LCNHA feasibility study cover draft02 - Archaeology Southwest · jewelry in various media (stone,...

chapter 3heritage themes andrelated resources

DEVELOPMENT OF THEHERITAGE THEMES

The seven heritage themes in thischapter emerged directly from publicinput. During Meeting Two of theseries of four Working Group meetingsdescribed in Chapter 1, participantswere divided into small groups andgiven large maps of the Little Coloradowatershed. They were then asked aseries of four questions designed toelicit responses that would describe theheritage of the region.

If you had a two-week dreamvacation in the Little ColoradoRiver watershed, where would yougo?

If you had to describe this area tosomeone who had never been here,what would you say?

When friends or family come tovisit, where do you take them?

If “something” were to leave thisarea forever, what would you missmost?

Participants drew or wrote theirresponses on the maps. In most cases,the maps were completely coveredwith sites, references to historical

events, notes about the currentdiversity of cultures found in thewatershed, and lists of activities relatedto outdoor recreation or local festivals.Continuing in their small groups,participants reviewed all of the itemsplaced on the maps and devisedbetween four and six themes thatwould capture all of the items. Eachsmall group then reported its themes tothe whole group. The whole group thenworked all of themes suggested by eachsmaller group into one set of betweenfour and six themes. This process tookplace at five meetings in five differentlocations across the watershed andresulted in a total of 25 heritage themesbeing suggested. Many of the themesfrom a Working Group in one meetinglocation were virtually the same asthemes suggested by one or moreWorking Groups in other meetinglocations, thus giving evidence thatparticular themes indeed identifiedprevalent, consistent, and over-archingcharacteristics of the region. TheHeritage Programs Coordinatorreviewed all 25 suggestions and foundseven common themes that united themost frequently suggested themes bythe Working Groups. Those sevenunifying themes became the seven

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Chapter 3: Heritage Themes and Related Resources

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heritage themes described in thischapter:

Sacred and Enchanted Landscapes Trails, Roads, and Rails of the West Native Nations Living from the Land Archaeology Expressions of Art and Life Outdoor Recreation

After establishing the seven heritagethemes, the next round of WorkingGroup meetings focused on identifyingresources within the watershed thatreflected, interpreted, or embodied oneor more themes. The seven themes

were written on large pieces of paperand participants wrote down the nameof the resource (a site, event,organization, business, etc.) and itsgeneral location on the paper of theparticular theme the resource fit.Participants were asked to identifyresources that related to tourism aswell as those that served localcommunities, although often a singleresource fulfilled both functions.Often, too, a single resource reflectedmore than one theme. The relatedresources sections that appear in eachheritage theme chapter are a directresult of data generated during theseWorking Group meetings.

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SUMMARY OF THEME

The number, variety, and significanceof archaeological sites found in theLittle Colorado River Valley are rivaledby few other locations in the country.These sites not only contribute greatlyto our understanding of past lifewaysin the American Southwest, but alsohave provided a foundation fornumerous advancements inarchaeological field methods over thepast two centuries.

While many Little Colorado sites arefragile, currently unprotected, orotherwise not appropriate for visitationfrom members of the general public,they continue to serve as importantlandmarks for the history and culturaldevelopment of modern-day Hopi,Zuni, Navajo, and White MountainApache people (see “Native Nations”theme). Visitors with an interest inarchaeology, however, are not at a lossfor interesting places to see in the LittleColorado area.

Several state and national parks ormonuments feature ruins andpetroglyphs from various time periodsand cultures. Extensive artifactcollections and exhibits can be found atthe Museum of Northern Arizona, andmany smaller museums throughout theregion also display artifacts.Archaeology is further supported bythree highly respected educationalprograms at Northern ArizonaUniversity, Arizona State University,and the University of Arizona, and by anetwork of site steward volunteers andavocational archaeologists in bothArizona and New Mexico.

DESCRIPTION OF THEME

The Little Colorado area contains theremains of prehistoric and historicoccupations dating back at least 12,000years and spans two major lateprehistoric archaeological culture areas:the Anasazi or Ancestral Pueblo andMogollon. These groups eventuallycoalesced to form what anthropologistscall the Western Pueblo. Later, Apacheand Navajo groups made theSouthwest their home, and togetherwith the Hopi and Zuni Pueblo people,continue to occupy much of the LittleColorado area. Archaeological remainsof Hispanic, Mormon, and otherhistoric period settlers also dot thelandscape and remain powerfulreminders of the more recent past. Thefollowing overview briefly summarizesthe Little Colorado area’s long, rich,and diverse past, highlighting somekey resources and significantarchaeological advances of particularlocalities.

Overview of Prehistoric CultureHistory

Approximately 15,000 years ago,populations crossed the Bering Straitland bridge from Asia into NorthAmerica. These groups likely arrivedfollowing the Wisconsin glaciation,when sea levels were low and an ice-free corridor existed between glacierson the east side of the RockyMountains. Except for a few highlycontroversial sites purportedly of greatantiquity (e.g., Sandia Cave nearAlbuquerque, New Mexico), theSouthwest’s Paleoindian occupation

Theme 5Theme 5Theme 5Theme 5Theme 5ArchaeologyArchaeologyArchaeologyArchaeologyArchaeology

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traditionally is dated between around10,000 and 5500 B.C. The Pleistoceneclimate was wetter than previously,causing the expansion of savannas andthe westward spread of several largemammal species, or megafauna, likemammoth, bison, horse, camel, direwolf, and several antelope species. Thedistinctive, fluted Clovis and Folsompoints are well-known examples ofspecialized Paleoindian huntingtechnology. In addition to hunting,Paleoindian groups also must havecollected edible wild plants.

Paleoindian populations are envisionedas small, highly mobile family bands.They often obtained stone tool rawmaterials from very great distances,either through trade or as a result ofconsiderable population mobility.Paleoindian sites typically arecharacterized by the presence ofdiagnostic projectile points foundeither in isolation or in association withsmall scatters of chipped stoneartifacts. Because of their great agesuch sites are relatively rare. In theLittle Colorado watershed, isolatedClovis and Folsom points have beenfound near Sanders, Houck, the St.Johns/Concho/Lyman Lake area,Winslow, on the Hopi mesas, and inthe Petrified Forest.

The less-specialized Archaic adaptationthat emerged within a relatively dryclimatic period around 5500 B.C. marksthe end of the Paleoindian period. Theterm “Archaic” designates both a timeperiod and a way of life characterizedby hunting (both small and large game)and gathering (mainly plant seeds).Throughout the Southwest,archaeologists generally identify thebeginning of the Archaic period withthe appearance of grinding equipmentand the end of the Archaic with theappearance of pottery and horticulturearound A.D. 200. Recent data,

however, point to integration ofagriculture into some southwesterncommunities as early as 3,500 yearsago, indicating this definition of theArchaic may be too simplistic.

