LEADERSHIP STYLES OF RETIRED MILITARY WOMEN

Dr. Scena B. Webb

March 3, 2014

Table of Contents

Section 1: Introduction .................................................................................................................... 6

Interest in the research topic ........................................................................................................... 6

Significance of research topic ......................................................................................................... 7

History of research topic ................................................................................................................. 7

Theoretical application .................................................................................................................... 8

Best practices .................................................................................................................................. 8

Relevance to social psychology ...................................................................................................... 9

Professional conduct ..................................................................................................................... 11

Ethical practices ............................................................................................................................ 11

Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 12

Section 2: Literature Review ........................................................................................................ 13

General review of psychology of leadership ................................................................................ 13

Military leadership in psychology ................................................................................................ 15

Leadership formation in psychology ............................................................................................ 17

Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 19

Section 3: Methodology ................................................................................................................ 21

The purpose of a research study .................................................................................................... 22

The target population of the proposed research study .................................................................. 22

Strategy for study .......................................................................................................................... 23

Section 4: Expected Results .......................................................................................................... 24

Limitations .................................................................................................................................... 26

Relatedness of findings to previous research studies .................................................................... 26

Population ..................................................................................................................................... 26

Responses ...................................................................................................................................... 26

The application of theoretical and research knowledge to the evaluation of the proposed research

study outcomes .............................................................................................................................. 27

The implementation of the proposed research study .................................................................... 27

Data analysis ................................................................................................................................. 28

Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 28

Section 5: Discussion .................................................................................................................... 30

Findings ......................................................................................................................................... 30

A review of expected findings ...................................................................................................... 30

Research supported findings ......................................................................................................... 30

Limitations .................................................................................................................................... 31

Relatedness of findings to previous research studies .................................................................... 31

Population ..................................................................................................................................... 32

Responses ...................................................................................................................................... 32

Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 32

References ..................................................................................................................................... 34

Appendix A ................................................................................................................................... 43

Interview Protocol ......................................................................................................................... 43

Interview Questions ...................................................................................................................... 43

Section 1: Introduction

The proposed research seeks to understand the process of developing and transferring

leadership skills for military women to the civilian sector. For women who have retired from

military service, headlines are scarce with respect to psychological needs for this population.

With the rise in social awareness concerning women in combat (Blanton, 2013; Dvorak, 2013;

Fishel, 2013; Wasikowska, 2012), research gained from understanding military women and

leadership would advance the scientific knowledge base in social psychology.

Psychology research is available with respect to women suffering from sexual trauma

(Rowe, et al., 2009), gender bias (Do, Samuels, Adkins, Clinard, & Koveleskie, 2013), sexuality

(Cameron, et al., 2011), intimate partner violence (Foran, Slep, & Heyman, 2011), and

posttraumatic stress disorder (Gates, et al., 2012; Lehavot, Der-Martirosian, Simpson, Sadler, &

Washington, 2013). However, only one dissertation on leadership styles of active-duty military

women (Godsey, 2012) is available in scholarly research. Although Godsey (2012) researched

leadership styles of active-duty women, the proposed topic has a focus on what happens with the

leadership skills of these women once retired from military service and reintegrate into life as a

civilian.

Interest in the research topic

Approximately 200,000 women are serving on active duty (Smith & Smith, 2013).

Experience of 21 years of active duty service in the United States Navy spurred the interest in

how women transfer leadership skills from the military environment. As the number of women

who retire from military service continues to grow, influences on their leadership styles carry

into their new roles. For example, when searching for scholarly literature on leadership,

literature offers insight into fostering cross-gender mentorship (Harden, Clark, Johnson, &

Larson, 2009), and diversity leadership (Chin & Sanchez, -Hucles, 2007), but a gap exists with

respect to the experiences of retired military women in leadership.

Some men who retire from military service receive notable attention for their

contributions as news worthy articles (Barstow, 2008) although an exhaustive search did not

produce research on military women who have retired. The potential to understanding how

military applications of leadership are directly transferable is not limited to social psychology but

also has the potential to benefit institutions of higher education.

Significance of research topic

The research has the potential to address the mental-health field in gaining a better

understanding of the essence of being a retired military woman serving in leadership, which may

assist in developing theories with respect to transference of leadership skills gained from military

life. Social psychologists may glean insights from the rich descriptions of retired military

women, with respect to incorporating social pressures of leadership through strategic exposure to

military living. This is especially relevant in todays culture of women authorized to participate

in combat (Wasikowska, 2012).

The potential to understanding how military applications of leadership are directly

transferrable is not limited to psychology with respect to mental health, but also has the potential

to benefit institutions of higher education. Yen (2011) reported that 10.6 million in the U.S.

earned a master's degree or higher were women, compared to 10.5 million men.

