“Unequal Childhoods, Unequal Adulthoods: Small Moments

and Large Consequences”Annette Lareau

Stanley I. Sheerr Professor

University of Pennsylvania

University of Virginia

April 9, 2015

• “The American Dream that we were all raised on is a simple but powerful one --- if you work hard and play by the rules, you should be given a chance to go as far as your God-given ability will take you.”

Sociological research

Social origins: life paths

Powerful findings,

But focus is on outcomes=>less on processes

Need attention to key moments

Contingencies

Things might have turned out differently

Social position => life outcomes

PROCESS

Economic resources

Cultural knowledge

Ways work together: pattern of CONTINGENCY

*economic resources

*cultural knowledge

*contacts: key adults to help

Structural forces:

• Wage set by minimum wage

• Eligibility for food stamps and other poverty programs

• Regulation (or lack there of) of occupational safety

• Immigration policies, citizenship policies

• Police services, fire fighter services

• Economic investment in communities

• Prison sentences

• Health insurance policies

• Deregulation of trucking industry

Immediate college enrollment rates among high school graduates, by parents’ education: 1992-2009

Source: National Science Foundation. “STEM Education Data and Trends: Who goes straight to college after high school graduation.” http://www.nsf.gov/nsb/sei/edTool/data/highschool-03.html. Accessed 29 July 2014.

Financial Assets by Education of Household Head, 2010 Survey of Consumer Finances

Education of

Household Head

Checking and

savings

accounts

Retirement

accounts

All households 92.5 50.4

No high school

diploma

77.5 17.1

High school diploma 90.0 40.6

Some college 94.6 48.6

College degree 98.4 70.5

Source: Bricker, Jesse, Arthur B. Kennickell, Kevin B. Moore, and John Sabelhaus. “Changes in U.S. Family Finances from 2007 to 2010: Evidence from the Survey of Consumer Finances.” 2012. Federal Reserve Bulletin 98 (2): 1-80

Labor Market

About ½ of jobs are filled via informal ties

Nancy DiTomaso: 60% of her sample got one job via a tie

Networks are segregated: limits job opportunities

Segregated networks are common

• “It has long been known that people prefer to associate with others who are similar to themselves, which produces segregation in people’s social networks along a variety of core demographic statuses, including race/ethnicity, age, education, and income.” (DiPrete et al. 2011: 1236)

Source: DiPrete, Thomas A., Andrew Gelman, Tyler McCormick, Julien Teitler, and Tian Zheng. 2011.“Segregation in Social Networks Based on Acquaintanceship and Trust.” American Journal of Sociology, 116(4): 1234-83. See also McPherson, Miller, Lynn Smith-Lovin, and James M. Cook. 2001. “Birds of a Feather: Homophily in Social Networks.” Annual Review of Sociology 27:. 415-444

Class and cultural logic of child rearingStudy of 88 families: 10 year old childrenmiddle-class, working-class and poorWhite and African-American

Middle class: Concerted cultivation

Working-class and poor:Accomplishment of natural growth

2003

Two follow-up studies

• # 1: At age 19/20 years: 2003/2004

• Interviews with all 12 youths, mothers and

• fathers of 11 of 12 youths, and siblings

• # 2: At age 29/30 years, 2014

• Information on 10 of 12

• Direct contact with 8 of 12

• 2 hour interviews with 5 focal adults

Relationship:• Holiday card with a bill tucked into it for many of the

12 youths

• Gifts at weddings and births of babies

• Gift cards at holidays for families with kids who are struggling economically

• Some have terminated (see Lareau 2011), but rest greeted warmly

• 2nd edition) but, if not, greeted warmly

Definition of social classMiddle-class: one parent is employed in a position that either entails substantial managerial authority or which centrally draws upon highly complex, educationally certified (i.e. college level) skills. [BA+]

Working-class: at least one parent is employed in a position with little or no managerial authority and which does not draw on highly complex, educationally certified skills. [usually high school grad or high school drop-out]

Poor: parents not in the labor force in regular, continuous basis

Character of Institutions

• Many unwritten rules

• Eroding public services

• *example: Decline in high school counselors

• But working-class youth more dependent on these services than middle-class youth

Conceptual tools: cultural capital• culture as a resource which can yield profits

