Lapierre Fortin - Constructing Fair Trade From the Bottom Up

8/10/2019 Lapierre Fortin - Constructing Fair Trade From the Bottom Up

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Undergraduate Honours ThesisFinal version, presented byÉmanuèle Lapierre-Fortin

To Professors Ken a!"onald and "arryl #eedFor the !lass $"%"&'( )dvan!ed %eminar in $nternational "evelopment %tudies

University of Toronto at %!arborough)pril '*th +&&

1

Constructing Fair Trade from the Bottom-Up: An Examination of Notions of Fairness in theConventional Cotton Trade of Burkina Faso



' )!no.ledgements

I would like to sincerely thank:

Ibrahim Traoré, for all his help as a research assistantPierre, Joseph and Salif Traoré for logistics in arangasso!SamblaJean!Pierre Traoré, for his continuous ad"ice#ssociation Siguignogonia of arangasso!Sambla, for their hospitality$niterra, %el"etas and &aison des #ssociations in 'urkina (asoen &ac)onald and )arryl *eed, for in"aluable research guidanceThe Threads of Wrath team for lending their talent ad enthusiasm to the documentary pro+ect#ll inter"iewees for their interest, patience, insights and great work &y friends and colleagues for their moral support&y housemates and partner for their input, and for being there



+ /0e!utive %ummary

-hen a farmer deli"ers his cotton to the Société des (ibres Te.tiles /S0(IT23, a 4uasi!monopsonyin 'urkina (aso, a cut of two kilograms, is taken off of the final buying price, accounting for

5transportation losses67 0ften the farmers spend the night filling the containers of the S0(IT2"ehicles, at their own cost, and 58if the truck is in an accident, they are responsible for all thedamages67 This is why one cannot help but shi"er at the sight of an o"er!charged orange S0(IT2"ehicle sprinkling 'urkinab9 roads with white gold7 It makes one wonder if nothing could be donefor the producers7 The (air Trade mo"ement /(T3 thought it had the solution by setting up a parallel,certified and guaranteed supply chain that would in"ol"e fewer intermediaries between the cottonfarmer and the fashion shopper, thus allowing those at the bottom of the pyramid to benefit from ahigher income7 -hile it sounds good in theory, it remains that the mo"ement is informed by anideology that is strikingly different from that of its intended beneficiaries, resulting in a set of certification criteria that may not be adapted to the local culture7

It seems like +ustice in a socio!economic relation differs from one culture to another /onner, ;;<37It is primordial for (T stakeholders to position scholarly criti4ues of (T and "iews of producers ontrade +ustice in the con"entional networks into a theoretical framework about fairness in economics7)rawing from a case study of non!certified cotton producers in 'urkina (aso, this thesis aims at!omparing and analy1ing ho. trade 2usti!e is understood and e0perien!ed by a3 non-!ertified!otton produ!ers in 4urina Faso, b3 FT !otton .orers and !3 FT s!holars, in order todis!over ho. the !urrent FT !otton poli!y !ould be better adapted to the priorities, values andrealities of 4urinabè produ!ers5 This entails the following set of ob+ecti"es: a3 .plore the"isions of trade fairness by (T cotton workers and academia b3 Jointly make a conte.t situationanalysis with the cotton growers to understand their account of +ustice in current trading relationsand how these could be made 5fairer6= > !3 #ssess which "iews of trade fairness correspond best to

the producers?7 This research found that the most salient points of unfairness in the con"entionalcotton trade are the breaches of social contracts between the producers, their $nion and S0(IT2and a lack of participation in decision!making7 This oppression of producers by more powerfulactors is seen as the cause of the precarious and worsening terms of trade for cotton, and the poor labour conditions in the fields7 This unfair situation has the potential to be replicated in the (Tcotton industry in 'urkina (aso because the (T model is not ade4uately adapted to local conte.t7Indeed, in order to conform with the producers? "ision of trade fairness as presented in this casestudy, (T cotton actors should adopt a ) framework instead of a more liberal approach tode"elopment and trade fairness, as produced by perfect markets7