History of research topic

With respect to literature on leadership, prior studies examine the components of

leadership (Marshall, 2007), effects of tokenism as a woman (McDonald, Toussaint, & Sweiger,

2004), leadership development (Atwater, Dionne, Avolio, Camobreco, & Lau, 1999; Budworth

& Mann, 2010) and historical advances for women in leadership (Evans, 2010), however there is

a gap in literature on understanding the experiences of retired military women currently in

positions of leadership. Literature indicated that there is a significant difference between male

and female leadership styles (Aldoory & Toth, 2004; Eagly, 2007; Eagly & Carli, 2007; Eagly &

Chin, 2010), but literature of void when the topic shifts to leadership styles of retired military

women.

Theoretical application

Shared social identity can be seen as the basis for all forms of productive social

interaction between people, including leadership, motivation, communication, cooperation,

helping, and trust (S. A. Haslam, Jetten, Postmes, & C. Haslam, 2009). The lens of social

identity theory works well when studying issues of social, organizational, and corporate identity

Cornelissen, S. A. Haslam, and Balmer (2007). Women who have completed a career spanning

at least 20 years in the military may have insights on leadership from a group perspective and

social identity perspective. Social identity theory suggests that a persons self-concept is a

combination of a personal identity, and a social identity. Groups provide insight into a sense of

social identity (Haslam et al., 2009) and that perceptions about various groups have a significant

impact on socialization of group members (p. 7).

Best practices

Scholarly work on women leadership styles has been dominated by quantitative research

methods. Taken from this perspective, the role of authentic leadership among retired (career)

military women currently in positions of leadership is the foundation for the proposed qualitative

inquiry. Authentic leadership (AL) is as a pattern of leader behavior that draws upon and

promotes both positive psychological capacities and a positive ethical climate, to foster greater

self-awareness, an internalized moral perspective, balanced processing of information, and

relational transparency on the part of leaders working with followers, fostering positive self-

development (Walumbwa, Avolio, Gardner, Wernsing, & Peterson, 2008). Best practices have

used the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) as an appropriate measure for leadership;

the MLQs psychometric applications (Antonakis, Avolio, & Sivasubramaniam, 2003; Avolio, &

Gardner, 2005; Gardner, et al., 2011; Edwards, Schyns, Gill, & Higgs, 2012).

Relevance to social psychology

On December 14, 2013, the news of President Obamas nomination for the Navys first

female four-star Admiral quietly hit the news (Klausner, 2013). For women who have retired

from military service, headlines about leadership are scant with respect to psychological needs

for this population. However, there is literature on military women who suffer from

posttraumatic stress disorder (Gates, et al., 2012), partner violence surrounding military women

(Foran, Slep, & Heyman, 2011), and military sexual trauma (Rowe, et al., 2009). A need to learn

more about retired military women who have not suffered trauma will add to the available body

of psychology literature and drives the passion of the proposed research.

Social psychology focuses on social and cultural influences and the connection those

influences have on people as social groups or communities (Hogg, 2001). History has proven

that during the 1960s a shift in collective thought brought about major societal changes. By

accounts of recent news articles, there is a societal shifts taking place with respect to leadership

roles of military women (Blanton, 2013; Smith, E., & Smith, M., 2013; Wasikowska, 2012).

Women are serving in combat roles and undoubtedly will one-day transition from the military

into civilian life. Social psychologists may study what makes military women, as social groups,

determine how they behave as civilian leaders compared to military leaders.

Taken from the lens of social psychologists, studies on styles of leadership among

psychology professionals are traceable back to Kurt Lewin, one of the founding fathers of

modern social psychology. Kurt Lewin was among a group of psychologists who identified

different styles of leadership as early as 1939 (Tolman, 1948). Continuing in the tradition of

social psychology research, the rationale for the proposed research is to develop theory and

generate a new model that has a focus on the process of developing and transferring leadership

skills for military women to the civilian sector.

The societal need to address questions such as, Do these women transfer perceived

levels of capabilities to the civilian sector? Does the transference of leadership skills directly

correlate to women in the boardroom? Are retired military women suffering from violations of

expectancy theory once they retire from military service? may increase along with the increase

in combat positions for military women. Conversely, social psychologists may want to know

more about how retired military womens attitudes have changed because of leaving the military.

The proposed research to understand the process of transferring leadership styles of

retired military women into civilian life may assist in developing theories incorporating the

phenomenon of what female military veterans experience when returning home from combat-

related situations (Shaw & Hector, 2010). The narratives of the women in the proposed study

will pioneer discussions on military leadership that goes past the scope of gender representation

(Chin, 2010; Chin & Sanchez-Hucles, 2007), and move past the context of leadership with no

regard to gender (Fallesen, Keller-Glaze, & Curnow, 2011; Lindsay, Kurprius, & Lucart, 2004;

Wong, Bliese, & McGurk, 2003). The new knowledge gained from the insights of retired

military women has the potential to position social psychologists to front of social change

surrounding women in combat. Subsequent inquiries may be helpful to contextualize the

constructs surrounding military women and their second careers in their pursuit of advanced

degrees.