Initially, the Archaic lifeway was notmuch different from the Paleoindian:highly mobile, small group size, andmixed hunting and gathering.Eventually, however, Archaicpopulations began to rely more heavilyon wild plant foods and less uponhunting, perhaps because the climateagain became wetter and stimulatedincreased plant growth. The number ofknown Archaic sites also increasesthrough time, not only because morerecent sites are more likely to be visibleto archaeologists, but also becauseoverall population size probablyincreased. By the end of the Archaic,habitation sites often had large, shallowstorage pits as well as concentrations offire-cracked cobbles and artifacts.Structural architecture generally waslacking. Hearths, bell-shaped pits,cobble cairns (possibly roasting pitdebris), and a variety of pit structuresare known. Archaic period basketry,rabbit fur clothing, yucca twine robes,woven bags, wood digging sticks,jewelry in various media (stone, shell,bone, feathers and seeds), atlatls, bonetools, and possible ritual objectsoccasionally are preserved in dryrockshelters.

Like Paleoindian sites, obvious Archaicperiod sites are not well represented inthe Little Colorado area. Some of thebetter known are on Black Mesa nearHopi, where a large number of earlyagriculture sites dating to the lateArchaic and/or succeeding earlyAncestral Pueblo (Basketmaker)periods are represented. In addition,several sites along Y-Unit draw in theZuni region have Archaic orBasketmaker II components. These



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sites, excavated by the Zuni CulturalResource Enterprise, provide evidencefor early agriculture at the Archaic-Pueblo transition.

After about A.D. 200, around the timethat pottery was first made and used inthe Southwest, the archaeologicalcultures traditionally identified as theAnasazi and Mogollon emerge. Thisdistinction persists until about A.D.1000, when the two culturespresumably merged into whatarchaeologists commonly refer to asWestern Pueblo. In the northern LittleColorado region (from about Holbrook,St. Johns, and Quemado north to theSan Francisco Peaks) archaeologistsclassify sites as Anasazi or AncestralPueblo and generally follow the PecosClassification for this area developedby A.V. Kidder in the 1920s. In thesouthern Little Colorado, including theUpper Little Colorado and Forestdaleregions, pre-A.D. 1000 sites areunderstood within the Mogollonframework. The area around Flagstaffsouth to the Mogollon Rim is classifiedas Sinagua, an archaeological culturethat also contributed to the WesternPueblo identity.

Anasazi or Ancestral Pueblo

The Pueblo period in the northernSouthwest typically is viewed as aperiod of dramatic change. Researchersgenerally agree this period was markedby minor droughts across the ColoradoPlateau, accentuating the risksassociated with dependence ondomesticated crops. Notabledevelopments early in the Pueblosequence include: (1) increased relianceon maize horticulture, (2) widespreadadoption of ceramic technology and thedevelopment of regional pottery styles,(3) the introduction of the bow andarrow and concomitant changes in

hunting strategies, and (4) morecomplex architecture, including atransition from pit structure habitationto aboveground masonry rooms. Anincreased emphasis on stored resourcesalso is apparent. Early Pueblo(Basketmaker II and III) populationscontinued to use the atlatl, basketry,basin grinding slabs, and cobble manosand exploited wild plants and animalfoods. Utilitarian pottery was gray incolor and serving vessels (bowls andjars) typically had black painteddesigns on a gray or white-slippedbackground. Viewed together, thesechanges point to increased sedentismbeginning sometime between A.D. 400and 800 across most of the northernSouthwest.

During the Pueblo I period (A.D. 700–900), environmental conditions in thenorthern southwest deterioratedsomewhat, resulting in subsistencestress for horticultural groups.Settlements generally increased in sizeduring the Pueblo I period, probablyreflecting overall population growth.Habitation began to shift fromsemisubterranean pit structures toabove-ground masonry rooms. Pitstructures were retained as kivas usedmainly for ceremonial purposes. Red-slipped pottery with black painteddesigns was introduced at this time.

The Pueblo II period (A.D. 900-1150),was a time of marked regionaldifferentiation. Other than the dramaticgreat houses of Chaco Canyon andelsewhere in the San Juan Basin (justnortheast of the Little Colorado area),Pueblo II settlements were somewhatsmaller and more dispersed thanpreviously. Masonry surface roomswere increasingly used for living spaceand kivas for ceremonial space.

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large, multistory pueblos wereconstructed in many areas of thenorthern Southwest. Around A.D.1130, severe drought affected portionsof the region, making some areas lessattractive. Populations left theselocalities and began consolidating inareas such as Mesa Verde in the FourCorners, Canyon de Chelly (justoutside the Little Colorado watershed),and the Zuni region. Notably, theChaco regional system, whichinfluenced much of the northernSouthwest, changed dramatically as thegreat houses were largely abandonedor altered in function.

The Pueblo III to Pueblo IV transition atabout A.D. 1300 witnessed a dramaticreorganization of the social landscape,including large scale migrations,widespread conflict, and thedevelopment of new religious systems.At this point former Anasazi andMogollon groups cannot bedistinguished from one another and areconsidered to be Ancestral Pueblo.

During the Pueblo IV period (A.D. 1300to ca. 1600), many portions of thenorthern southwest were essentiallyempty and other areas, including manylocalities of the Little Colorado area,were densely populated. Pueblosettlements became much larger overalland were typically oriented around oneor more plazas. A tradition of brightlycolored, polychrome pottery, much ofit decorated with glaze paint,developed along the Mogollon rim andspread north and east. Exchange ofcotton, pottery, obsidian, and otheritems was widespread. Many of theseitems were directly or indirectlyconnected to pan-Southwesternreligious traditions (the SouthwestRegional Religion or Kachina Religion)that emphasized rain, fertility, andsocial integration of diversepopulations.

Mogollon

The far southern portion of the LittleColorado watershed includes areastraditionally considered to be part ofthe Mogollon archaeological culture.Beginning around A.D. 200, during theMogollon Early Pithouse period (A.D.200-550, groups living in themountainous country of southeasternArizona and southwestern NewMexico began producing characteristicbrownware utilitarian pottery. Theyalso constructed pithouses andpracticed maize agriculture. EarlyMogollon settlements in easternArizona were on high, defensiblelandforms, and occupations were eitherseasonal or short term.

