LEAD SMELTING International Review Nicole Fobi, MD Internal Medicine Residency Program Morehouse...

LEAD SMELTING LEAD SMELTING International ReviewInternational Review

Nicole Fobi, MDNicole Fobi, MDInternal Medicine Residency Internal Medicine Residency ProgramProgram

Morehouse School Of MedicineMorehouse School Of Medicine

Atlanta, GeorgiaAtlanta, Georgia

“The findings and conclusions in this presentation have not been formally disseminated by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention/the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry and should not be construed to represent any agency determination or policy.”

Mentor: Dr. Mary Jean Brown Peter Kowalski, MPH NCEH /ATSDR / CDC, Atlanta, GA

ObjectiveObjectivess

Background of LeadBackground of Lead

Mining/ Smelting and environmental effectsMining/ Smelting and environmental effects

Demographics , Statistics and UsesDemographics , Statistics and Uses

Environment and Health Effects Environment and Health Effects

Stakeholders and Policies/Guidelines Stakeholders and Policies/Guidelines

RecommendationsRecommendations

Lead in Galena Lead in Galena MineralMineral

Lead Mine pitLead Mine pit

““Blasting operation” to form mine pitBlasting operation” to form mine pit

Truck in open mine Truck in open mine pitpit

The galena is taken to a mill The galena is taken to a mill and crushed in a “rod and and crushed in a “rod and ball” machine ball” machine

““Rod and Ball” machine Rod and Ball” machine and crushed Galena and crushed Galena from lead minefrom lead mine

Mining and SmeltingMining and Smelting

Large, uncovered trucks transport crushed Large, uncovered trucks transport crushed galena to the lead smeltering plant galena to the lead smeltering plant – Dust flies off of truck Dust flies off of truck – Truck uses a lead-acid batteryTruck uses a lead-acid battery

Crushed Galena put into suspension tank with water Crushed Galena put into suspension tank with water and Dithiophosphate chemicaland Dithiophosphate chemical

Chemical reaction creates froth, separating lead from Chemical reaction creates froth, separating lead from other ores (sulfides). Lead clings to froth which hardens other ores (sulfides). Lead clings to froth which hardens and is skimmed of resulting in 90% lead concentrateand is skimmed of resulting in 90% lead concentrate

Lead roasted, forms clumps called sinter which is Lead roasted, forms clumps called sinter which is melted with coke (made from coal) and blasted with hot melted with coke (made from coal) and blasted with hot air air

Result from chemical reaction is lead bullionResult from chemical reaction is lead bullion

Mining and SmeltingMining and Smelting

Froth flotation cellFroth flotation cell

Lead froth waitingLead froth waiting

to be skimmed offto be skimmed off

Global Demand

6.98 million tonnes in 2004, 7.13 million tonnes in 2005

US largest user (1.47 million tonnes)

China next largest (1.18 million tonnes) increased by more than 8% over 2004-5, and doubled since 2000

Rises in demand forecast for Germany, Czech Republic and IndiaRepublic and India

StatisticsStatistics

Supply Sources

3.15 million tonnes from primary mining in 2004

Sources in U.S. Australia, Canada, China, Ireland, Mexico, Peru and Portugal

Remainder from secondary recycling

Recycling rates higher for developed countries (60 to 70%) and lower for developing countries (< 30%)



Major smelting companies:

25 smelters and refineries in Europe, 23 in North America and 18 in China accounted for two-thirds of world production in 2005

CRU

Secondary and cottage smelting companies Secondary and cottage smelting companies need to be addressed !!need to be addressed !!

UsesUses

Material leftover is Material leftover is called tailingscalled tailings– Tailings composed Tailings composed

of:of:. Wastewater. Wastewater. Dithiophosphate. Dithiophosphate. Zinc ore. Zinc ore. Sulfides. Sulfides

– Garbage from mine Garbage from mine workers discarded workers discarded on landscape as on landscape as wellwell

Environment and Environment and HealthHealth

EPAEPA

Lead contaminating Lead contaminating nearby streamnearby stream

Waste waterWaste water

Accumulation ofAccumulation of tailingstailings

Man-made lake filled with contaminated water Man-made lake filled with contaminated water

Mining activities leave Mining activities leave huge holes in landscapehuge holes in landscape

Holes filled in by the Holes filled in by the mining company usually mining company usually with material containing with material containing tailings and wastetailings and waste


Devastating geological effectsDevastating geological effects

Exposure PathwayExposure Pathway

Current Former Current Former AirAir

SoilSoil

WaterWater


+

++

+ +

_

- Over exposure to lead is the leading cause of - Over exposure to lead is the leading cause of workplace illness!!!!workplace illness!!!!