This research ser"es the double purpose of augmenting the knowledge pool on (T and attaining such

practical deli"erables as triggering discussion around more locally adapted (T cotton policy for 'urkina (aso through wider intercultural understanding of trade fairness ideologies7 It should alsofacilitate more informed and effecti"e business relationships between (T workers and producers,while also ser"ing as an e.ample for (T @A0s interested in undertaking similar work with their partners in the South7 &ore emphasis should be put on ensuring (T cotton does not replicate themistakes of (T coffee in terms of price inde.ation and participation= this would include refocusing(T programs towards capacity building with producers, and towards consumers education in the @orth7 This would help bridge di"isions between the (T networks and mo"ement7

<



6 Table of 7ontents

1 #cknowledgements777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777

.ecuti"e Summary777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777<

< Table of ontents7777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777B

B Cist of tables77777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777D

E Cist of figures777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777D

F Cist of acronyms77777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777G

D Introduction777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777H

D71 *esearch Problem7777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777771;

D7 Thesis Statement777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777771

D7< Thesis 0b+ecti"es77777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777771<

D7B -hy this paper7777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777771<

G onceptual (ramework: (airness and )e"elopment777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777771E

G71 Trade (airness Some Issues7777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777771E

G7 (our @otions of the *ole of (air Trade in )e"elopment77777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777771F

G771 (T as ha"ing no role77777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777771D

G77 (T as helping small producers become efficient enough to compete in mainstream

markets 1GG77< (T as helping to correct for the lack of ideal market conditions7777777777777777777777777777771H

G77B (T as an alternati"e form of local de"elopment77777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777771H

H &ethodology7777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777771

H71 Study area7777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777771

H7 Study samples777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777

H7< Information collected7777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777

H7B &ethods for gathering information7777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777<

H7E Cimitations and Insights on *esearch777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777<H7E71 hallenges7777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777B

H7E7 Positionality and *elationships77777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777E

H7E7< &ethodological Issues7777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777F

H7E7B .ogenous (actors7777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777D

H7E7E *ecommendations to 0ther *esearchers777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777D

B



1; onte.t77777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777D

1;71 (air trade: &o"ement and @etworks7777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777D

1;7 The otton Industry #n Introduction777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777<;

1;7< otton industry in 'urkina (aso7777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777<1

1;7<71 %istory of cotton in 'urkina (aso7777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777<11;7<7 otton in ontemporary 'urkina (aso777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777<

10.3.3 Structure of the industry7777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777<<

1;7<7B (T cotton in 'urkina (aso7777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777<E

11 *esearch (indings777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777<D

1171 (T workers and #cademics777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777<D

117171 -hat is (T77777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777<D

11717 -hat is the impact of (T7777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777<G

11717< -hat is unfair in con"entional trade77777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777B;11717B %ow is (T cotton +ustified77777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777B

11717E hallenges of the "olution of (T777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777BB

11717F riti4ues of (T practices and rationale777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777BF

11717D %ow can (T be made fairer777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777E1

117 Producers7777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777E1

11771 -hat is $nfair in the on"entional otton Trade in 'urkina (aso77777777777777777777777E

1177 -hat can be done about this $nfairness77777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777F;

1 )iscussion7777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777FE171 -hat notion of the *ole of (T do Producers and (T -orkers Share7777777777777777777777777FE

17 Is the current (T cotton model in 'urkina (aso an alternati"e adapted to local priorities777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777FD

1771 #n alternati"e7777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777FD

177 0rganisational Issues777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777FG

177< &oney Issues777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777FH

177B Kuality ontrol and n"ironment7777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777D;

177E hild Cabour and Aender 4uality777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777D1

177F *ole of the Ao"ernment7777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777D

1< onclusion777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777D

1<71 Summary of (indings777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777D

1<7 SignificanceL*ele"ance777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777DB

1<7< *ecommendations77777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777DF

1<7B Suggestions for (urther *esearch77777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777DH

E



1B *eferences777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777G

1E #ppendi.77777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777GG

1E71 Inter"iew 4uestions777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777GG

1E7 (ocus Aroup Kuestions777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777GG

1E7< Informed onsent (orm77777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777GH1E7B Cetter of Permission77777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777H

1E7E )ocumentary (ilm7777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777H<

