Laser Printmaking

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Laser printing

“Silentwriter” redirects here. For the Apple thermoprinter sometimes called SilentWriter, see Apple Silen-type.

Laser printing is an electrostatic digital printing pro-

HP LaserJet 4200 series printer, installed atop high-capacity pa-

per feeder

cess. It produces high-quality text and graphics (andmoderate-quality photographs) by repeatedly passing alaser beamback and forth over a negatively charged cylin-

der called a “drum” to define a differentially-chargedimage.[1] The drum then selectively collects electricallycharged powdered ink (toner), and transfers the image topaper, which is then heated in order to permanently fusethe text and/or imagery. As with digital photocopiers andmultifunction/all-in-one inkjet printers, laser printers em-ploya xerographic printingprocess. However, laser print-ing differs from analog photocopiers in that the image isproduced by the direct scanning of the medium acrossthe printer’s photoreceptor. This enables laser printing tocopy images more quickly than most photocopiers.

Invented at Xerox PARC in the 1970s, laser printers were

introduced for the office and then home markets in sub-sequent years by IBM, Canon, Xerox, Apple, Hewlett-Packard and many others. Over the decades, quality and

speed have increased as price has fallen, and the oncecutting-edge printing devices are now ubiquitous.

1 History

Gary Starkweather invented the laser printer (2009 photo)

In the 1960s, the Xerox Corporation held a dominant po-

sition in the photocopier market. In 1969, Gary Stark-weather, who worked in Xerox’s product development de-partment, had the idea of using a laser beam to “draw” animage of what was to be copied directly onto the copierdrum. After transferring to the recently formed Palo AltoResearch Center (Xerox PARC) in 1971, Starkweatheradapted a Xerox 7000 copier to create SLOT (ScannedLaser Output Terminal). In 1972, Starkweather workedwith Butler Lampson and Ronald Rider to add a con-trol system and character generator, resulting in a printercalled EARS (Ethernet, Alto Research character genera-tor, Scanned laser output terminal) -- which later became

the Xerox 9700 laser printer.

[2][3][4]

The first commercial implementation of a laser printerwas the IBM 3800 in 1976. It was designed for data cen-ters, where it replaced lineprintersattached to mainframecomputers. The IBM 3800 was used for high-volumeprinting on continuous stationery, and achieved speeds of215 pages per minute (ppm), at a resolution of 240 dotsper inch (dpi). Over 8,000 of these printers were sold.[5]

The Xerox 9700 was brought to market in 1977. Unlikethe IBM3800, theXerox 9700 was nottargeted to replaceany particular existing printers; but, it did have limitedsupport for the loading of fonts. The Xerox 9700 excelled

at printing high-value documents on cut-sheet paper withvarying content (e.g. insurance policies).[5]

In 1979,[6] inspired by the Xerox 9700’s commercial suc-

1

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2 2 PRINTING PROCESS

cess, Japanese camera and optics company, Canon, devel-oped a low-cost, desktop laser printer: the Canon LBP-10. Canon then began work on a much-improved printengine, the Canon CX, resulting in the LBP-CX printer.Lacking experience in selling to computer users, Canonsought partnerships with three Silicon Valley companies:

Diablo Data Systems (who turned them down), Hewlett-Packard (HP), and Apple Computer.[7]

Thefirst laser printer designed for office use reached mar-ket in 1981: the Xerox Star 8010. The system used adesktop metaphor that was unsurpassed in commercialsales, until the Apple Macintosh. Although it was inno-vative, the Star workstation was a prohibitively expensive(US$17,000) system, affordable only to a fraction of thebusinesses and institutions at which it was targeted.[8]

The first laser printer intended for mass-market sales wasthe HP LaserJet, released in 1984; it used the Canon

CX engine, controlled by HP software. The LaserJetwas quickly followed by printers from Brother Indus-tries, IBM, and others. First-generation machines hadlarge photosensitive drums, of circumference greater thanthe loaded paper’s length. Once faster-recovery coatingswere developed, the drums could touch the paper multi-ple times in a pass, and therefore be smaller in diameter.

In 1985, Apple introduced the LaserWriter (also basedon the Canon CX engine),[9] but used the newly re-leased PostScript page-description language. Up untilthis point, each manufacturer used its own proprietarypage-description language, making the supporting soft-ware complex and expensive. PostScript allowed the useof text, fonts, graphics, images, and color largely inde-pendent of the printer’s brand or resolution. PageMaker,written by Aldus for the Macintosh and LaserWriter, wasalso released in 1985 and the combination became verypopular for desktop publishing.[4]:13/23[5]:364 Laser print-ers brought exceptionally fast and high-quality text print-ing in multiple fonts on a page, to the business and con-sumer markets. No other commonly-available printerduring this era could also offer this combination of fea-tures.

2 Printing process

Main article: Xerography

A laser beam (typically, an aluminium gallium arsenide(AlGaAs) semiconductor laser) projects an image of thepage to be printed onto an electrically-charged, selenium-coated, rotating, cylindrical drum[10] (or, more com-monly in subsequent versions, a drum called an organicphotoconductor made of N-vinylcarbazole, an organicmonomer). Photoconductivity allows the charged elec-

trons to fall away from the areas exposed to light. Pow-dered ink (toner) particles are then electrostatically at-tracted to the charged areas of the drum that have not

Laser diode

6-sided mirror

Acrylic lens

Tilted mirror

Toner hopper

Developer roll Toner adder roll

Doctor blade

Charge roll

Waste bin withwiper blade

Photoconductor drum

Transfer rollFuser assembly

Diagram of a laser printer

been laser-beamed. The drum then transfers the imageonto paper (which is passed through the machine) by di-

rect contact. Finally the paper is passed onto a finisher,which uses intense heat to instantly fuse the toner/imageonto the paper.

