Laptop in ingles.docx

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Laptop

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A modernAcerlaptop with a 18.4" screen.

A laptop computer is apersonal computerformobile use.[1]A laptop has most of thesame components as a desktop computer, including adisplay, akeyboard, a pointingdevice such as atouchpad(also known as a trackpad) and/or apointing stick, andspeakers into a single unit. A laptop is powered bymains electricityvia anAC adapter,and can be used away from an outlet using arechargeable battery. Laptops are alsosometimes called notebook computers, notebooks, ultrabooks[2]ornetbooks.

Portable computers, originallymonochromeCRT-based and developed into the modernlaptops, were originally considered to be a small niche market, mostly for specializedfield applications such as the military, accountants and sales representatives. As

portable computers became smaller, lighter, cheaper, more powerful and as screensbecame larger and of better quality, laptops became very widely used for all sorts ofpurposes.

Contents

1 History 2 Classification

o 2.1 Desktop replacemento 2.2 Subnotebooko 2.3 Netbooko 2.4 Rugged laptopo 2.5 Tablet laptop

3 Componentso 3.1 Docking stationso 3.2 Charging stationso 3.3 Solar panelso 3.4 Standards

4 Advantages 5 Disadvantages

o 5.1 Performanceo 5.2 Upgradeabilityo 5.3 Ergonomics and health effects
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5.3.1 Wrists 5.3.2 Neck, spinal 5.3.3 Possible effect on fertility 5.3.4 Thighs

o 5.4 Durability 5.4.1 Equipment wears 5.4.2 Parts replacement 5.4.3 Heating and cooling 5.4.4 Battery life

o 5.5 Security and privacy 6 Major brands and manufacturers 7 Sales 8 Extreme environments 9 Accessories 10 Former features 11 See also 12 References 13 External links

History

Main article:History of laptops

Alan Kay with "Dynabook" prototype (5 November 2008 in Mountain View,California)

TheEpson HX-20

As the personal computer (PC) became feasible in the 1970s, the idea of a portablepersonal computer followed. A "personal, portable information manipulator" wasimagined byAlan KayatXerox PARCin 1968,[3]and described in his 1972 paper asthe "Dynabook".[4]
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top#Neck.2C_spinalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laptop#Wrists


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The term "laptop" can refer to a number of classes of small portable computers:[11][12]

Full-size Laptop: A laptop large enough to accommodate a "full-size" keyboard(a keyboard with the minimumQWERTY key layout, which is at least 13.5 keysacross that are on (0.750) inch centers, plus some room on both ends for the

case). The measurement of at least 11 inches across has been suggested as thethreshold for this class.[13]The first laptops were the size of a standard U.S. "Asize" notebook sheet of paper (8.5 11 inches)[citation needed], but later "A4-size"laptops were introduced, which were the width of a standardISO 216A4 sheetof paper (297 mm, or about 11.7 inches), and added a vertical column of keys tothe right and wider screens. It can also be laid sideways when not in use.

Netbook: A smaller, lighter, more portable laptop. It is usually cheaper than afull-size laptop, but sometimes has fewer features and less computing power.The smaller keyboards of a netbook can be more difficult to operate. There is nosharp line of demarcation between netbooks and inexpensive small laptops;some 11.6" models are marketed as netbooks. Since netbook laptops are quite

small in size and designed to be light and inexpensive they typically do notcome with an internaloptical drive. The AsusEee PClaunched this productclass, while the term was coined later by Intel.

Tablet PC: These havetouch screens. There are "convertible tablets" with a fullkeyboard where the screen rotates to be used atop the keyboard, a "hybrid tablet"where the keyboard can be detached from the screen, and "slate" form-factormachines which are usually touch-screen only (although a few older modelsfeature very small keyboards along the sides of the screen.)

Ultra-mobile PC: An ultra-mobile PC (ultra-mobile personal computer orUMPC) is a small form factor version of a pen computer, a class of laptopwhose specifications were launched by Microsoft and Intel in spring 2006. Sonyhad already made a first attempt in this direction in 2004 with its Vaio U series,which was only sold in Asia. UMPCs are smaller than subnotebooks, have aTFT display measuring (diagonally) about 12.7 to 17.8 cm, and are operated liketablet PCs using a touchscreen or a stylus. This term is commonly (ifinaccurately) used for small notebooks and/or netbooks.