F



* List of tables

Table 1 : (our @otions of the *ole of (air Trade in )e"elopment

Table : riti4ues of the Impact of (T

Table < : (T solidarity referential

Table B: riti4ues of (T practices

Table E : riti4ues of (T rationale

Table F : 'enefits of cotton growing according to producers

Table D: 0ther unfair aspects of cotton growing according to producers

Table G : S0(IT2!related unfair aspects of cotton growing according to producers

Table H: stimated ash (low for 1; tons of seed cotton M 1FE ((#Lkg produced inarangasso!Sambla

Table 1; : Producers? solutions relating to the (T criteria

Table 11 : Producers? solutions non!relating to the (T criteria

8 List of figures(ig7 1: Scattered cotton on the road, arangasso!Sambla

(ig7 : &aps of 'urkina (aso and the %ouet Pro"ince7 Source : fr7wikipedia7com

(ig7 <: otton Prices on the @ew Nork Stock .change /otlook # Inde.37

(ig7 B : Producers? *epresentation of S0(IT2

(ig7 E : otton Kualities

(ig7 F: Producers? *epresentation of $@P'

(ig7 D: otton hemicals

(ig7 G : otton hild Cabourer

D



6 List of a!ronyms

#SS #ssociation Siguignogonya de arangasso!Sambla#T0 #lternati"e Trade 0rganisation'#' 'an4ue de l?#griculture et du ommerce du 'urkina

) ommunity )e"elopment)P ongr9s pour la )émocratie et le Progr9sI entre d?Otudes et de oopération Internationale) ommunity conomic )e"elopment(# ommunauté (inanci9re d?#fri4ue()T ompagnie (ranaise pour de )é"eloppement des (ibres Te.tiles(T# uropean (air Trade #ssociation(ICS#% (ilature du Sahel(I@ (C0, I(#T, @-SQ, (T#(C0 (airtrade Cabeling 0rganisation International(T (air Trade

AP Aroupement de Producteurs de otonAP' Aroupement de Producteurs de oton 'iologi4ueI# International otton #d"isory ommitteeI(#T International (air Trade #ssociationI(I International (inancial InstitutionIA# Income!Aenerating #cti"ityI@*# Institut de lRn"ironnement et de *echerche #gricoleIS0 International 0rganisation for StandardisationC) Cocal conomic )e"elopmentC0IS Cocally 0wned Import Substitution&#P &utuelle d?Opargne et de rédit des #rtisans et Producteurs

&(# &ultifibre #greement&> &onitoring > "aluation @-SQ @etwork of uropean -orldshops @A0 @on Ao"ernmental 0rganisationS) Sustainable ommunity )e"elopmentS0(IT2 Société des (ibres Te.tiles du 'urkina$) $nion )épartementale$@P' $nion @ationale des Producteurs de oton du 'urkina$P $nion Pro"inciale-T0 -orld Trade 0rganisation

G



9 $ntrodu!tion(air trade /(T3 is the new 5in6 thing in de"elopment, with 02(#&?s 5&ake Trade (air6campaign, companies like Starbucks try to replenish their public image by selling (T!certified

coffee, there is a proliferation of independent initiati"es such as the Perfect T!Shirt in the $nitedingdom, fashion designers get interested in organic and ethical fabric, and, on top of it all, 'onolaunches his *) collection7

(T is different and attracti"e within the realm of de"elopment because it is based on parallel,alternati"e markets7 It fits in well with the new era of social marketing and left!leaning businessschools7 thical and sustainable consumption are becoming increasingly popular, and they pro"ide opportunities for consumers to make statements about their own identity as5cosmopolitan global citiens6 5acting6 locally by 5"oting with their wallets67 'uying (Tcertified products is belie"ed by some to be a way of 5changing the world6 though consumption,and to gain contact with trade reforms suggested by the broader (T mo"ement7

The (T label and brand are seen as guarantees that true!cost pricing is taking place, and theyachie"e second degree market segmentation by aiming at capturing the consumers? 5ethicalsurplus6 /&aseland > )e aal, ;;37 (actions of -estern society care more and more about5defetishiing6 markets and creating human contact between a 5heroic consumer6 and producershalf!way across the world who do not share the same day!to!day reality /*aynolds, ;;= Uadek et al7, 1HHG= Smith, 1HHF= )icum and Cuttinger, 1HHH, c7f7 Cyon, ;;<37