Professional conduct

Women who have completed military careers have likely been exposed to various

cultures. Cultural influences have impact on various aspects of life. The need for psychology

professionals to understand and prepare for multiculturalism in the profession has been a topic of

research (Henriksen, 2006). Accordingly, counseling professionals need to understand the

contextual frame of the people who receiving counseling. Henriksen (2006) postulates that

learning more about multiculturalism is foundational to become a more effective counselor.

The premise is that most counseling professionals should approach the profession from

an existentialism and humanistic frame encompassing the client unique perspective culturally

was presented (Henriksen, 2006). Romney, (2008) postulated that counseling today must

include a multicultural perspective. Accordingly, effective counselors must get themselves

abreast of what multiculturalism is, diversity is, and counseling from the perspective of a diverse

population, in an effort to meet the needs of the population served.

Ethical practices

As such, my chosen field uses the American Psychological Association (APA) code of

ethics as a foundational guide for matters of ethics and multiculturalism. Being a veteran,

attention must be given to guard against dual relationships. Personal information shared with

clients about psychologists should be minimal and appropriate for the healing process. The

psychologists personal life is irrelevant to the clients treatment and may, in fact, pique the

clients interest in the therapist, shifting it from the reasons for seeking treatment and

compromising the therapists stance of neutrality and objectivity (Kaslow, Patterson, &

Gottlieb, 2011, p. 105).

Conclusion

A need for empirical research that adds to the body of psychology literature focusing on

how retired military women transfer their leadership skills into the civilian sector frames the

discussion. Acknowledgement of scholarly work on womens leadership highlights the silence

in literature for this specific population. Social identity theory grounds the proposed research in

theoretical literature. Social psychologists may have the most interest in the study because of the

changes in societal norms towards the perceptions of women in the military. A discussion on the

need for multiculturalism and ethical practices on the part of counseling psychologists who may

work with veterans ends the discussions.

Section 2: Literature Review

The following literature review covers 15 articles related to the topic of leadership in

general, womens leadership, and military leadership. The selection brings a focus on the heart

of the proposed research to understand what happens with the leadership skills of women when

retired from military service and reintegrate into life as a civilian. The question of how retired

military women transfer their leadership styles demands a review of psychology literature from a

macro level. A search of available literature did not yield any results for military women

leadership styles once leaving the military therefore, the following literature review presentation

is a perimeter of work on women leadership. The goal is to demonstrate the need to conduct

targeted research on the existing gap in psychology leadership literature and provide new

information to the body of knowledge.

General review of psychology of leadership

From the social psychologist perspective, Wang and Thompson (2006) postulate that

psychology literature on leadership and group dynamics focus heavily on the negative side or

failures of leadership using a meta-analytic approach. The central argument reflects the

perspective that a more balanced representation of psychology leadership literature is necessary

to highlight the availability of positive research on leadership. By comparison, the psychology

therapist perspective of Schoo (2008) provided an argument for the integration of emotional

intelligence (EI) and choice theory (CT) with respect to positive psychology applications in

organizations also using a meta-analytical approach. The central argument is that leaders who

use EI and CT can focus on internal control psychology through their leadership styles.

Revisiting the social psychology view, Eagly (2007) wrote a sound argument, appealing

to logic with respect to desirable leadership traits that woman leaders display using a meta-

analytical approach. The article continues from a previous meta-analysis, conducted by Eagly in

2003 that synthesized 45 articles on transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership

styles. The central theme makes the argument that professional literature on leadership provides

insight into characteristics of good leadership that women do display; yet evidence shows a

preference for male leaders over women. In tandem is the general psychology perspective where

Chin (2010) advances the argument that based on the United States increased diversity

population projections, theories of leadership need to change to include diversity leadership

using a persuasive argument.

Continuing from the general psychology perspective, Chin & Sanchez-Hucles (2007)

advance the position that scholarly literature on leadership does little to incorporate minorities

and diversity. The central focus hinges on increased projections among racial and ethnic

minorities frames the position that psychologists need to have current and inclusive research

available through professional journals in psychology. All three scholarly works have the central

theme of advancing the need for critical analysis of psychology literatures absence of women

leadership styles and diversity in the academic landscape. These presentations could have been

stronger if recent research studies were the basis, but instead the materials relied heavily on

crafting discussions that failed to present alternative views.