Handheld PC: A Handheld PC, or H/PC for short, is a term for a computer builtaround a form factor which is smaller than any standard laptop computer. It issometimes referred to as a Palmtop. The first handheld device compatible withdesktop IBM personal computers of the time was the Atari Portfolio of 1989.Other early models were the Poqet PC of 1989 and the Hewlett Packard HP

95LX of 1991. Other DOS compatible hand-held computers also existed. Rugged: Engineered to operate in tough conditions (mechanical shocks, extreme

temperatures, wet and dusty environments, etc.) Ultrabook: A very thin version of a laptop usually less than an inch thick. Most

versions of Ultrabooks containSSD, or Solid-State Drives, instead of thecommon Laptop Hard Disk Drives. Although this term (like Netbook) wascoined and popularized by Intel, one of the most prominent examples is Apple'sMacbook Air.

Desktop replacement

Main article:Desktop replacement computer
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A desktop-replacementcomputeris a laptop that provides all of the capabilities of adesktop computer, with a similar level of performance. Desktop replacements areusually larger and heavier than standard laptops. They contain more powerfulcomponents and have a 15" or larger display.[12]They are bulkier and not as portable asother laptops, and their operation time on batteries is typically shorter; they are intended

to be used as compact and transportable alternatives to a desktop computer.[12]

Some laptops in this class use a limited range of desktop components to provide betterperformance for the same price at the expense of battery life; a few of those modelshave nobattery.[14]In the early 2000s, desktops were more powerful, easier to upgrade,and much cheaper than laptops, but in later years laptops have become much cheaperand more powerful than before,[15]and most peripherals are available in laptop-compatibleUSBversions which minimize the need for internaladd-on cards.

The names "Media Center Laptops" and "Gaming Laptops" are used to describespecialized notebook computers.[11]

Sony VAIO P seriessubnotebook

Subnotebook

Main article:Subnotebook

A subnotebook orultraportable is a laptop designed and marketed with an emphasis onportability (small size, low weight and often longer battery life) that retains performanceclose to that of a standard notebook. Subnotebooks are usually smaller and lighter thanstandard laptops, weighing between 0.8 and 2 kg (2 to 5 pounds);[11]the battery life can

exceed 10 hours[16]

when a large battery or an additional battery pack is installed. Sincethe introduction of netbooks, the line between subnotebooks and higher-end netbookshas been substantially blurred.

To achieve the size and weight reductions, ultraportables use 13" and smaller screens(down to 6.4"), have relatively fewports(but in any case include two or more USB

ports), employ expensive components designed for minimal size and best powerefficiency, and utilize advanced materials and construction methods. Mostsubnotebooks achieve a further portability improvement by omitting anoptical/removable media drive; in this case they may be paired with adocking stationthat contains the drive and optionally more ports or an additional battery.
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The term "subnotebook" is reserved to laptops that run general-purpose desktopoperating systems such asWindows,LinuxorMac OS X, rather than specializedsoftware such asWindows CE,iOS,Palm OSorInternet Tablet OS.

AtComputex 2011Intelannounced a new class for ultraportables calledUltrabooks.

The term is used to describe a highly portable laptop that has strict limits for size,weight, battery life, and have tablet-like features such as instant on functionality. Intelestimates that by the end of 2012, 40 percent of the consumer laptop market segmentwill be Ultrabooks.[17]

Netbook

Main article:Netbook

A SamsungChromebook.

Netbooks are laptops that are inexpensive, light-weight, economical, energy-efficientand especially suited for wireless communication and Internet access.[18][19]Hence thename netbook(as "the device excels in web-based computing performance").[20]

With primary focus given toweb browsingande-mailing, netbooks are intended to"rely heavily on the Internet for remote access toweb-based applications"[20]and aretargeted increasingly atcloud computingusers who rely on servers and require a less

powerfulclient computer.[21]A common distinguishing feature is the lack of optical disk(i.e. CD, DVD or Blu-ray) drives. While the devices range in size from below5 inches[22]to over 12,[23]most are between 9 and 11 inches (280 mm) and weigh

between 0.91.4 kg (23 pounds).[20]

Netbooks are mostly sold with light-weight operating systems such asLinux,Windows

XPand Windows 7 Starter edition.