There are reasons to be sceptical about to how much sense of 5community6 can arise between producers and consumers in (T networks7 That is so especially gi"en that, at least in the coffeemarket, coffee consumers and producers almost ne"er directly interact, if not through the

intermediary of biased and reductionist promotional materials that reproduces stereotypes aboute.otic lands, peoples and commodities /*aynolds, ;;, c7f7 Cyon, ;;F37 This results in anumber of consumers looking at (T as a symbol of 5fairness6, without 4uestioning it, withoutthinking about the dependency it can create, and without in4uiring about the field realities of (Tnetworks7 -hat producers think can differ significantly from what @orthern consumers andstakeholders think at the other end of the supply chain7 Indeed, when asked to name the benefitsof a (T co!operati"e membership, only three of the E< sur"eyed members named relationshipswith foreign consumers or coffee roasters7 Instead, inter"iewed co!operati"e members primarilyunderstood fair trade as a market transaction paying slightly higher prices than con"entionalcoffee markets7 /Cyon, ;;F:BEH37

(T networks and (C0 are based on ideologically loaded "iews of trade +ustice7 They represent anamalgam of "arious social mo"ements and parties with di"erging "iews of why con"entionaltrade is unfair, and how it can be made fairer7 These "iews are often simplified and tri"ialied in#T0?s literature, because of its primary purpose: selling (T!certified products7 0n the academicside, although pre"ious efforts ha"e been made to classify and criticie "iews of (T /(ridell,;;D3, /Cemay, ;;F3, /Cyon, ;;<3, /&cSween, ;;D3, none put them side!by!side with athought e.periment aimed at recreating (T with non!certified producers7

H



(T is a worthy initiati"e, probably the best consumption alternati"e a"ailable at the moment7 'uthow effecti"e can this "ery appealing mo"ement be to generate community economicde"elopment /)3 &ost (T initiati"es are already concerned with outcomes and results, andintegrate elaborate monitoring > e"aluation /&>3 systems assessing if ob+ecti"es are reached7%owe"er, (T says it is 5fair67 'ut how is 5fairness6 measured %ow 5fair6 can (T initiati"es be

when perpetuated by large corporations acting in a top!down fashion&ost importantly, what does (T mean )oes it mean making markets work better for the poorTransforming these markets -orking around these markets It has been said that 5fair trade is primarily about reasserting human control o"er a mechanism Vfree marketsW that claims to be inthe best interests of e"eryone but no longer e"en bothers to pro"e it6 /*ansom, ;;: H37 @e"ertheless, there are also limits to the e.tent to which (T itself has pro"en to be in the bestinterests of e"eryone7 In fact, the stated mission of @orthern stakeholders (C0 and #T0s is notmerely pro"iding 5technical assistance6 as a ser"ice, but rather aiming to create an e4ual partnership with the producers7 -hether this actually occurs in practice remains an empirical4uestion7

This research was conducted during the author?s 1;!month internship in 'obo!)ioulasso,'urkina (aso, in which not a day occurred without seeing trucks of S0(IT2, the cottoncompany and hearing co!workers share anecdotes of farmers being pressured to load tons of cotton o"ernight into the S0(IT2?s trucks, of them not being paid for o"er si. months, and of being held responsible for all cotton losses S0(IT2 would incur during transportation7 Thee.ploitation in the cotton chain does not start in sweatshops= it begins in the fields7

@amely, 5fairness6 has to be defined collaborati"ely for (T to achie"e its goals7 %owe"er, thishas not always been the case in the past7 Producers do not understand the (T networks as promoting 5fair6 per se, but rather in terms of increasing access to markets /Tallontire, ;;;:1DE3or international aid /Shreck, ;;37 They do not ha"e an acti"e role and are not engaged fully indirect, transparent partnerships in which their "ision can be deployed and respected /$tting!hamorro, ;;E, c7f7 Cyon, ;;F3, /Paul, ;;E:1<E, c7f7 Cyon, ;;F37 5This lack of participationlessens fair tradeRs ability to capture the "alues and priorities of its intended beneficiaries/'lowfield, ;;B:DG, c7f7 Cyon, ;;F37 In light of such e.periences, what is the account of (Tcotton in 'urkina (aso %ow do 'urkinab9 producers who are not familiar with (T cotton definesuch a concept