The panoramic review of literature on psychology of leadership for women lacks a focus

on military women who have completed their tour of duty and retired. Selective arguments on

the need to balance both positive and negative leadership practices (Wang & Thompson, 2006),

and integration of emotional intelligence and choice theory (Schoo, 2008) provide a conceptual

approach to leadership. Arguments on the contradictions between desirable leadership traits are,

and the perspective that women have these traits, yet are not viewed as potential leaders (Eagly,

2007), and the need for inclusion of ethnicity and diversity into the scholarly landscape on

leadership (Chin, 2010; Chin & Sanchez-Hucles, 2007) broadened the implications that women

need inclusion into literature on leadership in psychology. With respect to retired women

military leaders, there is a gap in the literature on the effects of emotional intelligence (EI) and

choice theory (CT) as well as psychology leadership, therefore, using knowledge gained research

in these areas increases contextual awareness when embarking on research for the

underrepresented population. The review of the literature for the proposed study shifts focus to

military women leadership.

Military leadership in psychology

From the perspective of a psychology doctoral learner, Godsey (2012) conducted

research to understand if there is a significant difference between senior level male and female

leaders style of leadership on active duty in the United States Air National Guard. The

Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire Leader Form (5x-Short) was the data collection instrument

from a population of 20 active duty personnel. The research findings were in contrast to the

literatures premise that women would be more transformational with their leadership compared

to men. Support for the findings included the consulting psychology perspective where Looney,

Kurprius, and Lucart (2004) found that evaluations of leadership of naval officers are not

significantly different between the genders. The gender of the rater and the gender of the person

receiving an evaluation by conducting a quantitative correlational study using naval academy

students consisting of 69 men and 39 women proved to have no significant difference.

Both studies were high on scientific merit supporting the findings by empirical research

studies. Insights gained from the research studies may be helpful for a consulting psychologist

working in a military environment. For example, based on scholarly research available for

military settings, a consultant could misinterpret evaluations done by persons of different

genders because a review of the literature supports the notion of gender biases in senior level

leadership. Because of these studies, one plausible explanation could be that gender has no

significance, but bias in perceptions of what is feminine and masculine may be one of the root

causes for differences.

From the military psychology perspective, Lindsay, Day, and Halpin (2011) considered

the question on whether shared leadership in the military is reality, a possibility, or a pipedream

using a persuasive argument. The Army and Air Force serve as the context for leadership in the

research. Continuing from the military psychology lens, Fallesen, Keller-Glaze, and Curnow

(2011) explored leadership studies in the United States Army using a building-block approach

synthesizing historical, current, and future military leadership literature. The audience seems to

be military psychology scholars seeking to gain insight into leadership in a military context.

In contrast to the prior review of shared military leadership literature (Lindsay, Day, &

Halpin, 2011), the essence of the article falls short for applicability across a military context.

The contents of both articles do not incorporate current research studies but instead present a

targeted meta-analysis serving as the foundation for their respective positions. While this

practice is acceptable, the failure to present alternative views limits the practicality of the

research. For the behavioral science psychologist or the consulting psychologist, historical

knowledge of the changes in the U.S. Armys perspective on leadership can prove helpful when

working in military settings.

From the psychology leadership perspective, Wong, Bliese, and McGurk (2003)

conducted a meta-analysis on military leadership from a context-specific view. The goal of the

research provides an analytical approach to military leadership from an organizational level, a

senior leadership level, and an individual level. The body of knowledge presentation did make

small reference to military leadership and gender noting the contradiction resulting from a

plethora of literature on military leadership and very few with a focus on women. For example,

in the paragraphs that focus on gender, a report of approximately 15% of the military are women

also reports a hopefulness that more research will focus on the leadership styles of women and

not just gender integration. The audience seems to be general scholars who want to learn more

about the triad analysis of military leadership styles from a content-specific perspective.

The review of literature on military psychology of leadership lacks a focus on retired

military women further supporting the need to conduct research with the underrepresented

population. The research seems to focus on investigating gender differences (Godsey, 2012) or

focus on context- specific views of military leadership (Fallesen, Keller-Glaze, & Curnow, 2011;

Lindsay, Kurprius, & Lucart, 2004; Wong, Bliese, & McGurk, 2003). The question of how

retired military women transfer leadership skills to civilian life is absent in psychology literature

of leadership. The knowledge gained from revisiting gender differences and context-specific

views of military leadership provide an understructure necessary to build new models or theories

of transference of leadership. The final review shifts the focus toward leadership formation in

psychology.