Netbooks do have a few disadvantages. Because the netbooks are so thin, the firstproducts introduced to the market utilizedsolid-state drivesfor internal storage insteadof traditional hard disks, increasing cost and lowering storage space. Hard disk drivetechnology and form factors have since been adapted to fit into netbooks providingmore hard drive space without increasing cost, a key point of a netbook. Another issuewith netbooks is expansion. In order to produce small, inexpensive laptops, netbooksgenerally lack significant upgrade ability. A majority of netbooks only have a singlememory slot and will not recognize any amount beyond 2 GB ofRAM. This limits thecapabilities of the netbook beyond basic functionality (internet, e-mail, etc.). Finally

because of their size and use of more rudimentary components compared to notebooksandsubnotebooks, netbooks also generally have a slowerCPU[24]
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rabber-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_applicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-mailinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Webhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laptop#cite_note-pricegrabber-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laptop#cite_note-upenn-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laptop#cite_note-upenn-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromebookhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netbookhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laptop#cite_note-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultrabookhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computex_Taipeihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Tablet_OShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palm_OShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IOShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_CEhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mac_OS_Xhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linuxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Windows


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In 2009,Googleannounced an operating system calledGoogle Chrome OSfor thismarket and in 2011 the GoogleChromebookwas released running on the GoogleChrome OS.

The big breakthrough for netbook computers did not happen until the weight, diagonal

form-factor and price combination of < 1 kg, < 9", < U.S. $400, respectively, becamecommercially available in around 2008.

Rugged laptop

Main article:Rugged computer

APanasonic Toughbook.

A rugged/ruggedized laptop is designed to reliably operate in harsh usage conditions

such as strong vibrations, extreme temperatures, and wet or dusty environments.Rugged laptops are usually designed from scratch, rather than adapted from regularconsumer laptop models. Rugged laptops are bulkier, heavier, and much moreexpensive than regular laptops,[25]and thus are seldom seen in regular consumer use.

The design features found in rugged laptops include rubber sheeting under the keyboardkeys, sealed port and connector covers, passive cooling, superbright displays easilyreadable in daylight, cases and frames made of magnesium alloys that are much strongerthan plastic found in commercial laptops, and solid-state storage devices or hard discdrives that are shock mounted to withstand constant vibrations. Rugged laptops arecommonly used by public safety services (police, fire and medical emergency), military,

utilities, field service technicians, construction, mining and oil drilling personnel.Rugged laptops are usually sold to organizations, rather than individuals, and are rarelymarketed via retail channels.

Tablet laptop

See also:Tablet computer
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A tablet laptop with stylus

Typical modernconvertible laptopshave a complex joint between the keyboard housingand the display permitting the display panel to swivel and then lie flat on the keyboardhousing.

Typically, the base of a tablet laptop attaches to the display at a single joint called aswivel hinge or rotating hinge. The joint allows the screen to rotate through 180 and

fold down on top of the keyboard to provide a flat writing surface. This design, althoughthe most common, creates a physical point of weakness on the laptop.

Some manufacturers have attempted to overcome these weak points by adoptinginnovative methods such as a sliding design in which the screen slides up from the slate-like position and locks into place to provide the laptop mode. Newer iterations of tabletlaptops are of hybrid design. Hybrid tablets incorporate a removable keyboard baseallowing the user to easily choose between functioning as a laptop with the keyboardattached or as a slate device utilizing the touchscreen alone.

Although Tablets are touchscreen (with or without a stylus) they have the advantage to

offer the keyboard and pointing device (usually a trackpad) of older laptops, for userswho do not use thetouchscreendisplay as the primary method of input.

Components

Main article:Personal computer hardware

Miniaturization: a comparison of a desktop computer motherboard (ATXform factor) toa motherboard from a 13" laptop (2008 unibodyMacbook)
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equipped with only 1 GB of RAM and generally only expandable to 2 GB, if atall, to keep manufacturing costs low.

Expansion cards: APC Card(formerlyPCMCIA) orExpressCardbay forexpansion cards is often present on laptops to allow adding and removingfunctionality, even when the laptop is powered on. Some internal subsystems

such as: Ethernet, Wi-Fi, or a Wireless cellular modem can be implemented asreplaceable internal expansion cards, usually accessible under an access coveron the bottom of the laptop. Two popular standards for such cards areMiniPCIand its successor, thePCI Express Mini. In newer laptops it is not uncommont toalso see aMini SATA(mSATA) connection in addition to MiniPCI and PCIExpress Mini.[30]

Power supply: Laptops are typically powered by an internalrechargeable batterythat is charged using an external power supply, which outputs a DC voltagetypically in the range of 7.224 volts. The power supply is usually external, andconnected to the laptop through an AC connector cable. It can charge the batteryand power the laptop simultaneously; when the battery is fully charged, the

laptop continues to run on power supplied by the external power supply. Thecharger adds about 400 grams (1 lb) to the overall "transport weight" of thenotebook.