During the Late Pithouse period (A.D.550 to ca. A.D. 1000), there was achange from pithouses to above-ground, masonry or cobble pueblo-style dwellings. Mogollon pottersbegan producing red-slipped decoratedpottery in many areas and black-on-white pottery in other areas (notably,the Mimbres region). In easternArizona, later Mogollon settlementswere typically not much larger thanearlier Mogollon settlements, but werelocated on valley floors near potentialhorticultural lands. A few largersettlements probably served as centersfor more dispersed populations.During the 1200s, large pueblos appearin portions of the eastern ArizonaMogollon territory. Considerable influxof Anasazi populations probably beganaround this time, and by the 1300s theoccupied portions of the formerMogollon area are considered part ofthe larger Western Pueblo culture.

Sinagua

The area between the San FranciscoPeaks near present-day Flagstaff,



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Arizona, and the Verde Valley to thesouth was occupied, from around A.D.650 to 1300, by an archaeologicallydistinct group known as the Sinagua.The Sinagua area has been called a“frontier” in which diverse culturesintermingled. The northern Sinagua,around Flagstaff, initially constructedpithouse villages at the interfacesbetween piñon-juniper woodlands andponderosa forests, where they farmedand where they also hunted andgathered. Later, the northern Sinaguaestablished large, pueblo-style,masonry villages. The southernSinagua farmed on the fertile mesasalong the Mogollon rim.

Both the northern and southernSinagua groups had ties with theHohokam to the south, and thesouthern groups also interacted withKayenta populations. Some time afterabout A.D. 1300, the northern Sinagualeft the San Francisco Peaks area,forming villages in the Wupatki areaand joining groups at Anderson Mesato the southeast. Eventually thesegroups made their way to Hopi. Thesouthern Sinagua appear to havedirectly joined groups already living inthe Hopi area.

Historic Period Archaeology

For many, history in the Southwestbegins around A.D. 1540 with theSpanish entrada. The Native Peoples ofthe region show clear continuity acrossthis time period, and their oral historiesand traditions connect them directly tothe places of earlier times. They areoften closely connected to those placesand continue to use them in one formor another although they may appearto be abandoned. Present uses includereligious purposes, plant or otherresource gathering, and seasonaloccupation (such as Zuni farming

villages). Notably, many prehistoricsites and particular geographic areasoften figure prominently in migrationlegends and clan histories.

In addition to prehistoric and historicNative American archaeology, theLittle Colorado area contains the legacyof more recent groups that have cometo reside there. Early in the area’shistory, Hispanic settlers ranched andfarmed in the area. Mormon pioneersfollowed, and today many LittleColorado towns reflect a strongHispanic or Mormon heritage.Railroading, mining, and commercialranching were and continue to be majoreconomic activities that have each leftrespective material traces. Historicarchaeological remains in the LittleColorado area thus consist of theremains of homesteads, ranches, forts,trading posts, hotels, mining towns,schools, cemeteries, railroads, andother historic structures and features.Some of these are listed on State orNational registers of historicproperties, but many currently lacksuch formal recognition.

Little Colorado Heritage AreaSubareas

Since the Little Colorado watershedincludes a wide range of archaeologicalresources attributed to differentarchaeological cultures, regions, andtime periods, the following sectionsprovide summaries for smaller,individual subareas. These subareashave both geographical andarchaeological meaning. Identifiedsubareas and localities are alsoidentified on a master map (to becreated), and individual sites arebulleted in the chapter on keyresources. Of necessity, each sectionhighlights but a sample of the diversearchaeological sites in each area. Note



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that sites believed to be especiallysensitive (i.e., to have particularreligious or other cultural significancethat is not appropriate for generalknowledge) are not discussed here, norare they listed in the table or plotted onthe map.

Hopi Area (Including Hopi Mesasand Southeastern Kayenta)

The Little Colorado watershed includesthe Hopi Mesas and the Black Mesaarea of the Kayenta region. TheKayenta region is largely outside of thedefined Little Colorado watershed, andincludes such well-knownarchaeological areas as MonumentValley and Tsegi Canyon (NavajoNational Monument). As discussedabove, Black Mesa is notable for itsArchaic and early Pueblo occupation.Valley View Ruin, for example, is alarge Pueblo I hamlet located on themesa rim.

Archaeologists generally consider theHopi area to include the prominentHopi Mesas, the Hopi Buttes to thesoutheast along Cottonwood Wash,and the Moenkopi area to thenorthwest. The area is perhaps bestknown for its Pueblo IV and historicoccupation. The Hopi Mesas (fromnorthwest to southeast: Third Mesa,Second Mesa, First Mesa, and AntelopeMesa) actually are southwesterlyextensions of Black Mesa. A populationboom on the mesas apparentlyoccurred during the late 1200s, when atleast 14 large settlements wereestablished here. These were relativelylarge, with at least 100 rooms. The twolargest villages, Oraibi and Awatovi,had 500 to 800 rooms, respectively.Many of the Pueblo IV villages wereinhabited through the Spanish colonialperiod, and four remain occupiedtoday.

Sinagua Area (Including FlagstaffArea and Anderson Mesa)

Numerous archaeological sites, manyof which are within three NationalMonuments in the vicinity of Flagstaff,Arizona, are attributed to the Sinaguaculture. Sunset Crater NationalMonument, which contains thenamesake volcano that erupteddramatically for a relatively briefinterval between A.D. 1050 and 1100,was home to Sinagua farmers. In theaftermath of its eruptions, the SunsetCrater area was no longer farmable,causing local populations to move tovillages in nearby Walnut Canyon andWupatki. Here, thinner layers of ashand cinders actually made agriculturallands more productive. WupatkiNational Monument contains theremains of Wupatki, Wukoki, Citadel,Lomaki, and nearly 3,000 other sitesranging from Archaic times throughthe late 1200s. Wupatki Pueblo itselfhas produced several interesting items,including turquoise and shell jewelry,copper bells, and a buried parrotskeleton, indicating its occupants wereconnected to an extensive tradingnetwork. The monument also includesnumerous petroglyphs. Walnut CanyonNational Monument is just east ofFlagstaff along Walnut Creek. Includedin the monument are numerous well-known Sinagua cliff dwellingsoccupied between about A.D. 1150 and1225. Also present are many pueblo-style masonry dwellings on the canyonrim. Because they are less visible, thesesites have escaped much of the lootingthat devastated the cliff dwellings priorto the monument’s establishment in1915.