- Lead mine/smelter workers may be exposed to lead - Lead mine/smelter workers may be exposed to lead when:when:

1. Handling/cleaning the dust collection system 1. Handling/cleaning the dust collection system 2. Improperly maintained collection systems2. Improperly maintained collection systems 3. Settled dust in the area3. Settled dust in the area 4. Liquid containing lead that may have splashed onto4. Liquid containing lead that may have splashed onto a worker or an object and has turned into lead dust a worker or an object and has turned into lead dust

5. Bringing contaminated clothing home5. Bringing contaminated clothing home


OSHAOSHA

Occupations That Occupations That ExposeExpose Workers to Lead Workers to Lead

– Removal of lead coatingsRemoval of lead coatings striping of old paint, demolition of old structures, home striping of old paint, demolition of old structures, home

renovationrenovation

– Heating, machining or spraying lead productsHeating, machining or spraying lead products radiator and battery repair, welding, cutting, machining, radiator and battery repair, welding, cutting, machining, grinding lead alloys, repair or removal of water lines using grinding lead alloys, repair or removal of water lines using

lead lead piping/solder, electricians, stained glass window repair, piping/solder, electricians, stained glass window repair,

ammunitionammunition

– Making of lead productsMaking of lead products lead-acid battery, glaze, pottery, cable, stained glass, paint/ink, lead-acid battery, glaze, pottery, cable, stained glass, paint/ink,

mixing /weighing of lead powders, lead sheeting, ammunitions, mixing /weighing of lead powders, lead sheeting, ammunitions, glass blowing, housing and construction glass blowing, housing and construction

Health Consequences Health Consequences of Lead Exposureof Lead Exposure

Most humans are not Most humans are not adequately informed of the adequately informed of the health risks! health risks!

Blood Lead Levels Associated with Adverse Health Effects

ChildrenLead Concentration in Blood

(g/dL) Adults

150

100

50

40

30

20

10

Death

Note: = increased function and = decreased function. Source: ATSDR, 1992

Encephalopathy

EncephalopathyNephropathy

Frank AnemiaColic

Nephropathy

Frank Anemia

Male Reproductive Effects

Hemoglobin Synthesis andFemale Reproductive Effects

Nerve Conduction VelocityHemoglobin Synthesis

Vitamin D Metabolism

Nerve Conduction Velocity

Erythrocyte ProtoporphyrinVitamin D Metabolism(?)

Developmental ToxicityIQ, Hearing, Growth

Transplacental Transfer

Elevated Blood Pressure

Erythrocyte Protoporphyrin (men)Erythrocyte Protoporphyrin (women)

StakeholdersStakeholders

Multi-nation OrganizationsMulti-nation Organizations

NGOsNGOs

Country Health AgenciesCountry Health Agencies

Lead Industries Lead Industries

Communities Communities

In developing countries, awareness of the In developing countries, awareness of the public health impact of exposure to lead public health impact of exposure to lead is growing but relatively few of these is growing but relatively few of these countries have introduced policies and countries have introduced policies and regulations for significantly combating regulations for significantly combating the problem. the problem.


Stakeholders need to unite and Stakeholders need to unite and collaborate systemically to reduce collaborate systemically to reduce emissions, remediate soil emissions, remediate soil contamination, and operate a contamination, and operate a sustainable monitoring system.sustainable monitoring system.


WHOWHO

Public health measures to reduce and prevent Public health measures to reduce and prevent exposure to lead :exposure to lead :

1. Phasing out lead additives in fuels and 1. Phasing out lead additives in fuels and removing removing

lead from petrol as soon as is practicable.lead from petrol as soon as is practicable.

2. Reducing and phasing out the use of lead-2. Reducing and phasing out the use of lead-based based

paints.paints.

3. Eliminating the use of lead in food containers.3. Eliminating the use of lead in food containers.

Environmental lead exposure: a public health problem of global dimensionsBulletin of World Health Organization, 2000, 78 Ref No. 0686Bulletin of World Health Organization, 2000, 78 Ref No. 0686

4. Identifying, reducing and eliminating lead 4. Identifying, reducing and eliminating lead used inused in additional medicines and cosmetics. additional medicines and cosmetics.

5. Minimizing the dissolving of lead in water 5. Minimizing the dissolving of lead in water treatment and water distribution Systems. treatment and water distribution Systems.