Battery: Current laptops utilizelithium ionbatteries, with more recent modelsusing the newlithium polymertechnology. These two technologies have largelyreplaced the oldernickel metal-hydridebatteries. Typical battery life forstandard laptops is two to five hours of light-duty use, but may drop to as littleas one hour or less when doing power-intensive tasks. A battery's performancegradually decreases with time, leading to an eventual replacement in one to threeyears, depending on the charging and discharging pattern. This large-capacitymain battery should not be confused with the much smaller battery nearly all

computers use to run thereal-time clockand to store theBIOSconfiguration inCMOSwhen the computer is off. Lithium-ion batteries do not have a memoryeffect as older batteries may have. The memory effect happens when one doesnot use a battery to its fullest extent, then recharges the battery. Innovations inlaptops and batteries have seen situations which the battery can provide up to 24hours of continued operation, assuming average power consumption levels. Anexample is the HP EliteBook 6930p when used with its ultra-capacity battery.[31]

Video display controller: On standard laptops the video controller is usuallyintegrated into thechipsetto conserve power. This tends to limit the use oflaptops for gaming and entertainment. These two fields have constantly

escalated hardware demands, and because the integrated chipset is very difficultto upgrade for a standard user, laptops may grow obsolete quickly for use ingaming and entertainment.[32]Higher-end laptops and desktop replacements in

particular often come with dedicated graphics processors on the motherboard oras an internal expansion card. These mobile graphics processors are comparablein performance to low-end mainstream desktop graphic accelerator boards.[33]Afew notebooks have switchable graphics with both an integrated and discretecard installed. The user can choose between using integrated graphics when

battery life is important and dedicated graphics when demanding applicationscall for it. This allows for greater flexibility and also conserves power when notrequired.[34]

Display: Most modern laptops feature 13 inches (33 cm) or larger coloractivematrix displaysbased onCCFLorLEDlighting with resolutions of 1280800
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(16:10) or 1366 768 (16:9) pixels and above. Some models use screens withresolutions common in desktop PCs (for example, 1440900, 1600900 and16801050.) Models with LED-based lighting offer lesser power consumption,and often higher brightness. Netbooks with a 10 inches (25 cm) or smallerscreen typically use a resolution of 1024600, while netbooks and subnotebooks

with a 11.6 inches (29 cm) or 12 inches (30 cm) screen use standard notebookresolutions. Having a higher resolution display will allow more items to fitonscreen at a time, improving the user's ability to multitask.

A size comparison of 3.5" and 2.5"hard disk drives

Removable mediadrives: A DVD/CD reader/writer drive is nearly universal onfull-sized models, and is common on thin-and-light models; it is uncommon onsubnotebooks and unknown on netbooks. CD drives are becoming rare, whileBlu-rayis becoming more common on notebooks.[35]

Internal storage: Laptophard disksare physically smaller2.5 inches (64 mm)or 1.8 inches (46 mm)compared to desktop 3.5 inches (89 mm) drives. Some

newer laptops (usually ultraportables) employ more expensive, but faster, lighterand power-efficientflash memory-basedSSDsinstead. Currently, 250 to 500GB sizes are common for laptop hard disks (64 to 512 GB for SSDs).

Input: Apointing stick,touchpador both are used to control the position of thecursor on the screen, and an integrated keyboard is used for typing. An externalkeyboard and/or mouse may be connected using USB or PS/2 port, orBluetooth(if present).

Ports: severalUSBports, an external monitor port (VGA,DVI, mini-DisplayPortorHDMI), audio in/out, and anEthernetnetwork port are found onmost laptops. Less common arelegacy portssuch as aPS/2keyboard/mouse

port,serial portor aparallel port. Cooling: Waste heat from operation is difficult to remove in the compact

internal space of a laptop. Early laptops usedheat sinksplaced directly on thecomponents to be cooled, but when these hot components are deep inside thedevice, a large space-wasting air duct is needed to exhaust the heat. Modernlaptops instead rely onheat pipesto rapidly move waste heat towards the edgesof the device, to allow for a much smaller and compact fan and heat sink coolingsystem. Waste heat is usually exhausted away from the device operator, towardsthe rear or sides of the device. Multiple air intake paths are used since someintakes can be blocked, such as when the device is placed on a soft conformingsurface like a chair cushion. It is believed that some designs with metal cases,

like Apple's aluminumMacBook ProandMacBook Air, also employ the case ofthe machine as a "gigantic" heat sink, allowing it to supplement cooling by
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A teacher using as part of a workshop for school children.