On the northeast edge of Flagstaff isElden Pueblo, a 60-70 room Sinaguapueblo dating from about A.D. 1100 to1250. The pueblo is notable not onlybecause it appears to have been an



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important regional trade center duringits heyday, but also because it has beenidentified as a key ancestral Hopivillage. As discussed later in thischapter, public archaeology andcollaboration by many individuals andorganizations have contributed to theexcavation and interpretation of thissite. Also on the outskirts of Flagstaff isthe Sinagua petroglyph panel in BuffaloPark, which is accessible to the manyvisitors that use this area for outdoorrecreation.

The Anderson Mesa area is southwestof the Little Colorado River, betweenmodern-day Sedona on the west,Flagstaff on the northwest, Winslow onthe east, and the Mogollon Rim to thesouth. With the exception of recentwork by Wesley Bernardini and earlierexcavations at Nuvakwewtaqu (ChavezPass) by archaeologists from ArizonaState University, this area remainssomewhat understudied. Typicallyclassified as Sinagua, Anderson Mesaactually is a transition zone betweenAnasazi groups to the north, Mogollongroups to the east, and Salado groupsto the south. Several large villages wereconstructed and occupied in this areaduring the Pueblo III and Pueblo IVperiods, including the extensive, multi-roomblock Nuvakwewtaqu as well asthe loosely clustered Grapevinecomplex.

Both the Anderson Mesa andHomol’ovi areas (the latter discussedbelow under “Middle Little Colorado”)are likely sources for immigrants toHopi in late prehistory. Villages inthese two regions figure prominently inHopi migration traditions, with morethan two dozen Hopi clans tracing theirancestral migrations from southernArizona through Anderson Mesa andHomol’ovi on their routes northtoward the Hopi Mesas. Both areas alsohave archaeological evidence for

intense fourteenth century interactionwith Hopi Mesa villages, basedprimarily on the abundance ofdistinctive Jeddito Yellow Ware potteryin site assemblages. Jeddito YellowWare was made only on the HopiMesas, so it must have been traded toAnderson Mesa and Homol’ovi sites.Both regions were largely vacated bythe late 1300s, coinciding withpopulation increases on the HopiMesas.

Middle Little Colorado Area andRio Puerco of the West

The Middle Little Colorado area iscentered on the confluence of the LittleColorado River and Cottonwood Wash,including the towns of Winslow andHolbrook, Arizona. Included in thisarea is the Rio Puerco of the West,which begins just east of Gallup andflows west to join the Little Coloradonear Holbrook. North of Winslow is theHomol’ovi settlement clustercomprised of Homol’ovi I, II, III, IV,Cottonwood, and Chevelon.Researchers from the Arizona StateMuseum at the University of Arizonahave spent decades excavating andinterpreting these large, late Pueblo IIIand Pueblo IV villages that had strongties to villages on the Hopi mesas. Infact, Homol’ovi is a Hopi word for“place of the low hills or mounds.”Cotton production for exchange waslikely a key economic activity at theHomol’ovi villages. Within Homol’oviRuins State Park, established in 1986,are the Homol’ovi sites I-IV, as well asmore than 300 additionalarchaeological sites of various kinds.Homol’ovi I and Homol’ovi II are opento the public. Exhibits at the parkvisitor center interpret the area’ssignificance, and a podcast audio touris available on the Center for DesertArchaeology’s website.



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Petrified Forest National Park coversover 90,000 acres on the north andsouth sides of the Rio Puerco east ofHolbrook. The northern park portionincludes the Painted Desert, while thesouth park portion is known for itsabundance of petrified wood. The parkcontains over 650 known archaeologicalsites, the oldest of which, FlattopVillage, predates A.D. 500. This site,probably a summer residence forBasketmaker people, contains 25 slab-lined pithouses. Agate House, occupiedfrom about A.D. 1100-1250, is one ofmany buildings in the park constructedentirely of petrified wood. It wasreconstructed to its currentconfiguration in the 1930s. Thethirteenth- and fourteenth-centuryPuerco Ruin, a 125-room pueblo, is thelargest site within the park. It has beenpartially excavated and stabilized.Associated with this village are a largegroup of petroglyphs that are argued tocontain an archaeoastronomical featurethat marks the summer solstice.Additional petroglyphs are presentthroughout the park, perhaps mostnotably at Newspaper Rock, a hugeboulder containing hundreds ofpetroglyphs spanning the elevenththrough fourteenth centuries A.D.Additional sites and petroglyphs,including the petroglyph site at theHidden Cove Golf Course in Holbrook,can also be found in the surroundingarea.

Several important historic archaeologysites also occur in the Middle LittleColorado subarea. The first, BrighamCity, is a restored fort first built byMormon pioneers in 1876. The fort’swalls, which later were moved to thegrounds of the La Posada Hotel inWinslow, enclosed settlers’ homes. Thissmall settlement only lasted five yearsdue to repeated flooding of the riverthat destroyed crops. A second historicsite important in Mormon history is the

historic Sunset Cemetery withinHomol’ovi State Park.

Silver Creek Area

The Silver Creek area, extending southof the Little Colorado River alongSilver Creek, includes the modern-daytowns of Snowflake/Taylor, Showlow,and Pinetop/Lakeside. The area isbounded on the south by the MogollonRim, where Silver Creek has itsheadwaters, flowing north to join theLittle Colorado. Archaeologicalremains in this area are classified asMogollon and, later, as WesternPueblo. Sites post-dating A.D. 1000 arebest known and have been the focus ofmost archaeological investigations.During the tenth and eleventh centuriesthe Silver Creek received immigrantsfrom a number of Ancestral Puebloareas, who founded small villages.Population grew, and many villagesdating to the eleventh and twelfthcenturies have circular great kivassimilar to earlier great kivas found atChaco Canyon and elsewhere in thenorthern southwest. During thethirteenth and fourteenth centuries,local groups aggregated into large,plaza-oriented pueblos much like otherportions of the northern Southwest.

The Silver Creek area figuresprominently in the history ofSouthwest archaeology. In 1929,researchers from the NationalGeographic Society’s Third BeamExpedition, including well-knownarchaeologist Emil Haury, recovered atree-ring sample from the ShowlowRuin that made it possible to link theprehistoric and historic tree-ringchronologies established by A.E.Douglass. Thus, many sites in theSouthwest could now be preciselydated to within a few decades. Hauryalso excavated at Showlow and



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Pinedale Ruins. Archaeologists fromthe Field Museum of Chicagoexcavated several sites, includingCarter Ranch and Broken K Pueblo, inthe Hay Hollow Valley just east ofSilver Creek and to the west of SilverCreek, the Chevelon ArchaeologicalResearch Project conducted survey andexcavations.

