Lasers in our lives 50 years of impact

The information in this brochure is just a sample of the significant social andeconomic impact that lasers have had on our lives over the past 50 years.

Because of the collaborative nature of research many of the experiments,projects, R&D programmes, and applications that have led to the ubiquitousnature of lasers, have been joint efforts between research councils,academia and industry.

The Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC), through its CentralLaser Facility based at the Rutherford Appleton Laboratory (RAL), continuesto play a leading role in the development of lasers and operation of high-power laser facilities.

The Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) is also akey funder of laser research and technology in the UK.

This brochure was co-funded by STFC and EPSRC.

Project Manager: Connor Curtis, STFC

Design and layout: Ampersand Design

Production: STFC Media Services

Lasers in our lives 50 years of impact

Introduction

What are lasers?LightAmplification byStimulatedEmission ofRadiation

Lasers are concentratedbeams of electromagneticradiation (light) travelling ina particular direction.

The defining properties of laserlight are that the light waves arecoherent (all travelling in harmonywith one another) and that theyare usually of one wavelength,or colour.

By harnessing these properties in adevice that reflects light back andforth through a special material, itis possible to generate anamplified light source, or laser.

Such light can be concentrated intime and space to create trulyextreme conditions, or be used toprovide exquisite imaging andanalysis capability across a widerange of applications.

A brief historyThe conception of the laser traces back to a theory proposed byAlbert Einstein in 1917.

It was Einstein’s theoretical understanding of the interactions between lightand matter that paved the way for the first laser. However, it was not until1960 that the first working optical ruby laser was built by TheodoreMaiman. Over the past 50 years, the laser has evolved considerably, andmany new varieties have been developed. Due to their extreme versatility,lasers have become invaluable tools across a multitude of applications.

Where STFC fits into the pictureThe UK excels in research using andcreating high-power lasers.

STFC’s Central Laser Facility (CLF),sited at the Rutherford AppletonLaboratory has been at the forefrontof innovative laser technology andresearch for more than 30 years.

This brochure demonstrates the farreaching impacts that lasers have onour lives, and highlights some of thekey contributions made by STFC in thefield of laser research during the past30 years.

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Introduction

…from medicine tomanufacturing, fromcommunications tomeasurement, and fromresearch and analysis toentertainment. This isironic for a device thatwas initially described asa ‘solution looking for aproblem’. In fact, duringits first 50 years, thelaser has been nothingshort of revolutionary!We can only wonderwhat the next 50 yearswill bring.

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Why do we care about lasers?

Today, lasersimpact almostevery aspectof life…

Medicine and health

Only one year after itsinvention, the laser wasbeing applied in amedical procedure. Thishappened in December1961 at the Columbia-Presbyterian Hospital,where a ruby laser wasused to destroy an eyetumour. Today, lasers arecommonly employed inmost medical disciplines,including dermatology,dentistry, cardiology,neurosurgery and eyesurgery, because of theirability to deliver high-precision treatments,whilst remainingminimally invasive. Laser-based therapiesand diagnostic methodsrepresent an area of hugefuture potential.

➜ SEE PAGE 8

Defence andnational security

The world is on high alertfor potential terroristattacks, and security is ofhigh priority. Detectingexplosives andbiochemical hazards arejust a few examples ofhow lasers can strengthenour national security.

➜ SEE PAGE 6

Measurement and analysis

Measurement and analysishave been transformed bythe laser. Surveyors uselasers to mark out roadsand construction sites, themilitary use them todetermine the position oftargets and even NASAhas utilised lasers tomeasure the distance ofthe Moon from the Earth.

Laser analysis of chemicaland physical structureshas allowed factories tomanage quality controlefficiently. Lasertechniques have beenadopted by aluminium-manufacturing plants tomonitor accurately theproportion of constituentmetals in alloys. They alsoplay a crucial role in theinspection ofpharmaceuticals.

➜ SEE PAGE 4

factThe total number of laser patentsissued since itsinvention is well over 50,000

factEstimates suggest that the world marketfor lasers in 2007 alonewas worth more than

£4Bn!

Why do w

e care about lasers?