There are typically seven steps involved in the process:

2.1 Raster image processing

The document to be printed is encoded in a page de-scription language such as PostScript, Printer CommandLanguage (PCL), or Open XML Paper Specification(OpenXPS). The raster image processor converts the

page description into a bitmap which is stored in theprinter’s raster memory. Each horizontal strip of dotsacross the page is known as a raster line or scan line.

Laser printing differs from other printing technologies inthat each page is always rendered in a single continuousprocess without any pausing in the middle, while othertechnologies like inkjet can pause every few lines. Toavoid a buffer underrun (where the laser reaches a pointon the page before it has the dots to draw there), a laserprinter typically needs enough raster memory to hold thebitmap image of an entire page.

Memory requirements increase with the square of the

dots per inch, so 600 dpi requires a minimum of 4megabytes for monochrome, and 16 megabytes for colorat 600 dpi. For fully graphical output using a page de-scription language, a minimum of 1 megabyte of memoryis needed to store an entire monochrome letter/A4 sizedpage of dots at 300 dpi. At 300 dpi, there are 90,000 dotsper square inch (300 dots per linear inch). A typical 8.5× 11 sheet of paper has 0.25-inch (6.4 mm) margins, re-ducing the printable area to 8.0 by10.5 inches (200 mm ×270 mm), or 84 square inches. 84 sq/in × 90,000 dots persq/in = 7,560,000 dots. 1 megabyte = 1,048,576 bytes, or8,388,608 bits, which is just large enough to hold the en-

tire page at 300 dpi, leaving about 100 kilobytes to sparefor use by the raster image processor.

In a color printer, each of the four CMYK toner layers is

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2.3 Exposing 3

stored as a separate bitmap, and all four layers are typi-cally preprocessed before printing begins, so a minimumof 4 megabytes is needed for a full-color letter-size pageat 300 dpi.

During the 1980s, memory chips were still very expen-

sive, which is why entry-level laser printers in that eraalways came with four-digit suggested retail prices inUS dollars. Memory prices later plunged, and 1200 dpiprinters have been widely available in the consumer mar-ket since 2008. 2400 dpi electrophotographic printingplate makers, essentially laser printers that print on plas-tic sheets, are also available.

2.2 Charging

Applying a negative charge to the photosensitive drum

In older printers, a corona wire positioned parallel to thedrum, or in more recent printers, a primary charge roller,projects an electrostatic charge onto the photoreceptor(otherwise named the photo conductor unit), a revolvingphotosensitive drum or belt, which is capable of holdingan electrostatic charge on its surfacewhile it is in the dark.

An AC bias voltage is applied to the primary charge rollerto remove any residual charges left by previous images.The roller will also apply a DC bias on the drum surfaceto ensure a uniform negative potential.

Numerous patents describe the photosensitive drum coat-ing as a silicon sandwich with a photocharging layer, acharge leakage barrier layer, as well as a surface layer.One version uses amorphous silicon containing hydrogenas the light receiving layer, Boron nitride as a charge leak-age barrier layer, as well as a surface layer of doped sili-con, notably silicon with oxygen or nitrogen which at suf-ficient concentration resembles machining silicon nitride.

2.3 Exposing

A laser printer uses a laser because lasers are able to form

highly focused, precise, and intense beams of light, espe-cially over the short distances inside of a printer. Thelaser is aimed at a rotating polygonal mirror which di-

Laser

BeamAlignmentLens

ScanningMirror

Beam Scanning Path

RIPImage Buffer

ImagingDrum

Laser light selectively neutralizes the negative charge on the pho-

toreceptive drum, to form an electrostatic image

Laser unit from a Dell P1500. The white hexagon is the rotating

scanner mirror.

rects the light beam through a system of lenses and mir-rors onto the photoreceptor drum, writing pixels at ratesup to sixty five million times per second. [11] The drumcontinues to rotate during the sweep, and the angle ofsweep is canted very slightly to compensate for this mo-

tion. The stream of rasterized data held in the printer’smemory rapidly turns the laser on and off as it sweeps.

The laser beam neutralizes (or reverses) the charge on thesurface of the drum, leaving a static electric negative im-age on the drum’s surface which will repel the negativelycharged toner particles. The areas on the drum whichwere struck by the laser, however, momentarily have nocharge, and the toner being pressed against the drum bythe toner-coated developer roll in the next step movesfrom the roll’s rubber surface to the uncharged portionsof the surface of the drum.

Some non-laser printers (LED printers) use an array of

light emitting diodes spanning the width of the page togenerate an image, rather than using a laser. “Exposing”is also known as “writing” in some documentation.

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2.4 Developing

The surface with the latent image is exposed to tonerwhich has been applied in a 15-micron-thick layer to thedeveloper roll. Toner consists of fine particles of dry plas-tic powder mixed with carbon black or coloring agents.

The toner particles are given a negative charge inside thetoner cartridge, and as they emerge onto the developerdrum they are electrostatically attracted to the photore-ceptor’s latent image (the areas on the surfaceof the drumwhich had been struck by the laser). Because negativecharges repel each other, the negatively charged tonerparticles will not adhere to the drum where the nega-tive charge (imparted previously by the charge roller) re-mains.