Most recently, researchers from theUniversity of Arizona have spent overa decade excavating and interpretingSilver Creek sites spanning the elevenththrough fourteenth centuries, includingthree great kiva sites, a ca. 50-room latePueblo III site, and the large,aggregated early Pueblo IV periodBailey Ruin.

Upper Little Colorado Area

The Upper Little Colorado areaincludes the upper portion of the LittleColorado River drainage and itstributaries, from the headwaters in theWhite Mountains south ofSpringerville, Arizona to the confluencewith the Zuni River northwest of St.Johns, Arizona. As discussed above,Paleoindian artifacts found near St.Johns attest to the very longoccupational history of this area.Basketmaker period pithousesettlements are found throughout theregion, as are small masonry structuresdating to the tenth and eleventhcenturies. There are several Chaco-period great houses along the UpperLittle Colorado, including GarciaRanch northeast of St. Johns near theNew Mexico border and Cox RanchPueblo near Fence Lake and Quemado,which researchers from WashingtonState University have recentlyinvestigated.

Several well-known Pueblo III andPueblo IV period sites are along the

Upper Little Colorado River properbetween Springerville and St. Johns.Situated on the terraces of crumblingbasalt cliff just outside Springerville,Casa Malpais incorporates bothrelatively early Mogollon and laterWestern Pueblo features. The Centerfor Desert Archaeology, the SalmonRuins Museum, and the town ofSpringerville recently partnered in anemergency stabilization program forthis unique basalt-masonry site of CasaMalpais. The site is accessed via guidedtours from the Casa Malpais VisitorCenter and Museum, where visitorscan view exhibits about the site. LymanLake State Park near St. Johns containshundreds of archaeological sites andpetroglyphs, including RattlesnakePoint Pueblo and Baca Pueblo, whichwere investigated by Arizona StateUniversity in the 1990s.

Sherwood Ranch Pueblo (formerlyknown as the Raven Ruin) is north ofSpringerville. From the mid 1980’s tomid 1990’s, this site was excavated by agroup known as the White MountainArchaeological Research Center(WMARC). WMARC offeredarchaeological research vacations thatallowed the public to participate inarchaeological excavations.Unfortunately, the records from theseexcavations have not been published,and the location of excavated artifactsis presently unknown. In 2002, thesite’s owners terminated their leaseagreements with WMARC and the sitewas donated to the ArchaeologicalConservancy, which sponsored aprogram of architecturaldocumentation and mapping. In 2003,Sherwood Ranch Pueblo was fullydocumented and backfilled to ensurethe stabilization and long termpreservation of exposed archaeologicalfeatures. The site was listed on theNational Register of Historic Places in2005.

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Zuni/Cibola Area

The Zuni/Cibola area of east centralArizona and west central New Mexicoincludes the Zuni River drainage, all ofthe present-day Zuni Reservation, theEl Morro Valley to the east of thereservation, and the Jaralosa Draw andQuemado areas south of thereservation. During the Chaco period,much of the Zuni region populationlived in small pueblos of 10 to 20rooms. Some room blocks weredispersed and others were looselyclustered in what appear to becommunities, the best known of whichis probably the Village of the GreatKivas. During the post-Chacoan period(A.D. 1150-1250), larger aggregatedvillages of 500-plus rooms appeared.These often had multiple room blocksfocused around great houses andoversized, apparently unroofed, greatkivas. One of these is the Los Gigantescommunity in the El Morro Valley,which was recently investigated byarchaeologists from Arizona StateUniversity.

The large, apartment-like nucleatedvillages of the Pueblo IV period areperhaps the most archaeologicallyvisible sites in the Zuni area. Theyinclude the pueblos of Atsinna andNorth Atsinna that are open to thepublic at El Morro NationalMonument. In the vicinity of themonument, to the west on the Zunireservation, and to the south towardQuemado are many more nucleatedpueblos that are less accessible. Manyof these are on private or Zuni triballand. Several have been investigated byarchaeologists from institutions asdiverse as Washington University in St.Louis, Wake Forest University,Columbia University/Barnard College,and Arizona State University.Beginning around A.D. 1400, theeastern and southernmost portions of

the Zuni region were abandoned andthe entire regional population becameconcentrated into nine villages alongthe Zuni river, many of which wereoccupied into the historic period.Modern-day Zuni pueblo is one suchvillage.

DISTINCTIVENESS OF THEME

The archaeology theme, with itsprimary focus on Native Americansites, is unique to heritage areas.Archaeology and living NativeAmerican cultures are majorcomponents of the Little Colorado areaand provide a source of connectionwith the past for local and tourist alike.The Little Colorado area is home tovibrant Native American cultures withdeep roots and continued connectionsto the area. The area also has a richhistorical record reflected in numeroushistoric archaeology sites. The heritagearea would protect valuablearchaeological resources and ensuretheir continued relevance to today’sdiverse communities.

RELATED RESOURCES

A number of archaeological sites, parksand monuments, museums, privateorganizations, and events are open tothe public. These are too numerous todiscuss in detail and the followingdiscussion highlights a small sample ofwhat is available. The Little Coloradoarea is home to a total of six NationalParks, National Monuments, and StateParks. In addition to state parks andmonuments within the watershed arefour significant areas—Canyon deChelly National Monument, ChacoCanyon National Park, Grand CanyonNational Park, and Navajo NationalMonument—immediately outside itsboundaries.

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The Museum of Northern Arizona inFlagstaff houses extensive collectionsand also interprets the archaeology andhistory of the northern southwest. TheMuseum’s annual Indian and Spanishshows attract thousands of artists andvisitors. Also in Flagstaff, currentarchaeological work at Elden Pueblo,led by Coconino National Forestarchaeologist Peter Pilles, is acooperative effort among volunteersfrom the Museum of Northern Arizonaand the Arizona ArchaeologicalSociety, as well the Arizona NaturalHistory Association, the Hopi CulturalPreservation Office, and the generalpublic. This project is featured as an“Interactive Dig” by ArchaeologyMagazine.

Several privately owned organizationsprovide controlled access toarchaeological sites. Among these is theRock Art Ranch, located on an oldcattle ranch with numerouspetroglyphs in an isolated canyon.

Arizona’s three state universities,Arizona State University, NorthernArizona University, and the Universityof Arizona, have long been involved inarchaeological research, publication,and public outreach in the LittleColorado area. Notable projects includethe U of A’s investigations atHomol’ovi Pueblo and the Silver Creekarea, as well as ASU’s multiple projectsin the Zuni region and El Morro Valley.The Little Colorado area has alsoattracted researchers from institutionsas far away as Washington StateUniversity and Wake Forest University,to name but a few.