Energy

Lasers can generateextreme pressures andtemperatures, and so can beused to ignite nuclear fusion– the same process thatpowers our Sun.

Research into laser-drivenfusion is currentlyunderway and promises toaddress our increasingdemands for energy.

In addition, scientists areexploiting lasers in thedevelopment of solar cells.

➜ SEE PAGE 10

Communications

Long-distancetelecommunications andbroadband internet bothdepend on the transmissionof light pulses along opticalfibres. These light pulsesare both generated andrelayed via lasers. Thisrevolutionary method ofcommunication is replacingless efficient copper wire-based networks and is thefoundation of the internetand information age.

➜ SEE PAGE 12

Environment and climate

Climate change is one ofour most immediatechallenges. Deforestationand the burning of fossilfuels are the likely causesfor the increasedconcentrations ofgreenhouse gases in theEarth’s atmosphere.

Lasers can be used toanalyse the concentrationsof these gases and even tomonitor their effects onecosystems.

➜ SEE PAGE 14

Manufacturing

Lasers are employed acrossthe manufacturing industryas tools capable ofdelivering intense cuttingor welding power withhigh precision. Their abilityto manipulate andtransform materials makesthem ideal for theautomobile, computer andclothing industries – toname but a few. In fact, itis difficult to find a modernconsumer product that hasnot seen a laser during itsmanufacturing.

➜ SEE PAGE 16

Lasers in our lives50 years of impact

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Do lasers hold the key to unlocking the secrets of the Universe?

The very fabric of space and time continually undergoes subtle‘ripples’ that carry messages of astronomical events. Theseinclude the mergers of massive black holes, neutron stars andeven the aftermath of the Big Bang.

The ‘ripples’, or gravitational waves, were predicted almost a centuryago by Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity. Detecting and studyingthem will provide an entirely new way to observe and understandthe Universe.

The Laser Interferometer Space Antenna (LISA) experiment aims to dojust that. An ESA/NASA joint venture, LISA will consist of threeseparate, identical spacecraft flying in an equilateral trianglearrangement, with ‘laser arms’about 5 million kilometres long.Tiny changes in the relative lengthof these arms caused by gravitywaves will be measured byprecisely monitoring theseparation between eachspacecraft. From studying theshape and timing of these waves,the LISA research team will beable to infer information aboutthe astronomical systems thatemitted them, such as theirnature and evolution.

Measurement and analysis

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Measuring the distance to the Moon

Thanks to special mirrors left behind byApollo astronauts, the distance from theEarth to the Moon is known with aprecision of millimetres!

Laser light fired from the Earth is reflectedback by these mirrors (lunar retro-reflectors)and by accurately recording the time thelight takes to travel, the distance to theMoon can be determined.

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ent and analysisLasers in our lives50 years of impact

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Using lasers to measure gravity

As well as being able to generateextremely high temperatures, laserscan also be used to cool downatoms to temperatures closeto absolute zero (-273°C).

When laser cooling iscombined with anothertechnique called magneto-optical trapping, it is possible toproduce samples of trapped, slow-moving, neutral atoms that are close toabsolute zero.

Following research carried out by USphysicists, scientists at STFC are nowworking on a device that incorporates amagneto-optical trap into a systemcapable of measuring gravity to highaccuracy. By ‘dropping’ these cold atomsdown a vertical vacuum tube, precisegravitational measurements can be made.Such devices have potential applicationsin geophysics and in oil exploration.

Lasers in archaeometry and art

Non-invasive laser diagnostic techniques have been used toidentify, date and analyse ancient artefacts, rocks anddinosaur fossils.

Archaeologists have also applied laser-scanning techniques tosites such as Stonehenge (Wiltshire, UK), leading to thediscovery of lost ancient art.

In addition, lasers havebeen employed to scan

and survey ancient sites,allowing archaeologiststo generate 3-Dimages and visualisetheir excavationsduring its variousstages. Lasers are alsobeing increasinglyused in theexamination andconservation of paintings and artwork.

Detecting chemicals before it’s too late

A system capable of remotelyidentifying, quantifying andlocating the release of volatilechemicals would be invaluable forsecurity applications.