6. Improving control over exposure to lead in 6. Improving control over exposure to lead in workplaces.workplaces. 7. Improving identification of populations at 7. Improving identification of populations at high risk of exposure on the basis of high risk of exposure on the basis of monitoring systems. monitoring systems. Environmental lead exposure: a public health problem of global dimensions

Bulletin of World Health Organization, 2000, 78 Ref No. 0686Bulletin of World Health Organization, 2000, 78 Ref No. 0686

8. Improving procedures of health risk assessment. 8. Improving procedures of health risk assessment.

9. Improving promotion of understanding and9. Improving promotion of understanding and awareness of exposure to lead. awareness of exposure to lead.

10. Increasing emphasis on adequate nutrition,10. Increasing emphasis on adequate nutrition, health care and attention to socioeconomic health care and attention to socioeconomic conditions that may exacerbate the effects of lead. conditions that may exacerbate the effects of lead.

11. Developing international monitoring and11. Developing international monitoring and analy tical quality control programmes. analy tical quality control programmes.

Bulletin of World Health Organization, 2000, 78 Ref No. 0686Bulletin of World Health Organization, 2000, 78 Ref No. 0686Environmental lead exposure: a public health problem of global dimensions

Chapter 6.7 Lead Air Quality Guidelines - Second Edition

WHO Regional Office for Europe, Copenhagen, Denmark, 2001 13

Guidelines for lead in air will be Guidelines for lead in air will be based on the concentration of based on the concentration of lead in blood. lead in blood. A critical level of lead in blood A critical level of lead in blood of 100 μg/l is proposed. (based of 100 μg/l is proposed. (based group averages)group averages)

WHOWHO-Lead Air Quality -Lead Air Quality

GuidelinesGuidelines

1. Currently measured baseline blood lead levels of 1. Currently measured baseline blood lead levels of minimal anthropogenic origin probably range 10–minimal anthropogenic origin probably range 10–30 μg/l.30 μg/l.

2. Various international expert groups - earliest 2. Various international expert groups - earliest adverse effects of lead in populations of young adverse effects of lead in populations of young children begin at 100–150 μg/lchildren begin at 100–150 μg/l

3. Inhalation of airborne lead is a significant route of 3. Inhalation of airborne lead is a significant route of exposure for adults but is of less significance for exposure for adults but is of less significance for young children, for whom other pathways of young children, for whom other pathways of exposure such as ingested lead are generally exposure such as ingested lead are generally more important.more important.



Chapter 6.7 Lead Air Quality Guidelines - Second EditionWHO Regional Office for Europe, Copenhagen, Denmark, 2001 13

4. 1 μg lead per m3 air directly contributes 4. 1 μg lead per m3 air directly contributes approx 19 μg lead per liter blood in children approx 19 μg lead per liter blood in children and about 16 μg per liter blood in adults and about 16 μg per liter blood in adults

5. In typical situations, an increase of lead in air 5. In typical situations, an increase of lead in air also contributes to increased lead uptake by also contributes to increased lead uptake by indirect environmental pathways - 1 μg lead indirect environmental pathways - 1 μg lead per m3 air would contribute to 50 μg lead per m3 air would contribute to 50 μg lead per liter blood.per liter blood.




6. To prevent further increases of lead in soils 6. To prevent further increases of lead in soils and consequent increases in the exposure of and consequent increases in the exposure of future generations, air lead levels should be future generations, air lead levels should be kept as low as possible.kept as low as possible.

7. Efforts be made to ensure that at least 7. Efforts be made to ensure that at least 98% of an exposed population, have 98% of an exposed population, have blood lead levels that do not exceed 100 blood lead levels that do not exceed 100 μg/l. μg/l.

- - The median blood lead level would notThe median blood lead level would not

exceed 54 μg/l. exceed 54 μg/l.

- The annual average lead level in air should- The annual average lead level in air should

not exceed 0.5 μg/m3. not exceed 0.5 μg/m3.

- This proposal is based on the assumption- This proposal is based on the assumption

that the upper limit of non-anthropogenicthat the upper limit of non-anthropogenic

lead in blood is 30 μg/l. lead in blood is 30 μg/l.






LOAEL : lowest observed adverse effect levelsALA: Delta Aminolevulinic Acid DehydrateFEP: Free Erythrocyte Protoporphyrin

World BankWorld Bank

Pollution Prevention and Abatement Handbook WORLD BANK GROUP Effective July 1998

Lead and Zinc Smelting: Industry sector guidelines

The key production and control practices that will lead to compliance with emissions requirements :

1. Give preference to the flash-smelting process where appropriate.

2. Choose oxygen enrichment processes that al low higher SO2 concentrations in Smelter gases to assist in sulfur recovery, use the double-con-tact, double-absorption process.

3. Improve energy efficiency to reduce fuel us age and associated emissions; use low NOx burners; give preference to natural gas as

fuel.