Wikipediaco-founderJimmy Walesusing a laptop on a park bench.

Portability is usually the first feature mentioned in any comparison of laptops versusdesktop PCs.[42]Physical portability allows that a laptop can be used in many placesnot only at home and at the office, but also during commuting and flights, in coffee

shops, in lecture halls and libraries, at clients' location or at a meeting room, etc. Theportability feature offers several distinct advantages:

Productivity: Using a laptop in places where a desktop PC can not be used, andat times that would otherwise be wasted. For example, an office workermanaging their e-mails during an hour-long commute by train, or a studentdoing his/her homework at the university coffee shop during a break betweenlectures.[43]

Immediacy: Carrying a laptop means having instant access to variousinformation, personal and work files. Immediacy allows better collaboration

between coworkers or students, as a laptop can be flipped open to present aproblem or a solution anytime, anywhere.

Up-to-date information: If a person has more than one desktop PC, a problemof synchronization arises: changes made on one computer are not automatically

propagated to the others. There are ways to resolve this problem, includingphysical transfer of updated files (using a USB flash memory stick or CDRs) orusing synchronization software over the Internet. However, using a single laptopat both locations avoids the problem entirely, as the files exist in a singlelocation and are always up-to-date.

Connectivity: A proliferation ofWi-Fiwireless networks and cellularbroadband data services (HSDPA,EVDOand others) combined with a near-

ubiquitous support by laptops

[44]

means that a laptop can have easy Internet andlocal network connectivity while remaining mobile. Wi-Fi networks and laptopprograms are especially widespread at university campuses.[45]

Other advantages of laptops:

Size: Laptops are smaller than desktop PCs. This is beneficial when space is at apremium, for example in small apartments and student dorms. When not in use,a laptop can be closed and put away.

Low power consumption: Laptops are several times more power-efficient thandesktops. A typical laptop uses 2090 W, compared to 100800 W for desktops.

This could be particularly beneficial for businesses (which run hundreds of
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personal computers, multiplying the potential savings) and homes where there isa computer running 24/7 (such as a home media server, print server, etc.)

Quiet: Laptops are often quieter than desktops, due both to the components(quieter, slower 2.5-inch hard drives) and to less heat production leading to useof fewer and slower cooling fans.

Battery: a charged laptop can continue to be used in case of a power outage andis not affected by short power interruptions and blackouts. A desktop PC needs aUPSto handle short interruptions, blackouts and spikes; achieving on-batterytime of more than 2030 minutes for a desktop PC requires a large andexpensive UPS.[46]

All-in-One: designed to be portable, laptops have everything integrated into thechassis. For desktops (excluding all-in-ones) this is divided into the desktop,keyboard, mouse, display, and optional peripherals such as speakers.

Disadvantages

Compared to desktop PCs, laptops have disadvantages in the following fields:

Performance

While the performance of mainstream desktops and laptops is comparable, and the costof laptops has fallen less rapidly than desktops, laptops remain more expensive thandesktop PCs at the same performance level.[47]The upper limits of performance oflaptops remain much lower than the highest-end desktops (especially "workstationclass" machines with two processor sockets), and "bleeding-edge" features usuallyappear first in desktops and only then, as the underlying technology matures, are

adapted to laptops.

For Internet browsing and typical office applications, where the computer spends themajority of its time waiting for the next user input, even relatively low-end laptops(such as Netbooks) can be fast enough for some users.[48]As of mid-2010, at the lowestend, the cheapest netbooksbetween US$200300remain more expensive than thelowest-end desktop computers (around US$200) only when those are priced without ascreen/monitor. Once an inexpensive monitor is added, the prices are comparable.

Most higher-end laptops are sufficiently powerful for high-resolution movie playback,some 3D gaming and video editing and encoding. However, laptop processors can be

disadvantaged when dealing with higher-end database, maths, engineering, financialsoftware, virtualization, etc. Also, the top-of-the-line mobile graphics processors(GPUs) are significantly behind the top-of-the-line desktop GPUs to a greater degreethan the processors, which limits the utility of laptops for high-end 3D gaming andscientific visualization applications.