Leadership formation in psychology

Taken from the consulting psychology perspective, Kaiser, McGinnis and Overfield

(2012) sought to demonstrate quantitatively how psychology and business perspectives on

leadership work harmoniously. The goal of the research was to raise awareness that the social-

psychological aspect of leadership is complimentary to the business aspect of leadership using

regression analysis. Complimentary research from an applied psychology perspective used a

qualitative case study method to highlight multiple constructs of leadership among local

government leaders in the United Kingdom (Ford, 2010). While Kaiser, et al., (2012) employed

quantitative research, Ford (2010) employed qualitative research supporting the notion that both

methods work well presenting a unified approach to research. Both research articles are strong

with respect to scientific merit and provide complimentary findings that social-psychological

aspects of leadership shape essential elements needed in leaders.

Taken from the perspective of integrating leadership theories from a personnel

psychology perspective, Derue, Nahrgang, Wellman, and Humphrey (2011) conducted

quantitative research leadership traits and behaviors. This research used a meta-analysis

quantitatively synthesizing existing psychology literature on leadership. In comparison, Eberly,

Johnson, Hernandez and Avolio (2013) took a general psychology approach studied an

integrative model of leadership reporting perspectives using a persuasive argument. Both

research articles did not include research studies to support the perspectives; however, the results

were complimentary in that models of leadership should provide elements across spectrums of

leadership.

Taken from the lens of applied psychology, Rosette and Tost (2010) quantitative research

supported the position that once women break through the glass ceiling, there is strong evidence

that they will experience leadership advantages over male counterparts. The argument advances

the discussion on prior research that suggests women have more desirable leadership traits

compared to men (Schoo, 2008) but paradoxically seem to experience roadblocks to

advancement. Earlier literature on women in leadership (Chin, 2010; Chin & Sanchez-Hucles,

2007) appeared feminist; the current research has stronger scientific merit because of using two

research studies supporting the findings.

The review of literature on leadership formation lacks a focus on retired military women

but does include women in general. The research presented in this section does show the

significant role that society plays with respect to leadership formation. The proposed research

study has a theoretical framework grounded in social identity theory of leadership and grounded

in psychology literature on leadership. The culmination of articles reviewed represent a broad

range of psychology perspectives in social psychology, general psychology, military psychology,

consulting psychology, applied psychology, personnel psychology, experimental psychology,

and psychology of leadership. An increased awareness of the slight nuances of psychological

perspectives on leadership is helpful to cement the proposed perspective to research as a social

psychologist.

For example, because of the different psychology lenses, a congruency emerged with

respect to what is missing in the literature, the discussion of retired military women leaders.

Consequently, discerning the kaleidoscope of psychology, each perspective shapes the backdrop

for the narratives of the participants. There is an expectation that members involved in the

research will represent all branches of the military, racial, ethnic memberships, and include both

enlisted and officers. The spectrum of literature reviewed from different psychology views, the

offers a baseline of knowledge, which helps to understand more about the research participants.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the question of how retired military women transfer leadership skills to

civilian life is absent in psychology literature of leadership, however; the knowledge gained from

immersion into a broad spectrum of psychology literature provides a solid foundation to embark

on research as a novice social psychology learner. The absence of literature on retired military

women is consistent because there is no frame of reference to the population in society in

general. For example, according to media bias, some people receive subliminal messages about

society through imagery (Babad, 2005). Military movies that portray retired military women or

women in positive leadership roles in military settings are void in American culture. Research

on the process of developing and transferring leadership skills for retired military women to the

civilian sector has the potential to reduce the gap in the psychology literature.

Section 3: Methodology

Grounded theory research design is the chosen methodology following Corbin and

Strauss (1990) model. Generating theory that is grounded in fieldwork with a philosophical

foundation in a process of pure induction (of theory from data) is best suited when researching

areas that are not well known. The method described by Glaser and Strauss (1967) is built upon

two key concepts: constant comparison, in which data are collected and analyzed

simultaneously, and theoretical sampling, in which decisions about which data should be

collected next are determined by the theory that is being constructed (Glaser & Strauss, 1967;

Suddaby, 2006). Interviews will serve as the primary method for data collection followed by

using the comparative comparison technique.

Patton (2002) describes the conversational informal interview approach as the best

choice offering maximum flexibility to pursue information (p. 342). Using this approach, the

interview is fluid and flows understanding that no two people will respond the same way. The

weakness of this approach is an increased amount of time needed to collect information (Patton,

2002, p. 343). An interview guide will be prepared ahead of time to ensure that all participants

receive the same basic lines of inquiry.

An advantage to this approach is greater time management with regard to how long

each question may take. Patton (2002) offers insight into the standardized open-ended interview

approach that uses carefully and fully wording in each question before the interview (p. 344).

This approach has the intent to ensure each interviewee gets the same questions in the same way

and the same order (Patton, 2002, p. 344).

The standardized open-ended interview approach is the best way to guard against

variations among application during each interview. Closed, fixed-response interview is another

method that qualitative researchers may use (Patton, 2002, p. 349). This method has carefully

crafted questions and response categories in advance. The responses are fixed and the

respondent chooses from one of the categories (p. 349). An advantage of this method is that

responses can be compared and easily aggregated. A disadvantage is that participants must fit

their experiences into a pre-determined response stemming from the researchers categories

(Patton, 2002, p. 349).