4. Reduce air emissions of toxic metals to acceptable levels.

5. Maximize the recovery of dust and minimize fugitive missions;

use hoods and doghouse enclosures.

6. Reduce effluent discharge by maximizing wastewater recycling.

7. Avoid contamination of groundwater and surface waters by leaching of toxic metals from tailings, process residues, slag, and other wastes.

Lead and Zinc Smelting: Industry sector guidelines

Monitoring:Monitoring:

Air EmissionsAir Emissions Liquid affluentLiquid affluent Solid WastesSolid Wastes Ground waterGround water Surface waterSurface water


Parameter Maximum value Sulfur dioxide 400 Arsenic 0.1

Cadmium 0.05 Copper 0.5 Lead 0.5

Mercury 0.05 Zinc 1.0 Particulates 20

Emissions

(milligrams per normal cubic meter)


Parameter Maximum valueParameter Maximum valuepH 6–9pH 6–9TSS 20TSS 20Arsenic 0.1Arsenic 0.1Cadmium 0.1Cadmium 0.1Copper 0.5Copper 0.5Iron 3.5Iron 3.5Lead 0.1Lead 0.1Mercury 0.01Mercury 0.01Zinc 2.0Zinc 2.0Total metals 5Total metals 5Temperature increase less than 3 Temperature increase less than 3

EffluentsEffluents

Monitoring data should be analyzed and reviewed Monitoring data should be analyzed and reviewed at regular intervals and compared with the at regular intervals and compared with the operating standardsoperating standards

Records of monitoring results should be kept in an Records of monitoring results should be kept in an acceptable format.acceptable format.

The results should be reported to the responsible The results should be reported to the responsible authorities and relevant parties as requiredauthorities and relevant parties as required



EnvironmentEnvironment

Occupational health and safetyOccupational health and safety

Community health and safetyCommunity health and safety

Construction and decommissioningConstruction and decommissioning

Performance indicators and monitoringPerformance indicators and monitoring


APRIL 30, 2007 World Bank Group

Environmental, Health, and Safety GuidelinesBASE METAL SMELTING AND REFINING

Sponsors include most of the major producers of lead, Sponsors include most of the major producers of lead, zinc and silverzinc and silver

ILZRO's R&D portfolio for 2007 encompasses the ILZRO's R&D portfolio for 2007 encompasses the primary applications of lead, zinc and silver, as well as primary applications of lead, zinc and silver, as well as significant work in the areas of the environment and significant work in the areas of the environment and human health.human health.

The results of ILZRO R&D efforts are communicated The results of ILZRO R&D efforts are communicated through a variety of forums, including research through a variety of forums, including research reports, technical seminars, expert consulting, reports, technical seminars, expert consulting, internet sites and printed publications. internet sites and printed publications.

ILZRO ILZRO The INTERNATIONAL LEAD ZINC RESEARCH ORGANIZATIONThe INTERNATIONAL LEAD ZINC RESEARCH ORGANIZATION

Represents one of the few Represents one of the few international forums for the lead international forums for the lead and zinc business where and zinc business where Governments and Industry can Governments and Industry can exchange views on the exchange views on the consequences of international consequences of international environmental and health related environmental and health related initiatives on the trade in lead and initiatives on the trade in lead and zinc.zinc.

ILZSGILZSGThe International Lead and ZincThe International Lead and Zinc Study Group Study Group

The ILZSG's Economic and Environment Committee follows The ILZSG's Economic and Environment Committee follows all environmental aspects relevant to lead and zinc mines all environmental aspects relevant to lead and zinc mines and smelters and end uses which entails: and smelters and end uses which entails:

• • monitoring of environmental issues monitoring of environmental issues • • Informing Study Group member countries on particular Informing Study Group member countries on particular

issuesissues relating torelating to - ecotoxicity - ecotoxicity - transboundary movements of waste - transboundary movements of waste - transboundary air pollution - transboundary air pollution - international co-ordination of activities on chemicals - international co-ordination of activities on chemicals

ILZSG has already released environmental studies such as ILZSG has already released environmental studies such as "Environmental and Health Controls on Lead”"Environmental and Health Controls on Lead”

ILZSGILZSG

The international lead industry is committed, through the ILMC to work with governments, industries and the international community to manage the risk oflead exposure.

ILMC complements and supports existing international risk management activities and responds to the individual needs of countries who wish to introduce such projects in either industry or their local communities.