0f course, there are many positi"e aspects to (T certification, including increased labour healthand safety, social capital, egalitarian gender relations, trade accountability, market access,security, and en"ironmental sustainability /*obins, *oberts and #bbot 1HHH: H= see also Cui,#ndersen and Paderka ;;B, c7f7 %assel, ;;E37 %owe"er, it is essential to understand, from the producers? point of "iew, if and why this certification is needed7 #lso, one needs to reflect on howappropriate (T proposals are to the local conte.t, in order to a"oid 5fairness6 and5empowerment6 being imposed by @orthern actors using seemingly uni"ersal norms thatoriginate from outside the de"eloping country in which (T!certified goods are produced7

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D71 *esearch Problem

There is a growing body of literature on the (T mo"ement and networks7 It is increasinglyanalysed and criticised as an economic model /&aseland > )e aal, ;;3 and a de"elopment pro+ect /Paul, ;;E37 onsumers can now go beyond the anecdotal e"idence that (T is the

perfectly idyllic initiati"e, pro"ided in @A0 promotional material and actually look at its impactin specific conte.ts, using state!of!the!art &> techni4ues /*onchi, ;;3 /%assel, ;;E37 Theseefforts stem from the idea that (T is not what most people think it is= it may not be as 5fair6 as it proclaims7 %assel /;;E:G3 takes this point further :

5the certification regime has been accused of being thinly "eiled eco!imperialism where @orthern countries enlist protectionist agendas that restrict market access to Southerne.porters /se for e.ample *otherhan 1HHH:1E= *obins, *oberts and #bbot 1HHH, c7f7 %assel,;;E37 #s such, @orthern go"ernments are accused of manipulating principles, criteria andimplementation to protect domestic producers from competition76

%owe"er, the "ery idea of 5fairness6 is ne"er defined in the (T literature as something other thana list of indicators and ob+ecti"es, and discussions and debates taking place within (C0, the

networks? powerhouse, are not a"ailable to the public7 (T scholars and (T workers disagree onwhat trade fairness is and how it can be achie"ed7 It is "ery likely a 'urkinab9 farmer and a-estern #T0 worker would hold different "iews on the sub+ect7

&aseland > )e aal /;;: EF3 sum up the issue of defining 5fairness6 in (T in the followingway:

5#s the fair trade mo"ement opposes to the current practice of international trade because of itsconse4uences, it does so on the basis of a re+ection of efficiency as the main criterion7 (air traders propose another criterion to +udge the conse4uences of international trade, which iscalled rather "aguely ! fairness7 -hat is efficient, they argue, may not be fair for considerations of e4uality7 The fair trade mo"ement does not resist the market mechanism or ine4uality in principle, but ob+ects to ine4uality in outcomes as a result of un+ustified une4ual

starting positions7 It argues that ine4uality caused by systems and institutions that reward people differently on basis of natural or social differences rather than by differences in effort, isnot morally defendable7 The fact that the current international di"ision of labour does result insuch ine4uality makes it a problematic and un+ustifiable system, according to fair tradead"ocates7 The fair trade mo"ement thus argues that international trade constitutes animpro"ement if it has beneficial conse4uences for the poorest groups in the world7 This is themoral criterion fair trade uses to +udge the conse4uences of trade76

-hile this sums up the *alwsian rationale for (T, it fails to appreciate how the interests andob+ecti"es of (T proponents in the @orth and Southern producers differ7 (or e.ample, @orthernactors may want to form commercial partnerships to raise consumer awareness in their countries,

whereas the producers are business persons like any others who wish to increase their sales andmargins /-orking Paper ;;1!B:1, c7f7 'issaillon, Aendron > Turcotte, ;;F37 #s a matter of fact, since there e.ists no account of 'urkinab9 conceptions of 5fairness6 in con"entionalconsiderations of 5economics6, the only way to "erify is (T is 5fair6 for them is to ask themdirectly, a step which has been skipped by the (T cotton networks in the country7 %istorically, theidea of (T came from the @orth and its terms ha"e been and are still, to an e.tent, being imposedin a top!down manner onto the South, which leads to the following 4uestion, seeminglyo"erlooked by practitioners: 5are the visions of FT from the :orth and the %outh