Gas-phase chemicals, like thevolatiles often emitted by explosives,possess unique spectral fingerprintsthat allow remote detection usingoptical techniques. A real-time stand-off detection system that exploitsthese fingerprints could provideimproved security at airports andother civil infrastructures, and evenon the battlefield.

STFC scientists and partners arecurrently investigating novel laser-based technologies for stand-offdetection. Using continuousfrequency-tuneable laser sources thatare extremely compact and optimisedfor chemical detection, the team isdeveloping novel instruments withunprecedented spatial resolution,chemical selectivity and compactness.

Seeing throughopaque bottles

Spatially Offset RamanSpectroscopy (SORS), is a new non-invasive spectroscopy techniquedeveloped at STFC’s ultrafast laserfacility. It can determine thecomposition of materials hiddenbehind or within other layers, suchas a liquid concealed in an opaquebottle or container.

The technique has been patented anddeveloped via a spin-out companycalled Cobalt Light Systems, whichseeks to exploit the technique’s wide-ranging potential applications. Theseinclude a new capability for detectinghidden explosives and illicit drugs, aswell as assessing the quality andauthenticity of medicines, andpotentially diagnosing bone diseasesand cancer non-invasively.

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Defence and national security

Defence and national security

Towards a new generation of computers

An experiment at STFC’s ISIS facilityexploits a laser to assist in providing aunique beam of very low- energy muons.These fundamental particles act as tinymagnets, probing the magnetic propertiesof target materials at the scale of ananometre (one billionth of a metre).

This research could help, for example, incharacterising semiconductor devices forthe next generation of computers, whichwill make use of an emerging technologycalled spintronics. Current electronicdevices such as transistors work bytransferring electrons. However, exploitingthe electron’s spin has the potential to leadto faster and more powerful informationprocessing and storage. Spintronics isalready used in the read-heads of high-capacity hard disks.

In 2007, a key scientific discoveryfundamental to spintronics – giantmagnetoresistance – was recognisedthrough the award of the Nobel Prizefor Physics.

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How laser imaging can help diagnose cancer

Imagine a world in which doctors can prescribe medicationthat is specifically tailored to a person’s DNA fingerprint. It isguaranteed to be effective against an individual’s cancer,with minimal side-effects.

Scientists working at STFC’s Lasers for Science Facility are at theforefront of research aimed at tackling diseases such as lung andbreast cancer. A technique that colour-codes ‘misbehaving’ proteinmolecules with a fluorescent dye and then uses lasers to illuminatethese molecules, causing them to glow, provides an insight intotheir behaviour during the onset of disease. Researchers can thenuse sophisticated computer methods to build up a detailed 3-Dpicture that reveals the underlying bio-molecular interactionsleading to disease.

The information obtained from this novel use of lasers will be acrucial step towards a future of personalised medicine.

Shrinking accelerators

By smashing together beams of high-energyelementary particles in accelerators andobserving the debris, researchers can betterunderstand the structure of matter and theforces of nature at a fundamental level. Inaddition, beams of energetic particles areuseful tools for biological, nanotechnology andchemistry research.

STFC scientists are involved in investigating anddeveloping a new generation of radiation sourcesthat aim to accelerate particles using lasers. Thistechnology has the potential to reduce the size ofconventional accelerators to fit on a laboratorybench-top, resulting in significantly reduced costs.

These potentially portable machines would alsooffer a host of medical, industrial and security

applications, including cancer therapy, therapid detection of hidden explosives andimproved quality control in the fabrication of

semiconductors.

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Medicine and health

Medicine and health

factMore than 100,000laser procedures tocorrect vision areperformed annuallyin the UK – a figurethat is on theincrease!

Cholesterol testing

Using technology developed at STFC’sDaresbury Laboratory in Cheshire, thecompany L3 Technology has used lasers todevelop and patent a highly accuratecholesterol test that is more precise andcost-effective than other similar testingkits currently available.

Current ‘over-the-counter’ cholesterol test-kitsdo not distinguish between the different typesof cholesterol considered ‘good’ or ‘bad’ froma health point of view. Existing laboratorytests take a minimum of three days togenerate adequate results.