The purpose of a research study

The purpose of the study is to add to the gap in literature on leadership styles of retired

military women. The research question, "What is the process of developing and transferring

leadership skills for military women to the civilian sector?" serves as the foundation for the

research. Qualitative researchers follow the philosophical assumptions that understanding

phenomenon is investigated from the actors perspective and the important reality is what people

perceive it to be (Patton, 2002, p. 69). Rather, there are multiple realities constructed by human

beings who experience a phenomenon of interest (Krauss, 2005, p. 760). Therefore, grounded

theory serves as the qualitative research method to allow unknown information about the

leadership styles of military women to add to the existing psychology literature on leadership

styles.

The target population of the proposed research study

Retired military women are the target population. Operationally, retired military

women are women who have served in any branch of the United States military for more than

twenty years. Determining sample size depends on gathering the richness of the experience

under investigation (Morse, 2000; Onwuegbuzie & Leech, 2007; OReilly & Parker, 2013). For

grounded theory research, 15 -20 participants will be the target. With respect to sample sizing, a

qualitative power analysis will be conducted using Sandelowski and Barrosos model. A

qualitative power analysis could be conducted via qualitative meta-syntheses and qualitative

meta-summaries (Onwuegbuzie & Leech, 2007, p. 108). According to Sandelowski and Barroso

(2003), a qualitative meta-synthesis is a form of systematic review or integration of qualitative

research findings in a target domain that are themselves interpretive syntheses of data, including

phenomenologies, ethnographies, grounded theories, and other integrated and coherent

descriptions or explanations of phenomena, events, or cases (p. 227).

Strategy for study

Solicitation for participants will be done by announcements explaining the research and

needed participants using social media such as Facebook, LinkedIn, and buying advertising

space in military journals. Additional announcements would be placed through advertisements

in professional leadership journals. If permission granted, flyers would be placed common

spaces on a few local military bases such as the Walter Reed Medical Center in Bethesda,

Maryland, because of locality.

The contact information would have a cell phone number listed, which would be a

dedicated line that has voicemail. Potential participants would have access to call and set up a

telephone interviewing session designed to screen participants asking them about their leadership

experiences and for verification of their military service. To increase continuity of data

collection all interviews will take place over the telephone to ensure that each participant has the

same experience with data collection. A copy of the proposed interview protocol and questions

are in Appendix A.

Section 4: Expected Results

Anticipated findings of shared group characteristics across military services are

consistent with scholarly literature that suggests strong behavior of individuals as influenced by

group affiliation (Matthews, Ender, Laurence, Rohall, 2009). Group identity as a shared identity

suggests that people who have similar experiences may develop similar characteristics in

leadership (Hogg, et al., 2004). The expected findings of the proposed research are aligned with

scholarly research on the topic.

One expected result is a sense of hard-charging work ethics. Shared military experiences

may yield similarity in work ethics. For example, military culture instills a sense hard-charging

work ethics (Wong, Bliese, & McGurk, 2003). Mottos such as Be all you can be for the Navy

and Army strong for the Army suggest an exposure to increased levels of responsibility while

serving in the military.

A second expected result is a sense of practical application leadership styles. Military

leaders often start at younger ages with levels of increased responsibility (Hedlund, et al., 2003).

Tacit knowledge is gained from a combination of doing a task and learning theory of leadership.

Routinely, learning by doing is practiced more frequently before the introduction of theoretical

leadership practices.

A third expected result is a sense of storytelling through reflection of military

experiences. Matthew and Sternberg (2009) posit that tacit knowledge is transferred effectively

through reflection. Reflective thought plays a role in clarity with respect to what is not

articulated. When the participants recall respective experiences, reflection is anticipated which

may yield clearer information on leadership transferability.

Because the nature of qualitative inquiry does not rest on hypothesis testing, there is no

expectation of relationships between variables or cause and effects. Based on the expected

findings of beliefs on work ethics, practical applications of leadership before theoretical learning,

and reflection, a new theory may be generated. As a result of the data collection and

comparative analysis, a theory that can be used to gain a better understanding of leadership skills

transferability among retired military women.

The data represented four areas of personal change that took place throughout the

military leadership experience. The four areas were (1) confidence development, (2) mixed

feelings of being unsure and anxiety, (3) reflections on learning expectations, and (4) reflections

on civilian expectations. Among the four key areas, civilian expectations were the most

prevalent. Following the four key areas expressed in the data, an argument can be made that the

psychological contract was re-evaluated during the process of change that took place with the

participant.