Some manufacturers work around this performance problem by using desktop CPUs forlaptops.[49]

Upgradeability
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Upgradeability of laptops is very limited compared to desktops, which are thoroughlystandardized. In general, hard drives and memory can be upgraded easily. Optical drivesandinternal expansion cardsmay be upgraded if they follow anindustry standard, butall other internal components, including the motherboard, CPU and graphics, are notalways intended to be upgradeable.Intel,Asus,Compal, Quanta and some other laptop

manufacturers have created theCommon Building Blockstandard for laptop parts toaddress some of the inefficiencies caused by the lack of standards.

The reasons for limited upgradeability are both technical and economic. There is noindustry-wide standardform factorfor laptops; each major laptop manufacturer pursuesits ownproprietarydesign and construction, with the result that laptops are difficult toupgrade and have high repair costs. With few exceptions, laptop components can rarely

be swapped between laptops of competing manufacturers, or even between laptops fromthe different product-lines of the same manufacturer.

Some upgrades can be performed by adding external devices, eitherUSBor in

expansion card format such asPC Card. Devices such as sound cards, network adapters,hard and optical drives, and numerous other peripherals are available, but theseupgrades usually impair the laptop's portability, because they add cables and boxes tothe setup and often have to be disconnected and reconnected when the laptop is on themove.

Ergonomics and health effects

Wrists

Laptop cooler(silver) under laptop (white), preventing heating of lap and improving

laptop airflow

Because of their small and flat keyboard and trackpad pointing devices, prolonged useof laptops can causerepetitive strain injury.[50]Usage of separate, externalergonomickeyboardsand pointing devices is recommended to prevent injury when working forlong periods of time; they can be connected to a laptop easily by USB or via a dockingstation. Some health standards require ergonomic keyboards at workplaces.

Neck, spinal

The integrated screen often requires users to lean over for a better view, which can

cause neck and/or spinal injuries. A larger and higher-quality external screen can be
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connected to almost any laptop to alleviate that and to provide additional screen spacefor more productive work. Another solution is to use acomputer stand.

For anyone not buying a new screen, a simple method to reduce risk of spinal injury isto position the laptop's screen in a manner that an obtuse angle (more than 90 degrees

open) is formed. It is then possible for the neck to remain straight during use of thedevice.

Possible effect on fertility

A study byState University of New Yorkresearchers found that heat generated fromlaptops can increase the temperature of the lap of male users when balancing thecomputer on their lap, potentially puttingsperm countat risk. The study, whichincluded roughly two dozen men between the ages of 21 and 35, found that the sitting

position required to balance a laptop can increase scrotum temperature by as much as2.1 C (3.78 F). However, further research is needed to determine whether this directly

affects malesterility.[51]

A 2010 study of 29 males published inFertility and Sterility found that men who kepttheir laptops on their laps experienced scrotal hyperthermia (overheating) in which theirscrotal temperatures increased by up to 2 C. The resulting heat increase, which couldnot be offset by a laptop cushion, may increase male infertility.[52][53][54][55][56]

A common practical solution to this problem is to place the laptop on a table or desk, orto use a book or pillow between the body and the laptop.[citation needed] Another solution isto obtain a cooling unit for the laptop. These are usually USB powered and consist of ahard thin plastic case housing one, two or three cooling fanswith the entire assemblydesigned to sit under the laptop in questionwhich results in the laptop remaining coolto the touch, and greatly reduces laptop heat buildup. [citation needed]

Thighs

Heat generated from using a laptop on the lap can also cause skin discoloration on thethighs known as "toasted skin syndrome."[57][58][59][60]

Durability

A cloggedheat sinkon a laptop after 2.5 years of use

Equipment wears
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Because of their portability, laptops are subject to more wear and physical damage thandesktops. Components such as screen hinges, latches,power jacksandpower cordsdeteriorate gradually from ordinary use. A liquid spill onto the keyboard, a rather minormishap with a desktop system, can damage the internals of a laptop and result in acostly repair. One study found that a laptop is three times more likely to break during

the first year of use than a desktop.[61]

Parts replacement

Original external components are expensive, and usually proprietary and non-interchangeable; other parts are inexpensivea power jack can cost a few dollarsbuttheir replacement may require extensive disassembly and reassembly of the laptop by atechnician. Other inexpensive but fragile parts often cannot be purchased separate fromlarger more expensive components.[62]The repair costs of a failed motherboard or LCD

panel often exceed the value of a used laptop.