The L3 Technology test works by taggingcompounds with a fluorescent marker that issubsequently illuminated with an intense lightsource. The intensity of fluorescencequantifies the type and amount of cholesterolthat is present in the sample.

The company’s ultimate goal is to produce arange of tests that will be convenientlyavailable at your GP’s surgery, saving bothtime and money.

Detectingeye disease

By scanning laser lightback and forth across theretina, high-resolution,cross-sectional images canbe taken, which can becombined into a 3-Dpicture of the retina.

This novel technique –optical coherencetomography (OCT) – canhelp ophthalmologists todetect the subtle changesthat occur in retinal disease.

Lasers in our lives50 years of impact

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Tattoo removal

Tattoos consist of largeclumps of pigment scatteredthrough the lower layer ofskin. Because of their sizethe body is unable toremove these clumps, soinstead, seals them off witha protective fibrous barrier.

Laser therapy works bybreaking down this fibrousbarrier, allowing the pigmentto disperse into smaller pieces,which the body’s naturaldefences can slowly remove.

E = mc2

Einstein’s famous equation, E = mc2, tells us that energy andmatter are interchangeable,such that even a small amountof matter can potentially beconverted into a large amountof energy.

Nuclear fusion is Nature’s way ofreleasing some of this energyand is the process that drives theSun and other stars. Here onEarth, atomic nuclei such asthose of hydrogen isotopes,deuterium and tritium, can befused into heavier nuclei such ashelium, releasing a huge amountof energy in the process. Fusionhas the potential to address ourincreasing energy needs,providing a safe and effectivelyinexhaustible energy supply, inan environmentally sustainablemanner.

Benefits of laser fusion

Plentiful fuelLaser-driven fusion could supply the world withan abundant, effectively limitless fuel supply.

Energy securityThe required fuel is readily available inseawater.

Clean energyLaser-driven fusion produces no greenhouse gasemissions and thus has a low environmentalimpact. Also, unlike nuclear power stations,there is no long-lived radioactivity, therebyreducing health risks.

Creation of jobs The progression of laser-driven fusion, fromproof-of-principle to commercial exploitation,will require a combination of specialisedfacilities and considerable scientific expertise.The construction of HiPER, the proposedEuropean High Power laser Energy Researchfacility to demonstrate the feasibility of laser-driven fusion, would generate huge economicbenefits both domestically and beyond. Theseinclude job creation and the capitalisation ofemerging spin-off technologies.

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Energy

Did you know?To give some ideaof fusion’s potential:if successfullyharnessed, just onecubic kilometre ofseawater wouldcontain enoughdeuterium fuel toprovide energy thatwould exceed thatfrom all the world’soil reserves.

Energy

National IgnitionFacility (NIF)

NIF, situated at theLawrence LivermoreNational Laboratory inCalifornia in the US,hosts the world’slargest laser system.

One of its missions is toinvestigate the feasibilityof nuclear fusion. NIFaims to produce moreenergy from a fusionreaction than is used toinitiate the reaction. Thiswould be a landmarkdemonstration of theprinciples of laser fusion.

If successful, NIF ignitionwill be the launch-padfor the next generationof laser-fusion facilitiessuch as HiPER.

High Power laser EnergyResearch facility (HiPER)

The next step towards fusion

HiPER is a European collaborative project thatrepresents the next step in the development oflaser fusion as an energy source. It aims to bridgethe gap between fusion research and harnessingfusion energy on an industrial scale. Operatingrather like a car engine, the fuel will be injected,then compressed and ignited via controlled laserpulses, creating the extreme conditions necessaryfor fusion. Unlike NIF, HiPER will integratehighrepetition rate technology and will be capableof repeating the ignition process an estimated fivetimes per second.

HiPER aims to demonstrate the full laser-fusioncycle, to provide the basis on which a newgeneration of electricity power stations could be built.

Harvestingsunshine

Living organisms depend oncomplex and often extremelyefficient biochemical processes toharness, store and transport energy.By understanding the underlyingmechanisms of the light-capturingprocesses and energy transportinvolved in photosynthesis, forexample, researchers aim todevelop similar systems that couldbe employed in the next generationof solar cells.