Finally, appreciation and protection ofarchaeological sites is achieved at thelocal level through a network of trainedsite stewards, avocational andprofessional groups, preservation andconservation organizations such as the

Archaeological Conservancy, and localcommunity members. Many tribalgovernments have also establishedcultural preservation offices thatconduct and oversee archaeologicalinvestigations and historic preservationon tribal lands.

RELATED RESOURCES LIST(Native Nations and Archaeology)

26 Bar Ranch, Eagar: Now owned bythe Hopi tribe, the ranch previouslybelonged to John Wayne. Petroglyphsand other archaeological sites are onthe property. The ranch alsoparticipates in Valle Redondo Daysover Memorial Day Weekend, afestival celebrating John Wayne andthe local area in general. The ranchhosts Hopi dance performances opento the public.

Archaeological Conservancy,Albuquerque: The ArchaeologicalConservancy works with willinglandowners to study and preservearchaeological sites on their property.The Conservancy owns nine sites inthe Little Colorado River watershed.

Arizona Archaeological Society(AAS): A statewide organizationwith local chapters, including three inthe Little Colorado River watershed,the Society promotes theunderstanding, respect, andprotection of archaeological sites forprofessional and avocationalarchaeologists alike.

Arizona and New Mexico SiteSteward Programs: Volunteers aretrained to visit sites and evaluate andreport any damage, whether causedby vandalism or natural forces.Regular monitoring helps reduce theseverity of impacts and aids in thelong-term preservation of the site.



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A:shiwi A:wan Museum andHeritage Center, Zuni: The museumfeatures a beautiful mural depictingthe Zuni story of emergence into theFourth World as well as otherdisplays of art, history, culture, andthe difficulty the tribe hasexperienced in being the subject ofintense anthropological study.

Black Mesa Trust, Kykotsmovi

Brigham City, Winslow: The site ofan early Mormon settlement from the1870s, it has been the subject of recentarchaeological studies and plans arein place for its restoration.

Casa Malpais site and museum,Springerville: Casa Malpais is anancestral Puebloan site built at theedge of a lava flow a few hundredyards from the Little Colorado River.It is important to both the Hopi andZuni Tribes and is also well-knownand cared for by local residents.

Cottonwood Creek and Chevelonruins: Part of the ancestral HopiHomol’ovi settlement cluster alongthe Middle Little Colorado nearWinslow, Cottonwood Creek andChevelon ruins are on opposite sidesof the river. Chevelon is the larger ofthe two, with up to 500 rooms andseveral plazas. Cottonwood Creekhas about 120 rooms. Both puebloswere occupied from the late 13th tothe late 14th century A.D.

Cox Ranch Pueblo: Cox RanchPueblo near Fence Lake is one of thesouthernmost settlements linked tothe Chacoan regional system. Thecomplex, which has recently been thesubject of excavations by WashingtonState University personnel, has a 50-room Chaco style great housesurrounded by 18 smaller residentialroom blocks.

El Morro National Monument: ElMorro contains many ancientpetroglyphs as well as pueblo ruinsatop its sandstone bluff.

Elden Pueblo, Flagstaff: This pueblowas inhabited from about A.D. 1070to 1275. Since 1978, the ArizonaNatural History Association andprofessional archaeologists have ledsummer sessions in which school-aged children and members of thepublic can participate in excavationsand learn the science of archaeologyand about ancient cultures in ahands-on way.

Explore Navajo Interactive Museum,Tuba City: This new, state-of-the-artmuseum allows visitors to exploreland, language, history, culture, andceremonies of the Navajo people. Thedesign of the museum reflects Navajoworldview by having visitors travelthrough the exhibits from east tosouth to west to north (mimicking thepath of the sun) and by alsoemphasizing the number “four,”which is a foundational concept (fourseasons, four directions, etc.) inNavajo thought.

Fort Defiance, Fort DefianceChapter: This was the first militaryoutpost (1851) in Arizona Territorythe U.S. Army established in anattempt to control Navajos. KitCarson drove people from theirhomes to here, and then continueddriving them on to Ft. Sumner wherethey spent four years incarcerated.This journey is known as The LongWalk. Ft. Defiance became the firstagency when the Navajo Reservationwas established in 1868 and was thesite of distribution of over 13,000sheep and 1,000 goats to Navajofamilies as they resettled in theirlands after the ordeal at Ft. Sumner.Those sheep and goats form a large



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basis of the present herds peoplekeep today.

Hay Hollow Valley: The Hay HollowValley, just east of Snowflake,contains the remains of Broken K andCarter Ranch pueblos. Archaeologistsfrom Chicago’s Field Museumexcavated at Broken K Pueblo in the1960s. This roughly 100-roomMogollon residence dates from aboutA.D. 1150 to 1280.

Homol’ovi Ruins State Park: Fourmajor pueblos and a section of theLittle Colorado River comprise thisState Park. A recent Memorandum ofUnderstanding between ArizonaState Parks and the Hopi Tribe hasresulted in significant Hopi influencein Park operations and programming.The annual event, Suvoyuki Day,features traditional dances, foods,specially-guided archaeologicaltours, and art demonstrations.

Hooper Ranch and Danson pueblos:Located along the Upper LittleColorado River north of CasaMalpais, these ancient Pueblo siteswere occupied from the late 13th

through the late 14th centuries.Danson is atop a steep knoll and hasabout 25 rooms. Hooper Ranch issomewhat larger, at 60 rooms, and isonly a few hundred meters south ofDanson.

Hopi Cultural Center andRestaurant, Second Mesa: TheCultural Center and Restaurant are amain stop for visitors to Hopi. Therestaurant offers traditional Hopidishes and some of the 12 villagesoperate gift shops in the adjoiningcomplex that feature a variety ofHopi and other tribal arts and crafts.

Hubbell Trading Post NationalHistoric Site, Ganado: John Lorenzo

Hubbell began trading at this site in1878. He and his descendentsoperated the post until it was sold tothe National Park Service in 1967.The Hubbell Trading Post is still anactive trading post, hosts twoauctions of Native American artsevery year, and is in the process ofrestoring gardens and livestock herdsthat would have been present duringJ.L. Hubbell’s time.

Inscription Rock Trading Post, Rte.53 near Ramah: A modern-day“trading post,” Inscription Rockfeatures the work of artists fromnearby Zuni and Navajo as well asfrom around the world.