Heating and cooling

Laptops rely on extremely compact cooling systems involving afanandheat sinkthatcan fail from blockage caused by accumulated airborne dust and debris. Most laptops donot have any type of removable dust collection filter over the air intake for these coolingsystems, resulting in a system that gradually causes it to conduct more heat and noise asthe years pass. In some cases the laptop starts to overheat even at idle load levels. Thisdust is usually stuck inside, where the fan and heat sink meet, where casual cleaning andvacuuming cannot remove it. Compressed air can dislodge the dust and debris but maynot always remove it; after the device is turned on, the loose debris builds back up thecooling system by the fans. A complete dis-assembly is usually required to clean thelaptop. Many laptops are difficult to disassemble by the normal user and containcomponents that are sensitive toelectrostatic discharge(ESD).

Battery life

Battery life is limited because the capacity drops with time, eventually requiringreplacement after as little as a year. A new battery typically stores enough energy to runthe laptop for three to five hours, depending on usage, configuration, and powermanagement settings. Yet, as it ages, the battery's energy storage will dissipate

progressively until it lasts only a few minutes. The battery is often easily replaceable

and a higher capacity model may be obtained for longer life. Some laptops (specificallyultrabooks) do not have the usual removable battery and have to be brought to theservice center of its manufacturer to have its battery replaced. Replacement batteries canalso be expensive.

Security and privacy

Main article:Laptop theft

Because they are valuable, common, and portable, laptops are prized targets fortheft.The cost of stolen business or personal data, and of the resulting problems (identity

theft,credit card fraud, breach of privacy), can be many times the value of the stolen
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DC_connectorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DC_connectorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DC_connectorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_cordhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_cordhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_cordhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laptop#cite_note-61http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laptop#cite_note-61http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laptop#cite_note-61http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laptop#cite_note-62http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laptop#cite_note-62http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laptop#cite_note-62http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_fanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_fanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_fanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_sinkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_sinkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_sinkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrostatic_dischargehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrostatic_dischargehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrostatic_dischargehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laptop_thefthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laptop_thefthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laptop_thefthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laptop_thefthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laptop_thefthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laptop_thefthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_thefthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_thefthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_thefthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_thefthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Credit_card_fraudhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Credit_card_fraudhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Credit_card_fraudhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Credit_card_fraudhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_thefthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_thefthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laptop_thefthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laptop_thefthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrostatic_dischargehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_sinkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_fanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laptop#cite_note-62http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laptop#cite_note-61http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_cordhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DC_connector


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laptop itself. Consequently, physical protection of laptops and the safeguarding of datacontained on them are both of great importance.

Most laptops have aKensington security slot, which can be used to tether them to adesk or other immovable object with a security cable and lock. In addition, modern

operating systems andthird-party softwareofferdisk encryptionfunctionality, whichrenders the data on the laptop'shard driveunreadable without akeyor a pass phrase.Some laptops also now have additional security elements added by the consumer,including eye recognition software and fingerprint scanning components.[63]

InRobbins v. Lower Merion School District(Eastern District of Pennsylvania 2010),school-issued laptops loaded with special software afforded two high schools with thecapability to take secret webcam shots of their students at home, via their students'laptops.[64][65][66]

Major brands and manufacturers

Sony Vaio brand are among the best selling laptops

Major laptop brands

Acer/Gateway/eMachines/Packard Bell:TravelMate,

Extensa,FerrariandAspire;Packard Bell Easynote;