Laser studies of how light triggers themovement of electrons throughphotosensitive biological structuresare contributing to the scientificunderstanding of solar-energyconversion at the molecular level.STFC scientists, in collaboration withpartners, have performedexperiments to measure the speed ofelectron transfer through thesemolecular structures. They involvefiring a short laser pulse at a sampleto stimulate the electron-transferprocess, and then using a tuneableinfrared laser to monitor how thesystem evolves in real time.

Lasers in our lives50 years of impact

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Communications

Smart materials

‘Smart’ materials possess propertiesthat can be significantly changed byexternal stimuli. Examples of theseproperties include stress, temperature,moisture, pH, and electric ormagnetic fields.

Laser-enabled fibre-opticsensors that are sensitive tomovement can be embeddedinto certain structures asmonitoring tools – for example,in the rotor blades of windturbines, airplane and spacecraftstructures, and bridges. They caninform of any structuralchanges or impendingstructural failure.

Fibre optics

Lasers have revolutionised the way in which wecommunicate and are largely responsible for the advent ofthe information age.

Central to this new age of information transfer is the networkof fibre optics that comprise the core of long-distancetelephone communications and the internet. These networksrely on transmitting information through glass or plastic fibresvia pulses of laser light. The light pulses are converted at theirdestination into electrical signals that provide the information.

Fibre optical systems are rapidly replacing the pre-existingcopper-wire networks. Their flexibility, lower cost, higherefficiency, clearer signal and increased capacity (to carrythousands of times the amount of information that copperwires can), make them a superior option for thetelecommunications industry.

A new type of laser actually based on specialised optical fibresis expected to have a range of important applications includingbiomedical microscopy and analysis, and quantum-informationprocessing.

Comm

unicationsLasers in our lives50 years of impact

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Seeing stars more clearly

As light from distant stars and galaxies passes throughthe earth’s turbulent atmospheric layers, it becomesdistorted. Astronomers have long sought to diminishthese atmospheric effects so that ground-basedobservations can become clearer and more precise.

One solution, which is becoming increasingly employed byastronomers, is to create an artificial guide star by shining alaser into the atmosphere. Atmospheric turbulence andchanges in temperature cause the image of this laser on thesky to distort in a random fashion, it is also what makesstars appear to twinkle in the night sky. Astronomers canutilise a system of adaptive optics to measure the distortionsof this laser image and correct for any aberrations ordeviations. By rapidly changing the surface of a deformablemirror via a computer system, these deviations can becompensated for, resulting in clearer astronomical images.Many of the world’s largest telescopes now use an artificialguide star in the form of a laser, which can be convenientlydirected up into the sky.

The same adaptive optics technology is also applied to lasercommunication systems, such as the fibre optics network, toimprove performance and efficiency.

Information and communicationstechnology

Because they can carry large volumes ofinformation as pulses, lasers have been exploitedextensively across the ICT industry. Examples ofareas where lasers are employed include:

Optical storage

Lasers read and write information encoded asmicroscopic ‘pits’ on CDs, DVDs, Blu-Ray and otherstorage media.

Communication

Laser-diode coupled fibre optics are being rolled outas the backbone of the high-speed internet,transforming the way in which we interact witheach other and access high volume media such asmovies, games and business information.

Increasing microprocessor speed

Micro-lasers could provide a high-speed alternativeto transistors. Optical signals can be used to connectintegrated circuits at light speed, as well asproviding the basis for a new generation ofholographic memory.

Global cooling

Clouds are considered to have asubstantial impact on climate changebecause of their role in both absorbingand reflecting heat transferred throughthe atmosphere.

Pollutants such as the organic compoundsproduced when fossil fuels are burnt, arebelieved to affect the formation and growthof water droplets in clouds.