2.5 Transferring

A sheet of paper is then rolled under the photoreceptordrum, which has been coated with a pattern of toner par-ticles in the exact places where the laser struck it momentsbefore. The toner particles have a very weak attraction toboth the drum and the paper, but the bond to the drumis weaker and the particles transfer once again, this timefrom the drum’s surface to the paper’s surface. Somemachines also use a positively-charged “transfer roller”on the back side of the paper to help pull the negativelycharged toner from the photoreceptor drum to the paper.

2.6 Fusing

Toner is melted onto paper with heat and pressure

The paper passes through rollers in the fuser assembly,where temperatures up to 200 °C (392 °F) and pressureare used to permanently bond the plastic powder to thepaper. One roller is usually a hollow tube (heat roller)andtheother is a rubber backed roller (pressure roller). Aradiant heat lamp is suspended in the centre of the hollowtube, and its infrared energy uniformly heats the rollerfrom the inside. For proper bonding of the toner, the fuserroller must be uniformly hot.

Some printers use a very thin flexible metal foil roller,

so there is less thermal mass to be heated and the fusercan more quickly reach operating temperature. If papermoves through the fuser more slowly, there is more roller

contact time for the toner to melt, and the fuser can op-erate at a lower temperature. Smaller, inexpensive laserprinters typically print slowly, due to this energy-savingdesign, compared to large high speed printers where pa-per moves more rapidly through a high-temperature fuserwith a very short contact time.

2.7 Cleaning and recharging

Magnification of color laser printer output, showing individual

toner particles comprising 4 dots of an image with a bluish back-

ground

As the drum completes a revolution, it is exposed to anelectrically neutral soft plastic blade which cleans any

remaining toner from the photoreceptor drum and de-posits it into a waste reservoir. A charge roller then re-establishes a uniform negative charge on the surface ofthe now clean drum, readying it to be struck again by thelaser.

2.8 Continuous printing

Once the raster image generation is complete, all stepsof the printing process can occur one after the other inrapid succession. This permits the use of a very small and

compact unit, where the photoreceptor is charged, rotatesa few degrees and is scanned, rotates a few more degreesand is developed, and so forth. The entire process can becompleted before the drum completes one revolution.

Different printers implement these steps in distinct ways.LED printers actually use a linear array of light-emittingdiodes to “write” the light on the drum. The toner isbased on either wax or plastic, so that when the paperpasses through the fuser assembly, the particles of tonermelt. The paper may or may not be oppositely charged.The fuser can be an infrared oven, a heated pressureroller, or (on some very fast, expensive printers) a xenon

flash lamp. The warmup process that a laser printer goesthrough when power is initially applied to the printer con-sists mainly of heating the fuser element.

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2.9 Malfunctions

The mechanism inside a laser printer is somewhat deli-cate and, once damaged, often impossible to repair. Thedrum in particular is a critical component: it must not beleftexposed to ambient light for more than a few hours, as

light is what causes it to lose its charge and will eventuallywear it out. Anything that interferes with the operationof the laser such as a scrap of torn paper may prevent thelaser from discharging some portion of the drum, caus-ing those areas to appear as white vertical streaks. If theneutral wiper blade fails to remove residual toner fromthe drum’s surface, that toner may circulate on the druma second time, causing smears on the printed page witheach revolution. If the charge roller becomes damagedor does not have enough power, it may fail to adequatelynegatively charge the surface of the drum, allowing thedrum to pick up excessive toner on the next revolution

from the developer roll and causing a repeated but fainterimage from the previous revolution to appear down thepage.

If the toner doctor blade does not ensure that a smooth,even layer of toner is applied to the developer roll, the re-sulting printout may have white streaks fromthis in placeswhere the blade has scraped off too much toner. Alterna-tively if the blade allows too much toner to remain on thedeveloper roll, the toner particles might come loose as theroll turns, precipitate onto the paper below, and becomebonded to the paper during the fusing process. This willresult in a general darkening of the printed page in broad

vertical stripes with very soft edges.If the fuser roller does not reach a high enough tempera-ture or if the ambient humidity is too high, the toner willnot fuse well to the paper and may flake off after print-ing. If the fuser is too hot, the plastic component of thetoner may smear, causing the printed text to look like itis wet or smudged, or may cause the melted toner to soakthrough the paper to the back side.

Different manufacturers claim that their toners are specif-ically developed for their printers, and that other tonerformulations may not match the original specifications interms of either tendency to accept a negative charge, to

move to the discharged areas of the photoreceptor drumfrom the developer roll, to fuse appropriately to the paper,or to come off the drum cleanly in each revolution.

3 Performance

As with most electronic devices, the cost of laser print-ers has fallen markedly over the years. In 1984, the HPLaserJet sold for $3500,[12] had trouble with even small,low resolution graphics, and weighed 32 kg (71 lb). As of

2016, low-end monochrome laser printers can sell for lessthan $75. These printers tend to lack onboard processingand rely on the host computer to generate a raster image,

but outperform the 1984 LaserJet in nearly all situations.

Laser printer speed can vary widely, and depends onmany factors, including the graphic intensity of the jobbeing processed. The fastest models can print over 200monochrome pages per minute (12,000 pages per hour).

The fastest color laser printers can print over 100 pagesper minute (6000 pages per hour). Very high-speed laserprinters are used for mass mailings of personalized docu-ments, such as credit card or utility bills, and are compet-ing with lithography in some commercial applications.[13]

The cost of this technology depends on a combination offactors, including the cost of paper, toner, drum replace-ment, as well as the replacement of other items such asthe fuser assembly and transfer assembly. Often print-ers with soft plastic drums can have a very high cost ofownership that does not become apparent until the drumrequires replacement.