Inter-Tribal Indian Ceremonial,Gallup: The Ceremonial, heldannually since 1922, is the largestNative-related event in NorthAmerica. It started as a tribute toNative Americans in the Gallupvicinity but now attracts tribes fromacross the continent. It features fourdays of juried art shows, rodeos,night dances, parades, Native foods,queen contests, fashion shows,footraces, and more.

KUYI Hopi Radio: KUYI, Hopiowned and operated, beganbroadcasting in 2000 and currentlyreaches Flagstaff, Winslow, TubaCity, and the I-40 corridor in additionto the Hopi Reservation. Itsprogramming features a mix oftraditional Hopi music,contemporary Native music fromHopi and other tribes, as well as localand regional news and someNational Public Radio programming.Interestingly, “kuyi” in the Hopilanguage means water, and water isconsidered the source of all life.

Leupp Chapter: Leupp containsseveral interesting historic and



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modern-day places including atrading post, remnants of a WWIIJapanese Internment Camp, IndianSchool, and the North Leupp FamilyFarms. The Farms are an effort ofapproximately 40 families to restorenative crops and farming traditionsas a means of transmitted Navajoculture to youth and to encourage ahealthier diet and lifestyle.

Lyman Lake State Park: The lakeitself was created by a Mormon damon the Little Colorado River andserved early Mormon settlements inthe vicinity. The Mormons were notthe first to recognize the quality ofthe area, however. Native Americanslived there for many centuries before,building several pueblos and carvinghundreds of petroglyphs intoboulders surrounding what was thenthe river banks.

Museum of Northern Arizona(MNA), Flagstaff: Founded in 1928,the museum has a long history ofpromoting Native cultures and arts.Its three annual Native arts shows(one each for Hopi, Navajo, andZuni) draw visitors from around thecountry and around the world. Theoldest, the Hopi Show, is celebratingits 75th year in 2008. The permanentcollection of MNA contains manyNative art pieces. The museum alsosponsors periodic cultural trips to thereservations where participants canlearn from Native guides.

Native American Appreciation Day,Gallup: Started by trader EllisTanner in recognition of the immenseimpact Native Americans have on theGallup economy, the event is nowsponsored by the City of Gallup anda number of local organizations andbusinesses in addition to Tanner’s.The event draws 10,000 people onaverage (Gallup’s total population is

approximately 20,000) and featuresfootraces, song and dancecompetitions, and a free barbeque.

Natwani Coalition (NatwaniTu’sawyaqam), Kykotsmovi: Anaffiliation of organizations andinstitutions dedicated to preservingand restoring the local food systemon Hopi.

Navajo Nation ArchaeologyDepartment, Flagstaff and WindowRock: The Navajo NationArchaeology Department serves theNavajo Nation in a number of ways.It provides survey, archaeologicalresearch services, and culturalconsultation for public projects, suchas road construction, on thereservation, provides the sameservices for families working withhomesite leases, and also provideshands-on experience for youngNavajo archaeologists in training.The Department conducts its work ina manner that is scientificallyrespected but also consistent withcultural values.

Navajo Nation Fair, Window Rock:The Navajo Nation Fair began in 1938for the encouragement of livestockimprovements and managementthrough exhibits and demonstrations.Seventy years later, the mission of theFair is “to preserve and promotepride in the Navajo heritage andculture for the benefit of the NavajoNation.” It is a world-renownedevent that showcases Navajoagriculture, fine arts and crafts, andmuch more. It is the largest AmericanIndian fair and rodeo.

Navajo Nation Museum and NavajoNation Zoo and Botanical Park,Window Rock: The Navajo Nation isthe only United States tribe to ownand operate its own zoo. Most of the



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animals of the zoo are native to theNavajo Reservation and the zooreflects the importance these animalshave in the culture. Adjacent to theZoo and Botanical Park is the NavajoNation Museum, which has exhibits,a book and gift shop, and programsabout the Navajo people.

Northern Arizona UniversityAnthropology Department,Flagstaff: The Department isrecognized for its training of highlyskilled and capable archaeologists aswell as for its cooperativerelationships with Native Americans,particularly the Hopi and NavajoTribes.

Northern Arizona UniversityStudent Powwow: Sponsored by theNative American United studentorganization, this powwow featuresarts and crafts as well asperformances.

Nuvakwewtaqa (Chavez Pass)Pueblo, Anderson Mesa: Located onAnderson Mesa southwest ofWinslow, Nuvakwewtaqa is a largesite complex with three main pueblosand several smaller room blocks andother features. This Sinaguaresidence was occupied from theearly 13th to the late 14th centuriesA.D., and is considered ancestral tothe Hopi.

Our Lady of Guadalupe Mission,Zuni: Inside this 17th century churchare two contemporary murals byZuni artist Alex Seowtewa featuringthe summer and winter pantheon ofZuni kachinas. It provides aninteresting and thought-provokingmix of the religion of two cultures.

Paatuwaqatsi Run, Polacca:Translated from the Hopi,Paatuwaqatsi Run means “Water Is

Life Run” in English. Organized in2003, the event now attracts over 200participants to run an approximately30-mile course up and down theHopi Mesas. In the Hopi perspective,trail running renews the earth bykeeping the pathways of water openand the villages alive. The focus ofthe run is to build community spiritand reinforce cultural values of waterand running. The run is open toHopis and non-Hopis alike.

Petrified Forest National Park: Thepart contains significant pueblo,petroglyph, and other ancient sitesthat indicate more than 10,000 yearsof human history in addition to itsimpressive geologic andpaleontologic resources.

Picture Canyon, Flagstaff: Thistucked-away site on the east side ofFlagstaff has hundreds ofpetroglyphs on the boulders that linethe creek bed. Coconino CountySupervisors and local citizens areexploring ways to officially protectthe site.

Plateau Sciences Society, Gallup:This organization sponsors trips,lectures, and additional programsthat encourage a greaterunderstanding of past and presentNative cultures and of the ColoradoPlateau as a whole.

Ramah Navajo Weavers Associaton,Pine Hill: Weavers belonging to theAssociation use handspun andnaturally dyed wool from locallyraised Churro sheep. The workshop,located in a hogan, is open to visitorsseasonally.

Rock Art Ranch, Winslow: Rock ArtRanch is a privately owned workingcattle ranch that includes a portion ofChevelon Canyon. The Canyon



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contains significant petroglyphs andthe site is listed on the NationalRegister of Historic Places.