Scientists working at STFC have been able togain an insight into chemical reactionsoccurring on the surfaces of cloud droplets inthe atmosphere. Typical experiments involvespraying a mist of particles into a model‘cloud chamber’ and using a microscope tofocus a laser beam into it. One of the dropletseventually finds its way into the centre of thelaser beam and is held in position via theintense light-field pressure of the laser, whichacts like ‘optical tweezers’. Analysis of laserlight scattered by the droplet underpins thedevelopment of complex computer models ofthe atmosphere and contributes to improvingour understanding of climate change.

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Environment and climate

Lasers to monitor and understand climate change

Climate change and poor air quality are major challenges in a worldof increasing industrialisation and urbanisation. Understanding andmonitoring the Earth’s atmosphere is of crucial importance.

Observing the atmosphere from space can provide a global view ofatmospheric composition and processes. An innovative research project,funded by the Natural Environment Research Council, called the LaserHeterodyne Radiometer (LHR) has involved the development of aprototype instrument that could potentially be the forerunner of a newgeneration of satellite-based infrared monitoring instruments. The LHRhas been developed to provide a unique combination of high spatialresolution (to locate gaseous emission sources and observe betweenclouds), high spectral resolution (to discriminate between types of gases),and high sensitivity to detect the tiniest concentrations of atmosphericconstituents.

Developed for Earth observation by a team of STFC scientists incollaboration with partners, a prototype LHR instrument has recentlybeen successfully demonstrated at ‘the Rutherford Appleton Laboratory’through ground-based measurements of atmospheric ozone, and is nowbeing developed to monitor other key atmospheric trace gases.

Environment and clim

ate

Monitoring forests with lasers

Important properties ofecosystems such as those found intropical forests can be measuredusing a system of lasers attachedto the underside of aircraft. Oftencovered with dense vegetation,these forests tend to be difficultto study on the ground or evenwith satellites.

A combination of advancedspectroscopic imaging and laserremote-sensing technologies canmeasure differences in groundelevation to an accuracy of within afew inches. This technology canprovide insights into how changes inclimate and land use can affect thestructure, composition andfunctioning of ecosystems.

Lasers in our lives50 years of impact

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Using lasers to tackle oil spills

Oil spills represent a major environmental risk, often takingmany years to clean up. But, for some bacteria, oil is theperfect meal! By introducing colonies of hydrocarbon-digestingbacteria, it may be possible to lessen the impact of oil spills andclean them more efficiently.

Researchers at STFC’s ‘Lasers for Science Facility’, in collaborationwith scientists from the Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, havebeen assessing the different types of bacteria that can digesthydrocarbons. By capturing individual bacteria in laser opticaltweezers and analysing their spectra, scientists can establishwhether the bacteria have broken down particular chemicals.

Potential future applications of this research range from cleaning oilspills at sea, to the contaminated land under petrol stations.

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Manufacturing

How are lasers usedin manufacturing?

➜ Laser cutting

➜ Laser markingand engraving

➜ Laser welding

➜ Laser drilling

➜ Laser melting

➜ Laser heattreating

➜ Lasermicromachining

➜ Laser soldering

➜ Laser surfacetreatment

Lasers andpackaging

Scribing, perforating andmarking represent areaswhere lasers areemployed in thepackaging industry.

Some specific uses includethe selective weakening ofindividual packaging layers,providing an ‘easy to open’solution, and the puncturingof tiny holes such as thosefound in bags of vegetableson supermarket shelves.These help to create idealatmospheric conditionswithin the product, allowingperishable food to ‘breathe’and last longer.

Lasers andsemiconductors

The manufacturing ofsemiconductors requiresthe rapid, clean cuttingof composite materials.Lasers fit this roleperfectly. Their ability tocut irregular shapes tohigh precision, whilstminimising surfaceroughness, makes themideal cutting tools.

Lasers are also usedextensively to markmetals, polymers, siliconwafers and printed circuitboards, aiding theirtraceability during themanufacturing process.These miniature, machine-readable identificationmarks can be inscribed atspeeds of more than 1000characters per second!

Building a car with lasers

Innovative, high-power lasers havebeen utilised by theautomotive industrysince the early1980s.

Today, almost everymodern vehicle willhave had variousencounters withlasers during itsmanufacturing – fromcutting the airbagcloth, door lining andkeys to welding thebody shell, annealingdoor springs andmarking tyres; lasersare absolutelyessential tools inmodern automobileproduction.