Duplex printing (printing on both sides of the paper)can halve paper costs and reduce filing volumes. For-merly only available on high-end printers, duplexers arenow common on mid-range office printers, though not allprinters can accommodate a duplexing unit. Duplexingcan also give a slower page-printing speed, because of thelonger paper path.

4 Color laser printers

Fuji Xerox color laser printer C1110B

Color laser printers use colored toner (dry ink), typi-cally cyan, magenta, yellow, and black (CMYK). Whilemonochrome printers only use one laser scanner assem-bly, color printers often have two or more.

Color printing adds complexity to the printing process be-cause very slight misalignments known as registration er-rors can occur between printing each color, causing un-intended color fringing, blurring, or light/dark streakingalong the edges of colored regions. To permit a high reg-

istration accuracy, some color laser printers use a largerotating belt called a “transfer belt”. The transfer beltpasses in front of all the toner cartridges and each of the

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6 6 SAFETY HAZARDS, HEALTH RISKS, AND PRECAUTIONS

toner layers are precisely applied to the belt. The com-bined layers are then applied to the paper in a uniformsingle step.

Color printers usually have a higher cost per page thanmonochrome printers (even if printing monochrome-only

pages).

4.1 Business model comparison with

inkjet printers

Manufacturers use a similar business model for both low-cost color laser printers and inkjet printers: the printersare sold cheaply while replacement toners and inks arerelatively expensive. Color laser printers are much fasterthan inkjet printers and their running cost per page isusually slightly less. The print quality of color lasers islimited by their resolution (typically 600–1200 dpi) and

their use of just four color toners. They often have trou-ble printing large areas of the same or subtle gradationsof color. Inkjet printers designed for printing photos canproduce much higher quality color images.[14]

4.2 Anti-counterfeiting marks

Small yellow dots on white paper, generated by a color laser

printer, are nearly invisible. (Click to see higher-resolution im-

age)

Main article: Printer steganography

Many modern color laser printers mark printouts by anearly invisible dot raster, for the purpose of traceability.The dots are yellow and about 0.1 mm (0.0039 in) in size,with a raster of about 1 mm (0.039 in). This is purport-edly the result of a deal between the US government and

printer manufacturers to help track counterfeiters.[15] Thedots encode data such as printing date, time, and printerserial number in binary-coded decimal on every sheet of

paper printed, which allows pieces of paper to be tracedby the manufacturer to identify theplace of purchase, andsometimes the buyer.

Digital rights advocacy groups such as the ElectronicFrontier Foundation are concerned about this erosion of

the privacy and anonymity of those who print.

[16]

5 Smart chips in toner cartridges

Main article: Planned obsolescence

Similar to inkjet printers, toner cartridges may containsmart chips that reduce the number of pages that canbe printed with it (reducing the amount of usable ink in

the cartridge to sometimes only 50%[17]

), in an effort toincrease sales of the toner cartridges.[18] Besides beingmore expensive to the consumer, this technique also in-creases waste, and thus increases pressure on the envi-ronment. For these toner cartridges (as with inkjet car-tridges), reset devices can be used to override the limita-tion set by the smart chip. Also, for some printers, onlinewalk-throughs have been posted to demonstrate how touse up all the ink in the cartridge.[19] These chips offerno benefit to the end consumer— all laser printers orig-inally used an optical mechanism to assess the amountof remaining toner in the cartridge rather than using achip to electrically count the number of printed pages,and the chip’s only function was as an alternate methodto decrease the cartridge’s usable life.

6 Safety hazards, health risks, and

precautions

6.1 Toner clean-up

Toner particles are formulated to have electrostatic prop-erties and can develop static electric charges when theyrub against other particles, objects, or the interiors oftransport systems and vacuum hoses. Static dischargefrom charged toner particles can ignite combustible par-ticles in a vacuum cleaner bag or create a small dust ex-plosion if sufficient toner is airborne. Toner particles areso fine that they are poorly filtered by conventional house-hold vacuum cleaner filter bags and blow through the mo-tor or back into the room.

If toner spills into the laser printer, a special type of vac-uum cleaner with an electrically-conductive hose and a

high efficiency (HEPA) filter may be needed for effectivecleaning. These specialized tools are called “ESD-safe”(Electrostatic Discharge-safe) or “toner vacuums”.

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6.4 Air transport ban 7

6.2 Ozone hazards

As a normal part of the printing process, the high volt-ages inside the printer can produce a corona dischargethat generates a small amount of ionized oxygen and ni-trogen, which react to form ozone and nitrogen oxides.

In larger commercial printers and copiers, an activatedcarbon filter in the air exhaust stream breaks down thesenoxious gases to prevent pollution of the office environ-ment.

