# present would !eep would be !ept
Conditiona# past would have !ept would have been !ept
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present infiniti%e to !eep to be !ept
perfect infiniti%e to have !ept to have been !ept
present particip#e/+erund !eeping being !ept
perfect particip#e having !ept having been !ept
$%ample sentences"
(cti%e" ) keep the butter in the fridge.Passi%e" The butter is kept in the fridge.
(cti%e" They stole the painting.Passi%e" The painting was stolen.
(cti%e" They are repairing the road.Passi%e" The road is being repaired .
(cti%e" 0ha!espeare wrote amlet.Passi%e" amlet was written by 0ha!espeare.
(cti%e" 1 dog bit him.Passi%e" e was bitten by a dog.
T1! P(SS-7! 7O-C!
P(SS-7!4 FO,M
The passive voice in $nglish is composed of two elements " the appropriateform of the verb 'to be' the past participle of the verb in question"
Sub'ect %erb 9to be9 past particip#e
The house was built ...
$%ample" to clean
Sub'ect %erb 9to be9 past particip#e
Simp#e present
The house is cleaned every day.
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NOT!" *to be born' is a passive form and is most commonly used in the pasttense"
I was born in 1!". #hen were you born$ B5T" %round 1&& babies are born in this hospital every week.
-nfiniti%e form" infinitive of *to be* past participle" (to be cleaned This form is used after modal verbs and other verbs normally followed by aninfinitive, e.g.
9ou have to be tested on your $nglish grammar6ohn might be promoted ne%t year.0he wants to be invited to the party.
0erund or :in+ form being past participle" being cleaned
This form is used after prepositions and verbs normally followed by a gerund$%amples"
a. ost film stars hate being interviewed .b. ) remember being taught to drive.c. The children are e%cited about being taken to the ;oo.
NOT!" 0ometimes the passive is formed using the verb to get instead of theverb to be
a. e got arrested for dangerous driving.b. hey're getting married later this year.c. )*m not sure how the window got broken.
T1! P(SS-7! 7O-C!
P(SS-7!4 FUNCT-ON
The passive voice is used to show interest in the person or object thate%periences an action rather than the person or object that performs theaction, e.g.
)he passive is used ..."
We are interested in the passive, not who uses it.
)he house was built in 1"*+"
We are interested in the house, not the builder. )he road is being repaired "
We are interested in the road, not the people repairing it.
)n other words, the most important thing or person becomes the subject of thesentence.0ometimes we use the passive voice because we don*t !now or cannot e%presswho or what performed the action"
I noticed that a window had been left open
very year people are killed on our roads.
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The woman who/that spo3e at the meetin+ was %ery 3now#ed+eab#e2
2oun, subject of main clause
relative pronounreferring to *thewoman*, subjectof *spo!e*
verb rest of relative clause verb rest of main clause
=2 #ho, whom and which can be replaced by that. This is very common inspo!en $nglish.
>2 The relative pronoun can be omitted ( G when it is the ob6ect of the clause"
)he mouse that the elephant loved was very beautiful.37 )he mouse the elephant loved was very beautiful.
Both of these sentences are correct, though the second one is more common inspo!en $nglish.
The mouse that/? the e#ephant #o%ed was %ery beautifu#2
2oun, subject of mainclause
relative pronoun,referring to *themouse, object of*loved*
verb rest of relativeclause
verb rest of main clause.
(9ou can usually decide whether a relative pronoun is an object because it isnormally followed by another subject verb.
@2 #hose is used for things as well as for people.
$%amples")he man whose car was stolen. % tree whose leaves have fallen.
A2 #hom is very formal and is only used in written $nglish. 9ou can usewho/that, or omit the pronoun completely "
The doctor whom*who*that* ) was hoping to see wasn*t on duty.
B2 )hat normally follows words li!e something, anything, everything, nothing,all, and superlatives.
$%amples"
There*s something that you should know . )t was the best film that )'ve ever seen.
$%amples"
1 clown is someone who makes you laugh.
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1n elephant is an animal that lives in hot countries.
The plums that were in the fridge were delicious. ) have eaten them.
Where are the plums that/ ) put in the fridge/
as anyone seen the book ) was reading/
2othing that anyone does can replace my lost bag.
Cet*s go to a country where the sun always shines.
They live in the house whose roof is full of holes.
,!*(T-7! C*(US!S
0ee also 4ronouns.
There are two different types of relative clause"
1 .definin+. or identifying clause, which tells us which person or thing
we are tal!ing about.