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!ompatible6 This raises important 4uestions about power, pri"ilege, influence and agencywithin the (T mo"ement7 In fact, 5the prospect continually e.ists that (T, far from being a way of challenging the power imbalances between @orth and South, can function as a way of commodifying political concern and deflecting challenge, renormaliing consumption andlegitimiing a 5kinder, gentler6 food regime that is perhaps more paternalistic and less nakedly

e.ploitati"e6 /ruger > )u Toit, ;;D:1E37In fact, ruger > )u Toit /;;D3 best stated the research problem for this thesis7 $sing South#frica as an e.ample, they demonstrate how (T can be seen as a regression for producers in thefield7 -hile there was a lot of debate within (C0 to determine whether South #frica, as a middle!income country with an history of apartheid /during which it had been sub+ect to boycotts bymany (T supporters3, should be accepted as a beneficiary country of (T, a surprising set of parallel concerns was arising from the producers? point of "iew7 In fact, by merely asking plantation owners to conform to IC0 standards to get certification, (T was negating the entire'lack worker empowerment mo"ement and almost sanctifying -hite domination, colonialismand sla"ery /ruger > )u Toit, ;;D37 (T was not taking the particular racialised land rightsconte.t into account and that +eopardised its 5fairness67

It has been suggested that further research combine the fields of ethics and social economics tothoroughly e.amine what 5fairness6 means from a theoretical standpoint /&oore, ;;B37 Inaddition, (T being an international initiati"e, it is crucial to recognise that this 4uestion is "eryculture!dependent, hence the in"estigation that follows is a first step for building an effecti"e andadapted model in which small producers feel ownership and agency7

The study proposed here aims at e"aluating the arguments put forward as the rationale for fair trade cotton pro+ects in 'urkina (aso by e.ploring whether and why cotton producers think their current socioeconomic situation is fair or unfair and by portraying the producers? own"ision of what 5fair6 trade should entail7 This will then permit the painting a comparati"e

picture between the producers? sociological conceptions of fairness and the different "iewsheld by (T workers and academics in the @orth, in order to disco"er if the current (T cotton proposal is genuinely adapted and conforms to the "ision and priorities of the 'urkinab9 producers it claims to work for7 1

D7 Thesis Statement

Using a case study of non-certified cotton producers in Karangasso-Sambla, ur!ina "aso, it

#ill argued that the most salient points of unfairness in the con$entional cotton trade are thebreaches of social contracts bet#een the producers, their Union and S%"&T'( and a lac! of participation in decision-ma!ing. This oppression of producers by more po#erful actors is seenas the cause of the precarious and #orsening terms of trade for cotton, and the poor labour conditions in the fields. This unfair situation has the potential to be replicated in the "T cottonindustry in ur!ina "aso because the "T model is not ade)uately adapted to local conte*t.

1 Please not that throughout this paper, 4uotations marks are used not to be cynical, but rather to problematiethe concepts and emphasie that there is not a single, agreed!upon definition of what they are7

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&ndeed, in order to conform #ith the producers+ $ision of trade fairness as presented in this case study, "T cotton actors should adopt a ' frame#or! instead of a more liberal approach tode$elopment and trade fairness, as produced by perfect mar!ets.