However, some ozone escapes the filtering process incommercial printers, and ozone filters are not used at allin most smaller consumer printers. When a laser printeror copier is operated for a long period of time in a small,poorly ventilated space, these gases can build up to levelsat which the odor of ozone or irritation may be noticed.A potential for creating a health hazard is theoreticallypossible in extreme cases.[20]

6.3 Respiratory health risks

According to a 2012 study conducted in Queensland,Australia, some printers emit sub-micrometre particleswhich some suspect may be associated with respiratorydiseases.[21] Of 63 printers evaluated in the QueenslandUniversity of Technology study, 17 of the strongest emit-ters were made by HP and one by Toshiba. The machinepopulation studied, however, was only those machinesalready in place in the building and was thus biased to-

ward specific manufacturers. The authors noted that par-ticle emissions varied substantially even among the samemodel of machine. According to Professor Morawska ofQueensland University, one printer emitted as many par-ticles as a burning cigarette:[22][23]

The health effects from inhaling ultrafineparticles depend on particle composition, butthe results can range from respiratory irritationto more severe illness such as cardiovascularproblems or cancer.— Queensland University of Technology

Muhle et al. (1991) reported that the responses to chroni-cally inhaled copying toner, a plastic dust pigmented withcarbon black, titanium dioxide and silica were also simi-lar qualitatively to titanium dioxide and diesel exhaust.[24]

In December 2011, the Australian government agencySafe Work Australia reviewed existing research and con-cluded that “no epidemiology studies directly associatinglaser printer emissions with adversehealth outcomes werelocated” and that several assessments conclude that “riskof direct toxicity and health effects from exposure to laser

printer emissions is negligible”. The review also observesthat, because theemissions havebeen shown to be volatileor semi-volatile organic compounds, “it would be logical

to expect possible health effects to be more related to thechemical nature of the aerosol rather than the physicalcharacter of the ‘particulate’ since such emissions are un-likely to be or remain as ‘particulates’ after they come intocontact with respiratory tissue”.[25]

6.4 Air transport ban

After the 2010 cargo plane bomb plot, in which ship-ments of laser printers with explosive-filled toner car-tridges were discovered on separate cargo airplanes, theUS Transportation Security Administration prohibitedpass-through passengers from carrying toner or ink car-tridges weighing over 1 pound (0.45 kg) on inboundflights, in both carry-on and checked luggage.[26][27] PC Magazine noted that the ban would not impact most trav-elers, as the majority of cartridges do not exceed the pro-scribed weight.[27]

7 See also

• Cardboard engineering

• Daisy wheel printer

• Document automation

• Dot matrix printer

• Dye-sublimation printer

• LED printer

• List of printer companies

• Managed Print Services

• Solid ink

• Steganography

• Thermal printer

• Winprinter

8 References

[1] “Laser Printer - Definition of laser printer by Merriam-Webster”. merriam-webster.com.

[2] Gladwell, Malcolm (May 16, 2011). “Creation Myth -Xerox PARC, Apple, andthe truth about innovation”. TheNew Yorker . Retrieved 28 October 2013.

[3] Edwin D. Reilly (2003). Milestones in Computer Scienceand Information Technology. Greenwood Press. ISBN 1-57356-521-0.

[4] Roy A. Allan (1 October 2001). A History of the Personal Computer: The People and the Technology. Allan Publish-ing. pp. 13–. ISBN 978-0-9689108-3-2.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9689108-3-2https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books?id=FLabRYnGrOcC&pg=SA13-PA23http://books.google.com/books?id=FLabRYnGrOcC&pg=SA13-PA23https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57356-521-0https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57356-521-0https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books?id=JTYPKxug49IC&pg=PA152&dq=starkweather+laser-printerhttp://books.google.com/books?id=JTYPKxug49IC&pg=PA152&dq=starkweather+laser-printerhttp://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2011/05/16/110516fa_fact_gladwell?currentPage=allhttp://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2011/05/16/110516fa_fact_gladwell?currentPage=allhttp://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/laser%2520printerhttp://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/laser%2520printerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winprinterhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_printerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steganographyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid_inkhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_printer_companieshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LED_printerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dye-sublimation_printerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dot_matrix_printerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Document_automationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daisy_wheel_printerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardboard_engineeringhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC_Magazinehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC_Magazinehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transportation_Security_Administrationhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010_cargo_plane_bomb_plothttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safe_Work_Australiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cancerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circulatory_systemhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultrafine_particleshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultrafine_particleshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toshibahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland_University_of_Technologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queensland_University_of_Technologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micrometrehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activated_carbonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_oxideshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozonehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corona_discharge


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8 9 EXTERNAL LINKS

[5] William E. Kasdorf (January 2003). The Columbia Guideto Digital Publishing. Columbia University Press. pp.383–. ISBN 978-0-231-12499-7.

[6] H Ujiie (28 April 2006). Digital Printing of Textiles . El-sevier Science. pp. 5–. ISBN 978-1-84569-158-5.

[7] MichaelShawn Malone (2007). Bill & Dave: How Hewlett and Packard Built the World’s Greatest Company. Pen-guin. pp. 327–. ISBN 978-1-59184-152-4.

[8] Paul A. Strassmann (2008). The Computers NobodyWanted: My Years with Xerox . Strassmann, Inc. pp. 126–. ISBN 978-1-4276-3270-8.

[9] “TPW - CX Printers- Apple”. printerworks.com.

[10] S. Nagabhushana (2010). Lasers and Optical Instrumen-tation. I. K. International Pvt Ltd. pp. 269–. ISBN 978-93-80578-23-1.

[11] “how Laser Process Technology animation (sic )". Lex-mark. 14 July 2012.

[12] “HP Virtual Museum: Hewlett-Packard LaserJet printer,1984”. Hp.com. Retrieved 2010-11-17.

[13] “Facts about laser printing”. Papergear.com. 2010-09-01. Archived from the original on November 24, 2010.Retrieved 2010-11-17.

[14] Uwe Steinmueller; Juergen Gulbins (21 December 2010).Fine Art Printing for Photographers: Exhibition Quality

Prints with Inkjet Printers . O'Reilly Media, Inc. pp. 37–.ISBN 978-1-4571-0071-0.