Chromebook

Apple:MacBook AirandMacBook Pro

Asus:Asus Eee,Lamborghini,Asus ROG

Dell:Alienware,Inspiron,Latitude,Precision,Studio,

VostroandXPS

Falcon Northwest: DRX, TLX, I / O
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kensington_Security_Slothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kensington_Security_Slothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kensington_Security_Slothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disk_encryption_softwarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disk_encryption_softwarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disk_encryption_softwarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disk_encryptionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disk_encryptionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disk_encryptionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_drivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_drivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_drivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Key_%28cryptography%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Key_%28cryptography%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Key_%28cryptography%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laptop#cite_note-63http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laptop#cite_note-63http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laptop#cite_note-63http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robbins_v._Lower_Merion_School_Districthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robbins_v._Lower_Merion_School_Districthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robbins_v._Lower_Merion_School_Districthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laptop#cite_note-64http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laptop#cite_note-64http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laptop#cite_note-66http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laptop#cite_note-66http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acer_%28company%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acer_%28company%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gateway,_Inc.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gateway,_Inc.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gateway,_Inc.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EMachineshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EMachineshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EMachineshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Packard_Bellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Packard_Bellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Packard_Bellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TravelMatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TravelMatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TravelMatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extensa_%28notebook%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extensa_%28notebook%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acer_Ferrarihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acer_Ferrarihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acer_Ferrarihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acer_Aspirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acer_Aspirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acer_Aspirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Packard_Bell_Easynote&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Packard_Bell_Easynote&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Packard_Bell_Easynote&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromebookhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromebookhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_Inc.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_Inc.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacBook_Airhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacBook_Airhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacBook_Airhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacBook_Prohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacBook_Prohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacBook_Prohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asus_Eeehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asus_Eeehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asus_Eeehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Asus_Lamborghini&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Asus_Lamborghini&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Asus_Lamborghini&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asus_ROGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asus_ROGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asus_ROGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dell,_Inc.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dell,_Inc.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alienwarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alienwarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alienwarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dell_Inspironhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dell_Inspironhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dell_Inspironhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dell_Latitudehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dell_Latitudehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dell_Latitudehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dell_Precisionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dell_Precisionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dell_Precisionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dell_Studiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dell_Studiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dell_Studiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dell_vostrohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dell_vostrohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dell_XPShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dell_XPShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dell_XPShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falcon_Northwesthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falcon_Northwesthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:A_black_Sony_Vaio_C_Series_Laptop.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:A_black_Sony_Vaio_C_Series_Laptop.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:A_black_Sony_Vaio_C_Series_Laptop.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:A_black_Sony_Vaio_C_Series_Laptop.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falcon_Northwesthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dell_XPShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dell_vostrohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dell_Studiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dell_Precisionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dell_Latitudehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dell_Inspironhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alienwarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dell,_Inc.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asus_ROGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Asus_Lamborghini&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asus_Eeehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacBook_Prohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacBook_Airhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_Inc.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromebookhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Packard_Bell_Easynote&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acer_Aspirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acer_Ferrarihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extensa_%28notebook%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TravelMatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Packard_Bellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EMachineshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gateway,_Inc.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acer_%28company%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laptop#cite_note-66http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laptop#cite_note-64http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laptop#cite_note-64http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robbins_v._Lower_Merion_School_Districthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laptop#cite_note-63http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Key_%28cryptography%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_drivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disk_encryptionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disk_encryption_softwarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kensington_Security_Slot


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Fujitsu:Lifebook

HCL(India):ME Laptop,ME Netbook,Leaptopand

MiLeap

Hewlett-Packard/Compaq:HP Pavilion,HP Envy,HP

ProBook,HP EliteBook,Compaq Presario

Lenovo:ThinkPad,IdeaPad, and theEssentialB and G

Series

LG:Xnote

Medion: Akoya (OEM version of MSI Wind)

MSI: E, C, P, G, V, A, X, U series andWind Netbook

Panasonic:Toughbook, Satellite, Let's Note (Japan only)

Samsung:SENS: N, P, Q, R and X series;Chromebook

Sony:Vaio

TG Sambo(Korea):Averatec,Averatec Buddy

Toshiba:Dynabook,Portege,Tecra,Satellite,Qosmio,

Libretto

v t e

Main article:List of laptop brands and manufacturers

There are a multitude of laptop brands and manufacturers; several major brands,offering notebooks in various classes, are listed in the box to the right.

The major brands usually offer good service and support, including well-executeddocumentation and driver downloads that will remain available for many years after a
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fujitsuhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fujitsuhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lifebookhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lifebookhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lifebookhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindustan_Computershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindustan_Computershttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ME_Laptop&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ME_Laptop&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ME_Laptop&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ME_Netbook&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ME_Netbook&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ME_Netbook&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Leaptop&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Leaptop&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Leaptop&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MiLeap&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MiLeap&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hewlett-Packardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hewlett-Packardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compaqhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compaqhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compaqhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HP_Pavilion_%28computer%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HP_Pavilion_%28computer%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HP_Pavilion_%28computer%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HP_Envyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HP_Envyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HP_Envyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HP_ProBookhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HP_ProBookhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HP_ProBookhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HP_ProBookhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HP_EliteBookhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HP_EliteBookhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HP_EliteBookhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compaq_Presariohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compaq_Presariohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compaq_Presariohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenovo_Grouphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenovo_Grouphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ThinkPadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ThinkPadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ThinkPadhttp://en.wiki

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