1 .non:definin+. or non-essential clause, which gives us more
information about the person or thing we are tal!ing about. This !ind
of clause could often be information included in brac!ets (...
$%ample"The farmer (his name was 8red sold us some potatoes.The farmer, whose name was 8red, sold us some potatoes.)t is important to see the difference between the two types of clause, as itaffects"a2 the choice of pronoun used to introduce the clause,b2 the punctuation - you must use commas with a non-defining clause.
,!*(T-7! C*(US!S
NON:D!F-N-N0 ,!*(T-7! C*(US!S
The information in these clauses is not essential. )t tells us more aboutsomeone or something, but it does not help us to identify them or it.ompare"
#. lephants that love mice are very unusual. (This tells us which elephantswe are tal!ing about.
. lephants, which are large and grey , can sometimes be found in 8oos. (Thisgives us some e%tra information about elephants - we are tal!ing about allelephants, not just one type or group.
'. 4ohn's mother, who lives in Scotland , has " grandchildren. (We !now who6ohn*s mother is, and he only has one. The important information is the numberof grandchildren, but the fact that she lives in 0cotland might be followed withthe words Hby the wayH - it is additional information.
Punctuation2on-defining relative clauses are always separated from the rest of thesentence by commas. The commas have a similar function to brac!ets"
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5y friend 4ohn has 6ust written a best-selling novel. (e went to the sameschool as me 9 5y friend 4ohn, who went to the same school as me, has 6ustwritten a best-selling novel.
,e#ati%e pronouns in non:definin+ c#auses
Person Thin+ P#ace
Sub'ect who which
Ob'ect who<whom which where
Possessi%e whose
Notes
#. )n non-defining clauses, you cannot use $that$ instead of who, whom orwhich.
. 9ou cannot leave out the relative pronoun, even when it is the object of theverb in the relative clause"e gave me the letter, which was in a blue envelope.e gave me the letter, which I read immediately
'. The preposition in these clauses can go at the end of the clause, e.g. )his is2tratford-on-%von, which you have all heard about.
This pattern is often used in spo!en $nglish, but in written or formal $nglishyou can also put the preposition before the pronoun" e.g. 2tratford-on-%von,about which many people have written is 2hakespeare$s birthplace.
I. 2on-defining clauses can be introduced by e%pressions li!e all of, many of relative pronoun"
Person Thin+
all of : whom : which
any of : whom : which
0a/ few of : whom : which
both of : whom : which
each of : whom : which
either of : whom : which
half of : whom : which
many of : whom : which
most of : whom : which
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much of : whom : which
none of : whom : which
one of : whom : which
two of etc1 : whom : which
$%amples"
a. There were a lot of people at the party, many of whom ) had !nown foryears.
b. e was carrying his belongings, many of which were bro!en.
J. The relative pronoun which at the beginning of a non-defining relativeclause, can refer to all the information contained in the previous part of thesentence, rather than to just one word.
a. hris did really well in his e%ams, which was a big surprise. (+ the fact thathe did well in his e%ams was a big surprise.
b. 1n elephant and a mouse fell in love, which is most unusual. (+ the factthat they fell in love is unusual.
$%amples"
a. y grandmother, who is dead now , came from the 2orth of $ngland.b. ) spo!e to 8red, who explained the problem.c. The elephant loo!ed at the tree, under which she had often sat.d. We stopped at the museum, which we1d never been into.e. 0he/s studying maths, which many people hate.
f. )/ve just met 0usan, whose husband works in !ondon.g. e had thousands of boo!s, most of which he had read
,!*(T-7! C*(US!
W1!,! TO PUT T1! P,!POST-T-ON -N ( ,!*(T-7! C*(US!
There are often prepositions in relative clauses, and the relative pronoun is theob6ect of the preposition. This means that the preposition can sometimes beomitted.
The preposition is normally placed at the end of the relative clause"
)s that the man (who you arrived with$ ?o you !now the girl (that 6ohn is tal!ing to$
)n formal or written $nglish, the preposition is often placed before the
relative pronoun, and in this case the pronoun cannot be omitted"
)he person with whom he is negotiating is the ;hairman of alarge company.
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It is a society to which many important people belong.
owever, this is unusual in spo!en $nglish.
$%amples"
The jungle the elephant lived in was full of strange and unusualanimals.
e was very fond of the mouse that he lived with.
The tree under which they had their home was the largest and oldest
in the jungle. )n the middle of the jungle was a river that all the animals went to
every day . )t was the stream in which the elephant and the mouse preferred to
swim.