[15] “Electronic Frontier Foundation- privacy on printers”.Eff.org. Retrieved 2010-11-17.

[16] “Electronic Frontier Foundation Threat to privacy”.Eff.org. 2008-02-13. Retrieved 2010-11-17.

[17] RTBF documentary “L'obsolescence programmée” byXavier Vanbuggenhout

[18] “What Is a Laser Toner Chip?". Small Business -Chron.com.

[19] “Hacking the Samsung CLP-315 Laser Printer”. HelloWorld!.

[20] “Photocopiers and Laser Printers Health Hazards” (PDF).

[21] He C, Morawska L, Taplin L. (2012). “Particle emissioncharacteristics of office printers. ;Environ Sci Technol.2007] - PubMed - NCBI”. ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved15 August 2012.

[22] “Particle Emission Characteristics of Office Printers”.The Sydney Morning Herald . 2007-08-01.

[23] “Study reveals the dangers of printer pollution”.

[24] “11.6 metals” (PDF).

[25] Drew, Robert (December2011), “Brief Review on Health

Effects of Laser Printer Emissions Measured as Particles”(PDF), (PDF), Safe Work Australia, retrieved 2013-10-23 Missing or empty |title= (help)

[26] “UK: Plane Bombs Explosions Were Possible Over U.S”.Fox News. Archived fromthe original on March 29, 2012.Retrieved 2010-11-17.

[27] Hoffman, Tony (2010-11-08). “U.S. Bans Large PrinterInk, Toner Cartridges on Inbound Flights”. PC Mag. Re-trieved 2010-11-17.

9 External links

• Howstuffworks “How Laser Printers Work”

• Detailed description, modelling and simulation ofthe electrophotographic print process (technical; 7.2MB)

• How a Laser Printer Works Video

• The Evolution of Color Laser Printers

• Q. Why aren't there any CD or DVD laser printers?

http://www.summationtechnology.com/laser_cd_dvd_printer_thermal.htmhttp://www.laserprinterhelp.net/article/AA-01906/17/Knowledgebase/Articles/The-Evolution-of-Color-Laser-Printers.htmlhttp://inks.net.au/how-a-laser-printer-works/http://tumb1.biblio.tu-muenchen.de/publ/diss/ei/2004/hoffmann_r.pdfhttp://tumb1.biblio.tu-muenchen.de/publ/diss/ei/2004/hoffmann_r.pdfhttp://tumb1.biblio.tu-muenchen.de/publ/diss/ei/2004/hoffmann_r.pdfhttp://computer.howstuffworks.com/laser-printer.htmhttp://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,2817,2372313,00.asphttp://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,2817,2372313,00.asphttp://www.myfoxny.com/dpp/news/international/uk-plane-bombs-explosions-were-possible-over-u-s-ncx-20101110http://web.archive.org/web/20120329061859/http://www.myfoxny.com/dpp/news/international/uk-plane-bombs-explosions-were-possible-over-u-s-ncx-20101110https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#citation_missing_titlehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safe_Work_Australiahttps://r.duckduckgo.com/l/?kh=-1&uddg=http%253A%252F%252Fwww.safeworkaustralia.gov.au%252Fsites%252Fswa%252Fabout%252Fpublications%252FDocuments%252F636%252FBrief%252520Review%252520Laser%252520Printer%252520Emissions.pdfhttps://r.duckduckgo.com/l/?kh=-1&uddg=http%253A%252F%252Fwww.safeworkaustralia.gov.au%252Fsites%252Fswa%252Fabout%252Fpublications%252FDocuments%252F636%252FBrief%252520Review%252520Laser%252520Printer%252520Emissions.pdfhttp://www.epa.gov/nceawww1/pdfs/partmatt/April1996/0671ch11.pdfhttp://www.news.qut.edu.au/cgi-bin/WebObjects/News.woa/wa/goNewsPage?newsEventID=13495http://www.smh.com.au/news/technology/printer-particles-as-bad-as-cigarettes/2007/07/31/1185647903291.htmlhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17937279http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17937279http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17937279http://www.docs.csg.ed.ac.uk/Safety/general/photocopiers.pdfhttp://rumburg.org/printerhack/http://smallbusiness.chron.com/laser-toner-chip-72985.htmlhttp://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2008/02/eu-printer-tracking-dots-may-violate-human-rightshttp://www.eff.org/Privacy/printers/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4571-0071-0https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books?id=xKj-3QdjCyMC&pg=PT37http://books.google.com/books?id=xKj-3QdjCyMC&pg=PT37http://www.papergear.com/xerox-news/facts-about-laser-printing.htmlhttp://web.archive.org/web/20101124224933/http://www.papergear.com:80/xerox-news/facts-about-laser-printing.htmlhttp://www.hp.com/hpinfo/abouthp/histnfacts/museum/imagingprinting/0018/index.htmlhttp://www.hp.com/hpinfo/abouthp/histnfacts/museum/imagingprinting/0018/index.htmlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MDLM5fMFyA4https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-93-80578-23-1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-93-80578-23-1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books?id=FUzjTAr0U4MC&pg=PA269http://books.google.com/books?id=FUzjTAr0U4MC&pg=PA269http://www.printerworks.com/Catalogs/CX-Catalog/CX-AppLW-LWPlus.htmlhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4276-3270-8https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books?id=b5for5RdBCoC&pg=PA126http://books.google.com/books?id=b5for5RdBCoC&pg=PA126https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59184-152-4https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books?id=KMSH_wzyDaEC&pg=PA327http://books.google.com/books?id=KMSH_wzyDaEC&pg=PA327https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84569-158-5https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books?id=UOZRAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA5https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-12499-7https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books?id=XNIRkAqOzLUC&pg=PA383http://books.google.com/books?id=XNIRkAqOzLUC&pg=PA383