The psychological contract (Knapp, 1980) is described as, an implicit psychological

contract formed between the new employee and the employer consisting of each one's

expectations (p. 76). The theory of reciprocity is at play and because the two parties discuss

what each is to receive and contribute to the relationship in only general terms, this lack of

specificity ultimately leads to problems when one or both parties realize that the two sets of

expectations were not in total agreement (Knapp, 1980, p. 76).

The application of a breach in the psychological contract is appropriate with respect to

the top two areas presented in this research, reflections on learning expectations, and reflections

on civilian expectations. The psychological contract is found in literature primarily pertaining to

organizational leadership and expectancy theory. In this research, expectancy theory, which deals

with motivation, was not most appropriate because the process of personal change did not rely on

motivation, but more on reflectiveness of expectations dealing with an expected experience. An

adaptation of the psychological contract to fit more closely with internal evaluations of an

unspoken contracts fulfillness or unfulfillness seems appropriate.

Limitations

Relatedness of findings to previous research studies

Findings of previous research on the topic of military women leadership styles could not

be compared to the expected findings of the proposed research. Only an educated guess can be

made about why there is a lack of research on leadership styles of military women. The absence

of scholarly literature is a limitation of the proposed research.

Population

The research is limited to the participants who will provide data for the study.

Qualitative research is not generalizable and therefore is limited to the reflections of the women

who are interviewed. More specifically, the narratives that are expressed are limited to only a

small moment in time, as recalled by the participants.

Responses

The responses are limited to the emotions experienced by the volunteer participants

involved in the study. Greenberg (2012) reported on multi-level theories on the role of emotions

in the process of change. The meta-analytical work advances the argument of the possibility to

change emotion with emotions. As the participants recall their leadership experiences, no

controls will take place to restrain the emotions that may surface.

The application of theoretical and research knowledge to the evaluation of the proposed

research study outcomes

Theoretical applications for shared experiences in leadership stem from social identity

theory. Social identity is viewed as an analysis of intergroup relationships (Hogg, et al., 2004).

Taken from the social identity paradigm, the proposed research study outcomes of shared

perceptions on work ethics and leadership practicality, versus, theoretical applications, are

significant to how leadership may be transferred from military groups to civilian life.

The implementation of the proposed research study

The first phase is by interview questionnaires soliciting biographical data, military

experience, and asking for follow-up telephone interviews, as needed. This phase is meant to

screen potential participants to ensure that a baseline criterion is met for the proposed sample.

For example, if a potential participant served in the military for less than twenty years and did

not have the opportunity to work in a leadership position, then the participant would screen out

and a thank you letter for interest in the study would be provided.

The second phase is the actual interview that will be audio taped for later analysis. Initial

interviews will be scheduled for 1-2 hours allowing for consistency in protocol for each

participant. Informed consent will be gained from each participant before the beginning of the

interviews. A reminder that each participant can opt-out and end the interview at any time will

be given during natural breaks in the interview process. Here is a brief step-by-step summary of

the proposed data collection method.

1. Mail, e-mail, or call potential participants.

2. Extend an invitation to participate.

3. Engage in selection criterion screening.

4. Set up the actual interviews.

5. Administer the informed consent form.

6. Administer the open-ended guiding questions.

7. Conduct a follow on telephone interview, if necessary.

Data analysis

Data will be analyzed following the model of Corbin and Strauss (1990) that includes:

1. Open-coding to capture the detail, variation, and complexity of the data.

2. Constantly comparing data instances, cases, and categories for conceptual similarities

and differences (the method of constant comparison).

3. Sampling new data and cases on theoretical grounds as analysis progresses.

4. Writing theoretical memoranda to explore emerging concepts and links to existing

theory.

5. Engaging in more focused coding (including focused, axial, and theoretical coding) of

selected core categories.

6. Continuing to code, make comparisons, and sample theoretically until the point at

which no new relevant insights are being reached (theoretical saturation).

7. Additional tactics to move analysis from descriptive to more theoretical levels: for

example, grouping or reclassifying sets of basic categories; writing definitions of core

categories; building conceptual models and data displays; linking to the existing

literature; writing extended memos and more formal theory.

Conclusion

The proposed qualitative research exploring the gap in psychology literature on military

leadership styles of female retirees has the potential to begin dialogue on how leadership styles

can affect civilian leadership practices. The significance to psychology comes from the

theoretical underpinnings of social identity theory. The limitations of conducting qualitative

research is the small number of participants, normally ranging 15-20 participants (Morse, 2000),

the data can only be applicable to that sample, during those particular conditions. A future

recommendation is to have quantitative research conducted on retired military women leadership

styles and leadership transferability to the civilian sector. An additional recommendation for

future research is a longitudinal study of senior leaders of private and public sector to look for

similarities across platforms.