Manufacturing

Lasers in our lives50 years of impact

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Consumer technologies

➜ Laser light shows

➜ Laser pointers

➜ Laser printers

➜ Laser tag

➜ Laser pocketprojectors

➜ Games consoles

➜ Laser TVs

➜ CD players

➜ DVD players

Paint stripping

Mobile, large-area laserbeams can be deployedto remove paint andcontaminants fromobjects such as aircraftand ships. These lasersare carefully tuned tomaximise beamabsorption by thecontaminant or paint –to give a clean,stripped surface.

Because the laser beamshave only a minimalimpact on the subsurface(usually metal, plastic orceramic), little residue isleft behind. Laserstripping is often acleaner, more efficientoption to previouschemical removaltechniques.

Laser coding

Industrial laser marking isused extensively across thefood and beveragemanufacturing industry formarking numerical codes,barcodes, logos andsymbols onto materialsincluding inked paper, glass,plastic and metals.

Intense laser beams can bedeployed to remove smallamounts of material fromthe surfaces of packagingand also to melt and modifysuch surfaces with speedand accuracy.

These techniques havenumerous benefits, includingfaster production line speedsand high-quality markingwith an enhanced resistanceto extremes of temperatureand humidity.

Quality control

By shining lasersbeams onto ballbearings andmeasuring thedispersion of thelaser lightreflected back,their sphericity (orroundness) can bedetermined. Thisproves an efficienttool in managingquality control.

Isaac Newton

Born: 4 January 1643Died: 31 March 1727

Between 1670 and 1672, IsaacNewton investigated the refractionof light and showed that a prismcould split white light into aspectrum of colours.

The same principle applies to waterdroplets, which can act as tinyprisms and refract the Sun’s rays toform rainbows.

James Clerk Maxwell

Born: 13 June 1831Died: 5 November 1879

Maxwell made remarkablecontributions to physics by unitingwhat were previously unrelatedexperiments, equations, andobservations of electricity, magnetismand optics into a consistent‘electromagnetic’ theory. Maxwelldemonstrated that electric andmagnetic fields travel through spacein the form of waves and at the speedof light. His equations laid thefoundations for many of the scientificand technological advancementsduring the 20th century, includingspecial relativity and quantummechanics.

Albert Einstein

Born: 14 March 1879Died: 18 April 1955

A paper written by Einstein in 1905,proposed that light consists ofquantised particles (later calledphotons). This inspired the quantummechanical concept that light canexist in both a wave and aparticle form.

Just over a decade later, in 1917,Einstein established the theory ofstimulated emission of radiation,setting the scientific foundations for the subsequent discovery ofthe LASER.

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Before the LASER…

…a story of lightThe science behind the laser started centuries earlier with scientists such

as Isaac Newton, James Clerk Maxwell and Albert Einstein. Traditionally,

the UK has played a major role in laser science and its applications.

Where STFC fits into the picture

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Where STFC fits into the picture

The UK carries outleading researchusing and creatinghigh-power, ultrafastand high-sensitivitylaser systems.

STFC’s Central Laser Facility(CLF), provides an internationallyleading range of laser systemsfor research by academia andindustry.

Vulcan HIGHEST POWER OF ALL

Vulcan is one of the most powerful and versatile laser systems in the world. This unique facility delivers a focused beam – which for 1 picosecond(0.000000000001 seconds) is 10,000 times morepowerful than the output of the National Grid – tosupport a wide-ranging research programme infundamental physics and advanced applications relevant to clean energy and medicine.

Astra Gemini HIGH REPETITION RATE

Astra Gemini delivers laser pulses at the petawatt (a million billion watts) scale, with unsurpassedintensity and in an entirely new ‘high-repetition rate’regime. Its two beams can provide one pulse every20 seconds (compared to once every 20 minutes forconventional systems such as Vulcan). This makes itextremely useful for the detailed study of laser-drivenparticle acceleration, opening up a transformation inaccelerator science and technology.