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9

10 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

10.1 Text

• Laser printingSource: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_printing?oldid=713824152Contributors: Fnielsen, RayVan De Walker, Ubiq-uity, Tenbaset, Lousyd, 7265, CesarB, Ahoerstemeier, Ronz, Erzengel, Andres, Dcoetzee, Przepla, Magnus.de, Andrewman327, Greenrd,Taxman, Fibonacci, Omegatron, Pollinator, Donreed, Raeky, Alan Liefting, Michael2, BenFrantzDale, Michael Devore, Micru, Mamizou,

MacGyverMagic, Kevin B12, Tooki, Neutrality, Deglr6328, Zondor, Eisnel, Glasperlenspiel, Kate, Imroy, Rich Farmbrough, Alexburke,Smyth, Xezbeth, Hhielscher, Gronky, Plugwash, Hapsiainen, Nicholasbishop, Joanjoc~enwiki, Shanes, Tenfour, Coolcaesar, Adambro,Causa sui, Bobo192, Walkiped, Polluks, MPerel, Haham hanuka, Alansohn, Arthena, Atlant, Wahiba, Sponge, Velella, ProhibitOnions,Rick Sidwell, Versageek, Gene Nygaard, Tom.k, Nuno Tavares, Mindmatrix, Pol098, Urod, Tabletop, GregorB, Graham87, Jclemens,Coneslayer, Seidenstud, Antonen, Scrouds, Sgkay, Nihiltres, Alex Sims, RexNL, Geimas5~enwiki, Tedder, Guanxi, DVdm, WriterHound,Peterl, Gwernol, YurikBot, Matanya(renamed), Adam1213, DMahalko, SpuriousQ, IByte, Scott5834, Horncomposer, NawlinWiki, Janke,ErkDemon, Roychai, Matticus78, Gadget850, Eli lilly, Elysianfields, Boivie, RWFanMS, KGasso, Modify, Guillom, N Yo FACE, Benja-mindees, KnightRider~enwiki, SmackBot, Ijanos, Marc Lacoste, Pandion auk, KVDP, Gjs238, Pzavon, Gilliam, Chris the speller, Brown-Bean, Headwes, Thumperward, Bethling, ADobkin, Bubbaprog, Langbein Rise, Laslovarga, Avb, Deeb, Addshore, HarisM, Smokefoot,Weregerbil, Occultations, M.elsayad, Tomnap, , The undertow, Kuru, John, AmiDaniel, Flip619, Deditos, Breno, Ckatz, Mr. Vernon,Avs5221, KittensOnToast, Dicklyon, NJA, Peyre, Caiaffa, Darry2385, K33l0r, Hu12, Iridescent, Gholam, Newone, Courcelles, Tawker-bot2, Dia^, Lirion, Zarex, Lenilucho, CompRhetoric, ChristTrekker, Skittleys, Tawkerbot4, Dipics, Optimist on the run, Thijs!bot, Btball,Electron9, Ghaberek, Stannered, AntiVandalBot, Luna Santin, Widefox, Prolog, DarkAudit, Memset, Holo16, JAnDbot, Husond, MER-C, Epeefleche, Sterrys, Arashi17, Wasell, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, [email protected], KConWiki, Vrendina, Animum, Daarznieks,Ebowdish, LorenzoB, DerHexer, Mmustafa~enwiki, HoosTrax, MartinBot, STBot, Csi235, Rettetast, Mschel, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker,

Daflory, Bitmapped, Dispenser, McSly, Oakshade, AntiSpamBot, Margareta, KylieTastic, Entropy, MilosIvanovic, Tygrrr, Grock2, Ba-jinderpal, Inter16, JavierMC, SoCalSuperEagle, Xiahou, Sosayso, Jimhegs, VolkovBot, ABF, Barneca, Philip Trueman, Aicchalmers,Chataros, Hernancito, Qxz, Anna Lincoln, Andy Dingley, Haseo9999, Lamro, Logan, K. Aainsqatsi, Kelaniz, NHRHS2010, Neparis,SieBot, Moonriddengirl, Parhamr, Ajmccauley, RJaguar3, Yintan, Vanished User 8a9b4725f8376, Keilana, Xenophon777, Bentogoa,Flyer22 Reborn, Oxymoron83, Qaseemhaider, Superbeecat, Precious Roy, Denisarona, ImageRemovalBot, ClueBot, NickCT, Hustvedt,The Thing That Should Not Be, Mattgirling, AirdishStraus, Alexbot, Goodone121, Jeroen74~enwiki, Bvlax2005, Arjayay, Jotterbot, She-bazahmed, Rickhurckes, Dekisugi, Bonkaw, Vanished user uih38riiw4hjlsd, Costasda, DumZiBoT, Sheryllcross~enwiki, XLinkBot, De-licious carbuncle, Spitfire, Ost316, Dilbert2000, Addbot, Grayfell, Barsoomian, Drstk, YttriumOx, Cst17, Dhscommtech, Haroldnewton,West.andrew.g, Lightbot, Bananaman 8 U, Luckas-bot, WikiDan61, Ptbotgourou, KamikazeBot, Peter Flass, AnomieBOT, KDS4444,1exec1, Jim1138, Piano non troppo, Player82, Materialscientist, Ranchips, Xqbot, Öncel Acar, Capricorn42, Nasnema, DSisyphBot,Jsharpminor, J04n, Thethibs, Bahahs, Grantmidnight, Stratocracy, Joaquin008, Lonaowna, Mentorofmen, SpaceFlight89, Adrian.scorpion,TobeBot, SleepDeprive, Vrenator, Subhash Prajapati, Diannaa, Fplamorim, Horsebrutality, Printerinkcartridges, Raees Iqbal, Mean as cus-tard, RjwilmsiBot, Markos Strofyllas, Pmorinreliablenh, EmausBot, Ariusturk, John of Reading, Orphan Wiki, Tommy2010, Wikipelli,ZéroBot, Ida Shaw, Matthias Vance, שחנ פיק , Wackywace, MrCrackers, Pvibien, Erianna, Peterh5322, L Kensington, Stsales, El-liepadre, ChuispastonBot, Cruz29, Petrb, ClueBot NG, Matthiaspaul, A520, Hon-3s-T, Masssly, Roskey44, Antiqueight, Reify-tech,Helpful Pixie Bot, ZackMartin, Wbm1058, Ramaksoud2000, DBigXray, Doorknob747, Wiki13, CitationCleanerBot, Bhavyalekshmi,