ILMCILMCInternational Lead Management CenterInternational Lead Management Center

• Aberfoyle Ltd., Australia

• ASARCO, Inc., United States of America

• Boliden, Sweden

• Cominco Ltd., Canada

• Doe Run Company, United States of America

• Met-Mex Pen˜oles S.A. de C.V., Mexico

• Mount Isa Mines Holdings, Australia

• Noranda Mining and Smelting, Inc., Canada

• Pasminco Ltd., Australia

• Union Miniere, Belgium

Sponsors:

ILMCILMC

• Lead mining, smelting, refining and recycling

• Occupational and public health

• Risk reduction programs

• Technology transfer

• Social policy and economic issues

Action Programs :

ILMCILMC

Activities of The ILMC

1. Pilot Programs (e.g.. Philippines, Mexico, Russia, Peru) 2. Risk Management Teams

3. Worker Health and Hygiene Training Programs

4. Outreach To Consumer Industries

5. Information Resources and Databases

6. Internet Services

7. News Casting

8. Product and Application Information

LDAI is dedicated to encouraging the responsible

use of lead and its compounds

LDAILDAILead Development Association Lead Development Association InternationalInternational

LDAI - ObjectivesLDAI - Objectives 1. Promote the responsible use of lead throughout its life cycle 2. Increase lead's competitiveness with alternative materials 3. Provide cost-effective co-ordination of sustainable initiatives for the benefit of the lead industry and society 4. Contribute to the identification of appropriate ways to manage risks to health or the environment attributable to lead 5. Address legislative or other scientific issues which may affect the lead industry 6. Communicate with members and with outside parties as appropriate on issues of relevance to the lead industry.

The Green Lead The Green Lead InitiativeInitiative

Green Lead Program would direct all sectors in the life cycle of a Lead Acid Battery, ( the Mines, the Smelters, the Battery manufacturers, Consumers and the Recyclers) in practices and procedures that minimize or negate any potential adverse impacts on either the environment or the population.

Lead acid batteries account for about 75% of lead consumption.


Those working in the informal sector will either get out of the ULAB business or become legitimate collectors of ULAB.

Green Lead regime has tremendous potential in the developing world (already in Salvador, Philippines and Venezuela ) as model to assist in the elimination of poor recovery practices.

The Green Lead initiative, once in place, will facilitate the development of environmentally sound practices, safe working conditions and create a level of product stewardship at the forefront of any commodity. London Workshop

April 2005.


1. Medical surveillance – Blood Leads

2. Solid Waste Management

3. Effluent treatment and discharges

4. Emission Control Systems

5. ULAB Collection, transport and shipping

6. Battery Labels

7. Public Communications and awareness

8. Site Sustainability

9. Community Outreach


London Workshop April 2005.

Green Lead™ Standards Currently Available

• Lead smelting, ULAB and scrap recovery, refining, alloying and casting

• Lead-acid battery manufacture and breaking

• Manufacturing lead compounds, including pigments and colors.

• working with metallic lead and alloys containing lead, e.g. soldering

• Manufacturing leaded-glass and certain ceramics

• Some painting of buildings; some spray-painting of vehicles

• Hot cutting in demolition and dismantling operations

• Certain jewelry and badge enameling techniques


London Workshop April 2005.

Certification StandardsBiological Monitoring and Medical Surveillance

Summary Summary

1. The demand for Lead is increasing worldwide

2. Communities are still exposed to lead from present and past mining and smelting activities worldwide (esp. in developing countries)

3. Communities need to be educated about exposure and health effects of Lead

4. Multi-national companies appear to be taking some positive steps but more needs to be done to prevent continuous exposure

Stakeholders need to unite and Stakeholders need to unite and collaborate systemically to reduce collaborate systemically to reduce emissions, remediate soil emissions, remediate soil contamination, and operate a contamination, and operate a sustainable monitoring system.sustainable monitoring system.

Summary Summary

Because of their experience, many international bodies are well equipped to provide assistance with tackling the various dimensions of exposure to lead in the environment.

Summary Summary

Summary Summary Screening, monitoring, intervention and evaluation are critical for the development of rational, cost-effective and science-based public health policies aimed at achieving these goals.

Success in this endeavor requires government commitment, incentive policies, a broad consensus among stakeholders and public understanding, acceptance and support

AcknowledgementsAcknowledgements

Mentors:Mentors:Dr Mary Jean BrownDr Mary Jean BrownPeter Kowalski, MPHPeter Kowalski, MPH

Jerome Carter, PhDJerome Carter, PhDGeorge PrinceGeorge PrinceErica Brantley, MSAErica Brantley, MSACarla Durham, EMRP Program coordinatorCarla Durham, EMRP Program coordinator

ATSDR / CDC & Association of Minority Health ATSDR / CDC & Association of Minority Health Professions Schools, INC.Professions Schools, INC.

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