Rudd Creek Pueblo: Located withinthe Sipe White Mountain WildlifeArea near Springerville and Eager,Rudd Creek Pueblo is a 50-roomancestral Pueblo village that wasoccupied during the early to mid-1200s. The visitor center offers anexhibit based, in part, on ArizonaState University’s excavations at thesite, which can be seen on the RuddCreek Trail. Petroglyphs are commonalong rock outcrops in the area.

San Francisco Peaks: Thesemountains feature prominently in thereligious beliefs of 13 tribes,including the Navajo, Hopi, Zuni,and White Mountain Apache.Pilgrimages are still made to variousshrines on the mountains themselvesand culturally important plants arecollected for ceremonies.

Sherwood Ranch Pueblo,Springerville: This ancestralPuebloan site, numbering at least 800rooms, is one of many along the LittleColorado River near its headwatersin the White Mountains.

Silver Creek area sites: The SilverCreek drainage, with its headwaterson the Mogollon Rim, containsseveral important pueblos that havebeen investigated beginning in theearly 1900s by such well-knownarchaeologists as Leslie Spier, JessieWalter Fewkes, Emil Haury, andBarbara Mills. Many pueblos (such asFourmile, Shumway, and Pinedaleruins) have been heavily impacted byconstruction or pothunting. Multipleindividuals and institutions arepresently involved in efforts topreserve remaining intact portions ofthese sites. Other pueblos, such as

Bailey Ruin, are well-preserved.These pueblos date largely to the late1200s and 1300s.

St. Michael’s Museum and CatholicChurch and School, St. Michael’sChapter: Mother Katherine Drexel,founder of the Sisters of the BlessedSacrament Order whose specificfocus was to serve American Indians,worked with Franciscan priests toestablish a church and school in thislocation. The school was completedin 1902 and remains the only CatholicSchool in the Navajo Nation. Themuseum is an excellent source forinsight into early 20th century Navajolife and culture.

Sunset Crater Volcano NationalMonument :People lived in thevicinity for several hundred years, ata minimum, before an eruptioncaused the creation of Sunset Cratersometime between 1050 and 1100.Pithouses have been found burnedand filled with cinders, but thus farthere is no evidence of people dyingfrom the eruption. One of the moreinteresting archaeological artifactsdiscovered in the region are theoccasional rocks of lava that cooledagainst a corncob which left adistinctive impression on one side.People left the immediate area afterthe eruption and likely settled nearbyat what are now Walnut Canyon andWupatki National Monuments.

Trading Posts: At one time, morethan 50 trading posts operated inNative communities throughout theLittle Colorado River watershed.Their economic and social impact onthe lives of Native families has left alasting legacy. A number of tradingposts, often operated by third andfourth generation trading families,remain today while others, such asthe Bidahochee Trading Post in

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Indian Wells Chapter, are currentlybeing restored and converted intomodern cultural and arts educationcenters.

Tribal Cultural Preservation Offices(Navajo, Hopi, and Zuni): The tribalcultural preservation offices consulton construction and other projectsthat may affect resources importantto their respective tribes, on or off thereservations, and also serve as aresource for all types of culturalmatters, research, education, andpromotion.

Walnut Canyon NationalMonument: Evidence of people inthe canyon, at least on a temporarybasis, dates back several thousandyears. Permanent inhabitation datesfrom about 600 to 1400. The people,usually considered to be Sinagua (anancestral Pueblo culture) had small-scale farms of corn, beans, andsquash.

Wupatki National Monument: TheMonument consists of several puebloclusters with Wupatki, Wukoki, andLomaki being three of the mostprominent. The site was inhabitedless than 800 years ago and isconsidered by the Hopi to be one ofthe last places several of the clanslived before their migrations broughtthem to the Hopi Mesas. Theeruption of Sunset Crater Volcanobefore settlement at Wupatki began

probably made the land morehospitable for farming than itappears today due to the ability ofthin layers of ash to retain moisturein soil. Wupatki must have been awealthy and successful communityfor many trade goods from greatdistances have been found. Theseinclude shell jewelry and copper bellsfrom Mexico as well as more than 40macaws from Mesoamerica. Wupatkialso has what is generally consideredto be the northern-most ball court, aform of architecture typicallyassociated with Mesoamericancultures.

Zuni McKinley County Fair, Zuni: Acounty fair with a Native Americanflare, this event, held at the Zuni FairGrounds, features several traditionalNative dance groups, Jr. Miss andMiss Zuni Talent Night, and rodeos.

Zuni Area Pueblos: The ancestralZuni pueblos of Village of the GreatKivas and Hawikku are but two ofmany significant archaeological sitesnear present-day Zuni Pueblo.Chaco-era Village of the Great Kivasis well known for its impressivepetroglyphs and pictographs.Hawikku is the larges of the historic“Cities of Cibola.” It was visited byCoronado’s expedition in A.D. 1540.Both sites are listed on the StateRegister of Cultural Properties andthe National Register of HistoricPlaces.

PRIMARY REFERENCES

Adams, E. Charles, and Andrew I. Duff (editors) 2004 The Protohistoric Pueblo World, A.D. 1275-1600. University of Arizona Press,

Tucson.

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Adler, Michael A. (editor) 1996 The Prehistoric Pueblo World, A.D. 1150-1350. University of Arizona Press,

Tucson.

Bernardini, Wesley 2005 Hopi Oral Tradition the Archaeology of Identity. University of Arizona Press,

Tucson.

Cordell, Linda S. 1994 Ancient Pueblo Peoples. St. Remy Press, Montreal, and Smithsonian

Institution, Washington, D.C.

1997 Archaeology of the Southwest. 2nd ed. Academic Press, San Diego.

Duff, Andrew I. L. 2002 Western Pueblo Identities: Regional Interaction, Migration, and Transformation.

University of Arizona Press, Tucson.

Huckell, Bruce B. 1996 The Southwestern Archaic: Scale and Perception of Preceramic Hunter-

Gatherers. In Interpreting Southwestern Diversity: Underlying Principles andOverarching Patterns, edited by P. R. Fish and J. J. Reid, pp. 7-16.Anthropological Research Papers No. 48. Arizona State University, Tempe.

Mills, Barbara J., Sarah A. Herr, and Scott Van Keuren (editors) 1999 Living on the Edge of the Rim: Excavations and Analysis of the Silver Creek

Archaeological Research Project 1993-1998. Archaeological Series No. 192(1).Arizona State Museum, University of Arizona, Tucson.

Noble, David Grant 1991 Ancient Ruins of the Southwest: An Archaeological Guide. Northland

Publishing, Flagstaff, Arizona.


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