D7< Thesis 0b+ecti"es

This research is based on the following 4uestion: $s the !urrent FT !otton proposal, assuggested by ;estern )T<s, adapted to the notions of =fairness> of produ!ers in rural4urina Faso? This thesis is underpinned by the following set of ob+ecti"es, which each of which seek to answer a set of 4uestions:

I7 .plore how (T workers and scholars understand (T:• -hat is (T, what is its impact, what unfairness does it respond to /generally

and in the case of cotton3• -hat are the challenges of (T, what are their criti4ues of (T, and how can it be

impro"ed• What is the account of "air Trade according to its proponents

II7 Jointly make a conte.tual situation analysis with the cotton growers to understandtheir reality:

• -hat are the strengths and weaknesses of the cotton growing acti"ity and whatare their causes #re these fair -hy

• %ow do cotton growers represent other actors in the trade #re they fair• &s the current /traditional cotton trade fair2 according to the producers

Why

III7#ssess which "iews of trade fairness correspond best to the producers?, and how does itcompare with the current model -hat do peasants who are not familiar with the (T propose as a 5(air Trade6 model -hy To which role of (T does that correspond

• %ow do the ways in which (T is understood and +ustified compare with the"iews of (T workers

• #re these "isions of the role of (T compatible • &s the current "T cotton proposal adapted to the local realities of the farmers

in ur!ina "aso

D7B -hy this paper

This paper will be one of the first to study the recent, yet potentially "ery important initiati"e of (T cotton in 'urkina (aso7 Thomas 'assett /;;D3, whose work on the history of peasant agencyin the cotton trade in Xte d?I"oire is prominent, recently researched (T cotton in 'urkina (asoand &ali, through his consultancy with 02(#& #merica7 %e identifies four main areas of positi"e impact for (T cotton in 'urkina (aso: emphasis on 4uality, gender e4uality, mo"etowards organic certification, enhancing of the cooperati"e structure7 %is main point, howe"er, isthat it is not clear at the moment what (T is an alternati"e to in 'urkina (aso= he rightly notesthat the same channels and actors are being used, and chances are high that problems in the

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con"entional trade are being replicated in the (T network7 This thesis is hoping to push 'assett?s point further, by systematically presenting the producers? own analysis of the e.isting structuresand institutions of the cotton trade, to open up 4uestions as to what can be done to ensure that po"erty!creating mechanisms of con"entional trade are not embraced by (T networks7 It alsointegrates fieldwork with producers and looks at different solutions they offer to address current

5unfairness6, to create a mental e.periment of what (T should be7In addition, (T materials published by @A0s /0.fam, ;;B3 /(air Trade (oundation, ;;E3/)eclerc4, date unknown3 are generally well documented, but they are 4uite disconnected fromfield reality7 They point to macro!le"el bodies and issues as immediate causes for po"erty, andreadily use anecdotes and short!term certification outcomes to talk about their 5impact67 -ithregards to cotton, these materials are "ery "ague on how 5generic6 non!price (T criteria areapplied7

Some steps ha"e been skipped as (T leapfrogged from setting norms to e"aluating impact7$nderstanding what is fair and unfair in con"entional trade, and why, and what the potentialsolutions are in the eyes of producers has not been done in the conte.t of cotton in 'urkina (aso7This is of utmost importance, considering the fact that (T networks originated in one commodity,coffee, in one region, Catin!#merica, and there is no reason why this specific model is adapted tonew commodities in other regions such as cotton in 'urkina (aso /*aynolds, personalcommunications, 1L1L;D37 %ence, this paper emphasies the particularities of the cotton trade in'urkina (aso ! marketing structure and players, peasant cooperati"e organiing, ristourne,solidarity caution ! and some issues uni4ue to cotton that do not arise as strongly in the coffeemarketing chain, such as pesticides and #merican subsidies7 It is "ery important to e.plore howthe producers feel about the 5fairness6 of the e.isting social economy structure, and problematiseit so that (T actors can capitalise on the e.periences of con"entional trade and do not replicate itsmistakes7

#lso, no research has been done with non!certified cotton producers in this country7 #lthough theresearch with certified producers in other commodities and other regions /(isher, 1HHD= ruger >)u Toit, ;;D= Cyon, ;;F= Tallontire, ;;;3, can generate crucial insights, it is important tounderstand what non!certified producers think, before they get influenced or e"en brainwashed by the idea proposed by (T organiations, because they are the prime beneficiaries from (T7