MMA rox, Luckydog429, MeanMotherJr, BattyBot, Cyberbot II, Ssscienccce, TwoTwoHello, Lugia2453, Frosty, Hrishikesh0111, Davi-dLeighEllis, Jmatazzoni, Trixie05, N Brown47, KH-1, ChamithN, Jorgecg13, GrammarNazi1, KasparBot, Himatsubushi6, HP vfix365,Daltronweb and Anonymous: 494

10.2 Images

• File:Chodowiecki_Basedow_Tafel_21_c_Z.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/42/Chodowiecki_Basedow_Tafel_21_c_Z.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: DANIEL CHODOWIECKI 62 bisher unveröffentlichte Handzeichnungen

zu dem Elementarwerk von Johann Bernhard Basedow. Mit einem Vorworte von Max von Boehn. Voigtländer-Tetzner, Frankfurt amMain 1922. (self scanned from book) Original artist: Daniel Chodowiecki

• File:Color_Laser_Printer_Magnified.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Color_Laser_Printer_Magnified.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: MrCrackers

• File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contribu-tors: ? Original artist: ?

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• File:Edit-clear.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg License: Public domain Contributors: TheTango! Desktop Project . Original artist:

The people from the Tango! project. And according to the meta-data in the file, specifically: “Andreas Nilsson, and Jakub Steiner (althoughminimally).”

• File:FujiXeroxDocuColourLaserPrint_C1110B.PNG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/FujiXeroxDocuColourLaserPrint_C1110B.PNG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: self-made http://www.tmg.com.vn Original artist: Newone http://www.tmg.com.vn

• File:Gary_Starkweather.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0b/Gary_Starkweather.jpg License: CC0Contributors: Own work Original artist: Dcoetzee

• File:Hp_laserjet_4200dtns.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/Hp_laserjet_4200dtns.jpg License: CC

BY 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Combuchan. Combuchan at en.wikipedia• File:Laser_printer,_2015-01-23.ogg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Laser_printer%2C_2015-01-23.

ogg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Finn Årup Nielsen

http://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_2//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Fnielsenhttps://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Laser_printer%252C_2015-01-23.ogghttps://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Laser_printer%252C_2015-01-23.ogghttp://en.wikipedia.org/http://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_2//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Combuchanhttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_2//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Combuchanhttps://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/Hp_laserjet_4200dtns.jpghttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_2//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Dcoetzeehttps://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0b/Gary_Starkweather.jpghttp://www.tmg.com.vn/http://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_2//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Newonehttp://www.tmg.com.vn/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/FujiXeroxDocuColourLaserPrint_C1110B.PNGhttps://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/FujiXeroxDocuColourLaserPrint_C1110B.PNGhttp://tango.freedesktop.org/The_Peoplehttp://tango.freedesktop.org/Tango_Desktop_Projecthttps://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f2/Edit-clear.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.pdfhttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_2//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:K._Aainsqatsihttp://en.wikipedia.org/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/Corona_charging.svghttps://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svghttp://localhost/var/www/apps/conversion/tmp/scratch_2//commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:MrCrackers&action=edit&redlink=1https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Color_Laser_Printer_Magnified.jpghttps://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Color_Laser_Printer_Magnified.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Chodowiecki.pdfhttps://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/42/Chodowiecki_Basedow_Tafel_21_c_Z.jpghttps://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/42/Chodowiecki_Basedow_Tafel_21_c_Z.jpghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_printing?oldid=713824152


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10 10 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:Laser_printer-Writing.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Laser_printer-Writing.svg License: CCBY 3.0 Contributors: en:Image:LaserPrinter-Writing_-_ReplacejJPG.png Original artist: en:User:DMahalko, traced by User:Stannered

• File:Laser_printer_fusing.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/Laser_printer_fusing.svg License: CCBY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons.Original artist: The original uploader was K. Aainsqatsi at English Wikipedia

• File:Laser_toner_cartridge.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Laser_toner_cartridge.svg License: CCBY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: KDS4444

• File:Laser_unit_dell_p1500_print.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/Laser_unit_dell_p1500_print.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jeroen74

• File:Printer_Steganography_Illustration.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/07/Printer_Steganography_Illustration.png License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Parhamr

10.3 Content license

• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0
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