Section 5: Discussion

The qualitative research study would use grounded theory as the methodology to

understand how retired military women transfer leadership skills into civilian life. Grounded

theory focuses on the process of generating theory and not so much on a theoretical content

(Corbin & Strauss, 1990; Patton, 2002). Data collection was done through the use of open-ended

interviewing questions. Data was analyzed using the method described by Glaser and Strauss

(1967) which is built upon two key concepts: constant comparison, in which data are collected

and analyzed simultaneously, and theoretical sampling, in which decisions about which data

should be collected next are determined by the theory that is being constructed (Glaser &

Strauss, 1967; Suddaby, 2006). The research question is: "What is the process of developing and

transferring leadership skills for military women to the civilian sector?"

Findings

A review of expected findings

One expected result is a sense of hard-charging work ethics. A second expected result is

a sense of practical application leadership styles. A third expected result is a sense of

storytelling through reflection of military experiences. Each expected result has been supported

in scholarly literature (Hedlund, et al., 2003; Matthew & Sternberg, 2009; Wong, Bliese, &

McGurk, 2003).

Research supported findings

The data represented four areas of personal change that took place throughout the

military leadership experience. The four areas were (1) confidence development, (2) mixed

feelings of being unsure and anxiety, (3) reflections on learning expectations, and (4) reflections

on civilian expectations. Among the four key areas, civilian expectations were the most

prevalent. Following the four key areas expressed in the data, an argument can be made that the

psychological contract was re-evaluated during the process of change that took place with the

participant.

The psychological contract (Knapp, 1980) is described as, an implicit psychological

contract formed between the new employee and the employer consisting of each one's

expectations (p. 76). The theory of reciprocity is at play and because the two parties discuss

what each is to receive and contribute to the relationship in only general terms, this lack of

specificity ultimately leads to problems when one or both parties realize that the two sets of

expectations were not in total agreement (Knapp, 1980, p. 76).

The application of a breach in the psychological contract is appropriate with respect to

the top two areas presented in this research, reflections on learning expectations, and reflections

on civilian expectations. The psychological contract is found in literature primarily pertaining to

organizational leadership and expectancy theory. In this research, expectancy theory, which deals

with motivation, was not most appropriate because the process of personal change did not rely on

motivation, but more on reflectiveness of expectations dealing with an expected experience. An

adaptation of the psychological contract to fit more closely with internal evaluations of an

unspoken contracts fulfillness or unfulfillness seems appropriate.

Limitations

Relatedness of findings to previous research studies

Findings of previous research on the topic of military women leadership styles could not

be compared to the expected findings of the proposed research. Only an educated guess can be

made about why there is a lack of research on leadership styles of military women. The absence

of scholarly literature is a limitation of the proposed research.

Population

The research is limited to the participants who will provide data for the study.

Qualitative research is not generalizable and therefore is limited to the reflections of the women

who are interviewed. More specifically, the narratives that are expressed are limited to only a

small moment in time, as recalled by the participants.

Responses

The responses are limited to the emotions experienced by the volunteer participants

involved in the study. Greenberg (2012) reported on multi-level theories on the role of emotions

in the process of change. The meta-analytical work advances the argument of the possibility to

change emotion with emotions. As the participants recall their leadership experiences, no

controls will take place to restrain the emotions that may surface.

Conclusion

The expected findings of the research centered on shared leadership experiences among

military female veterans and a reliance on practical applications in leadership as suggested by

scholarly literature. In contrast, results were more thematic covering areas of leadership

expectations while in the military and as civilians. All of the participants are women who have

been leaders at one level or another while serving in the military. The participants also have

leadership roles as civilians. No scholarly research was available to contextualize the findings in

the existing body of literature because there is none. Therefore grounded theory served as the

springboard for further research among retired military womens leadership styles.

Hopefully, more research into how retired military women transfer leadership styles into

civilian life will be applicable to social psychologists as well as clinical psychologists as more

women are being promoted into increased levels of leadership. Retired military women are in

the civilian sector and there is a high probability that they bring their learned behaviors of

leadership into how they lead in corporate America.

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Appendix A

Interview Protocol

1. Introduce the research goals and expectations

2. Administer the informed consent form.

3. Administer the open-ended guiding questions

4. Conduct a follow on telephone interview, if necessary

Interview Questions

1. Share with me your experiences learning leadership skills from the military.

2. From the experiences you have just shared, which leadership traits do you feel have

been applicable to what you do as a civilian?

3. As a military leader, how would you describe your level of responsibility when you

were active duty compared to now?

4. What leadership skills do you think are not needed once a person retires from the

military?

5. How do you see your role as a military retired leader?

6. What pearls of wisdom would you give to someone who is within one year of retiring

from the military with respect to transferring military leadership skills to the civilian

sector?