• *provides access to scarce rewards

• *is subject to monopolization

• *under certain conditions, may be transmitted from one generation to the next

• In Bourdieu’s work and others, knowledge is key

• But not sufficiently developed in literature

Harold McAllister African-American, poor family

When 10:

Lived with mother, two sisters, brother, and assorted cousins in public housing

Mother received AFDC

Father was mechanic (never married); Harold visited regularly

Large, rich extended family network: many family gatherings

Loved basketball

Vacation Bible study, but otherwise no organized activities; played with friends outside

Good student, no disciplinary issues (didn’t do homework)

lNot a source of information about possible jobs

Harold McAllister: Overview

The Historical and Social

Structural Context

Residence

School

Work

Incarceration

Child support

Going forward:

=>Ability to realize life goals

Pathway had numerous

branching points or

contingencies.

Other pathways possible, but

depended on a combination of:

Economic factors

Cultural knowledge

Adults available to help

Harold McAllister1. Federal housing policy: public housing torn down

*Rental housing: substandard

2. Urban school district: few counselors

* Cumbersome district transfer process

3. Workplaces: ambiguous criteria for promotion

4. Child support policies

5. Mass incarceration

6. Police

* Network fell apart

Lost housing, moved around

Substandard housing moved in with Dad

School

*college prep program

*basketball team

*attendance

Applied for numerous jobs, passed up: quit

Baby’s momma, DNA, pays child support

Running streets: arrests

Police

Extended family shattered

Harold’s goals: Own a barbershop or a barWhat would be involved?

2 years of barber school (need

living expenses)

Pass test for state license

Pay taxes to city

Driver’s license or governmental

ID

Bank account

Living expenses

He sees it as a 75% chance of

happening.

Limited institutional footprint

No driver’s license

No bank account

No retirement account

No car

BUT

Pays child support through the

state

Had a DNA test to prove

paternity

Heavy marijuana user

Consistent with other studies

Karl GreeleyWhite man, grew up in poor family

Mother lost custody of kids due to a drug problem (when Karl was 4 yr, his

sister was 18 mos, his brother was 1 month)

Mom regained custody when he was 8 years old

Father not around

“Step-pop” around (never married) but separated when he was a teen; still

around

Lived in Section 8 (rent subsidized) apartment

At 10 years old, Mom was happy, kids were pleased to be back together

Walked dogs with neighbor, played outside, tested 156 IQ test

Karl Greeley1. Foster care system

2. Federal housing policy: Section 8 housing

3. Urban school district: few counselors: complete dependence on the counselor

4. Hospital policies

5. Section 8, cumbersome

6. Work policies

* Network small, grandfather difficult/controlling

Brother turned her in

Arrested, rehab children “sent to China”

Had Section 8 apt; fraud, found another one

School

*middle school did well

Small high school; only white student

Transferred to Lower Richmond

Job in grocery store “through someone in the neighborhood”

Fired: filed for unemployment, got job back

Never arrested: police harassment

Anxiety:

Got driver’s license at 30

Karl’s goals: “work in computers”What would be involved?

Clarity about the goal

Community college

Four year college?

Internship, job in computer repair shop

Networks:

Mother dead

Father dead

Step-pop disabled

Close with sister, nephew, and brother

Estranged from 2 uncles and grandpop

Limited institutional footprint

got driver’s license at 30

Bought a car

has bank account

Has health care

No retirement account

Feels stuck

Lives check to check

Networks:

Construction, school district janitor, pizza shop

marijuana user

If had some of same challenges with upper-

middle-class mother

Tutors

Other school

College preparation

Lawyers

Networks of doctors when in

hospital

Paid for barbershop school

Down payment on building

Help with license applications

Taking stock Average students

No major behavior problems

Mothers strongly wanted educational success in high school

Mothers strongly support paid work in labor force

Had hopes and dreams

Live in a historical context of federal, state, and local policies which helped to set the parameters for their lives

As grew up, lives unfold

Economic constraints

Cultural knowledge

Adults/networks

Worked together:

Many branching points

Many contingencies

Contributions of sociology

Live in an unequal society

Social origins cast a long

shadow for many, but not all,

children

But: not determined

Points when it might have

been different

Harold: mechanic

Karl: computer repair person

Need to unpack the interaction

of structural forces, historical

moments, and biography

Need to highlight key moments

Some moments are more

consequential than others

Cultural knowledge is often the

lynchpin, but interwoven with

other important factors