Lasers for Science Facility HIGH VERSATILITY AND SENSITIVITY

The Lasers for Science Facility (LSF) offers one of the most concentratedand versatile arrays of laser systems and expertise in the world. The facility isdivided into three sections: the Molecular Structure and Dynamics Group, theFunctional Biosystems Imaging Group and the EPSRC-funded Laser Loan Pool.

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50 years of lasers timeline

Concept of the laser

The concept of the laser is introduced byCharles H. Townes and Arthur L. Schawlow.

Laser lighthouse

Australia’s Point Dangeraccommodates theworld’s first laser-drivenlighthouse.

This proves to be aneffective aid to short-range navigation.

Laser eye surgery

The first laser eye surgeryusing an Excimer laser isperformed in 1987, byophthalmologist StevenTrokel. Today, millionsundergo eye surgery every year.

Barcode scanner

26 June: The firstproduct to be scannedand logged by a barcodescanner is a 10-pack ofWrigley’s Juicy Fruitchewing gum.

Today, barcode scannersare ubiquitous acrossthe retail sector.

Laser in space

The first laser-equipped satelliteis launched byNASA.

Diode lasers

The first semi-conductor diodelasers are invented.These proved to be an importantprogression towardsthe development ofoptical comm-unication, and arenowadays used in avery wide range ofindustrial andscientific applications.

The term ‘LASER’ is coined

The term ‘LASER’, which stands for LightAmplification by Stimulated Emission ofRadiation, is introduced by Gordon Gould.

Successful fibre optic test

The first batch of optical fibre is producedby scientists at the Corning Glass Works.Despite being hundreds of yards long,they are able to communicate over thefibre, via pulses of laser light, withastonishing clarity.

First CD player

The laser compact disk (CDplayer) is invented by JamesRussell. Years later, in 1982,Billy Joel’s 52nd Street isthe first album to bereleased on CD.

Lithography

The first paper onExcimer laserlithography is publishedby Kanti Jain.

Today, laser lithographyis employed extensivelyto produce microchipsfor the computer andelectronics industry.

First operational laser

16 May: The first working laser isdeveloped at the Hughes ResearchLabs by Theodore Maiman, C.K. Asawa, and I.J. D’Haenens. Itconsists of a synthetic ruby crystalencased by a flash lamp.

50 years of lasers timeline

Lasers in our lives50 years of impact

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Astra Gemini laser

Astra Gemini is completed. Thislaser system can deliver veryintense, focused pulses with ahigh repetition rate, andprovides the capability to studymatter under extreme physicalconditions analogous to thepressures and temperaturesinside stars.

Magneto-optic data storage

A magneto-optic data storagetechnique is developed whichutilises a laser and a magnet towrite information to a disk. It iscapable of compacting onebillion bits of data into a square-centimetre of disk space.

Vulcan Petawatt laser

Vulcan becomes the highest-intensity focused laser in theworld. It is used to investigatefundamental interactions betweenlight and matter, and to carry outlaser-driven fusion experiments.

NIF

The National Ignition Facility(US) completes construction,with the aim of demonstratingnuclear fusion using powerfullasers. NIF intends to producemore energy from a reaction thanwas required to initiate it.

New type oflaser/facility

Commercialproduct/medicalapplication

Interesting fact

Nobel prize (for laser-relatedresearch)

HiPER

The construction of the Europeancollaborative High Power laserEnergy Research facility should becomplete. HiPER will be a testfacility for prototype systems,components and materials thatwill directly enable the subsequentconstruction of a demonstrationelectricity generating plant.

Central Laser Facility

Science and Technology Facilities CouncilRutherford Appleton Laboratory

Harwell Science and Innovation CampusDidcot

OxfordshireOX11 0QX, UK

T: +44 (0)1235 445603F: +44 (0)1235 445888

E: clfenquiries@stfc.ac.ukW: www.clf.stfc.ac.uk

www.stfc.ac.uk

EPSRC

The Engineering and Physical Sciences Research CouncilPolaris House

North Star AvenueSwindon

SN2 1ET, UK

T: +44 (0)1793 444000W: www.epsrc.ac.uk

www.epsrc.ac.uk