The paper from harlier et al7 /;;F3 is "ery informati"e= it maps the unconscious logicunderlying the (T leftist ideology, and it models the principles and standards that underpin itsdiscourse7 Similar work remains to be done in other countries, without which any culturalcomparisons cannot rely on solid data from the field7 This is definitely urgent since there is agrowing awareness that statements about the benefits of (T are often being made withoutrigorous baselines in place or the necessary downstream data7 In such a conte.t, some may belie"e that the key issue in de"eloping a working &> system is to see whether the uni4ue pricing and marketing relations of the (T mo"ement pro"ide benefits to producers compared toalternati"es, rather than whether they are 5fair6 /0.ford Policy &anagement, ;;;37 Practicalresearch is needed to build understanding of (T?s strengths and weaknesses, to ensure the systemis impro"ed and adapted to different commodity markets and different national and localconte.ts7 %owe"er, a system deemed and publicised as 5fair6 ought to gain insights into what its

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intended beneficiaries belie"e is currently unfair, why, and how the situation could be made more5fair6 to ensure that they truly fulfil their mandate and reach the ob+ecti"es that matter7

8 7on!eptual Frame.or( Fairness and "evelopment

8.1 Trade (airness Some IssuesThe first challenge of this thesis is to define 5fairness67 It is "irtually impossible to e"ensummarise all the "isions of 5fairness6 in economics, ranging from #ristotle to *awls, fromSmith to ad"ocates of the welfare state7 Thus, fairness in this thesis will be approached from asociological, not a normati"e perspecti"e7 It is "ery easy to get lost in a debate about 5fairness6,and fall into the trap of a antian moral of intention7 It is also clear that trade fairness has beenused by a number of actors to mean "ery different things and to further specific political agendas/&aseland > )e aal, ;;= *i"oli, personal communication, ;FL1L;D3, for e.ample to ad"ocatefor perfect competition or free trade7 It goes beyond the scope of this paper to name all these perspecti"es and insights, as "aluable and insightful as they may be7

(airness is necessarily contestable7 #lthough a 5fair price6 ser"es many purposes such asencouraging long!term trading relationships and 4uality it has been noted that the terminologyis emoti"e and sub+ecti"e /0.ford Policy &anagement, ;;;:BB37 It could also be different: the(T price can be seen as a simple transfer or subsidy, whose impact should be assessed on pragmatic rather than metaphysical grounds7 0n the other hand, there is commercial "alue incalling (T 5fair6 !! and lea"ing 5fairness6 "aguely defined in (T networks7 This may be amarketing strategy to attract a larger consumer base /'assett, personal communication, ;EL1L;D3or a way for (T networks to brand themsel"es in opposition to other certification systems7-hate"er the reason is, stakeholders ought to know why and how 5fair6 (T is7 -hile there is acollecti"e sense of what is and is not fair, and this is being regulated by social mechanisms and

institutions, the concept is easily manipulated to fulfil oneRs self!interest7

Perceptions of fairness in organisations is an increasingly researched topic within the fields of management /mostly organisational beha"iour3 and psychology, especially in an increasinglyglobalised conte.t where firms want to make sure not to antagonise employees or trade partners7These propose the use of the following criteria for e"aluating a fair process: /13 0pportunity toselect the decision maker, /3 onsistent rules, /<3 $se of accurate information in makingdecisions, /B3 Identifiable decision!making structure, /E3 Cack of bias /neutral decision makers3,/F3 #bility to appeal, /D3 0n the basis of moral and ethical principles, and /G3 #llow for changesin procedures /ol4uitt, ;;1= Ailliland, 1HH<= Areenberg, 1HGD= Ce"enthal, arua, and (ry,1HG;, c7f7 %assel, ;;E37 -hile these studies are best suited to work with large organisations like

(C0, none of them ha"e studied (T organisations at the moment of writing7

Interestingly, (T pro+ects are not only the niche for small social enterprises, but are often taken on by di"erse mainstream de"elopment @A0s such as 02(#& and the entre d?Otudes enoopération Internationale /I3, and increasingly by big corporations such as Starbucks, @estlé, and e"en &c)onalds7 learly (T is not only about 5fairness67 #s put by ruger > )uToit /;;D:1F3:

on the one hand, the success and power of the (C0 label depends on the percei"ed moral

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clarity and simplicity of the concept of 5fairness6 a concept that is assumed to be self!e"ident, uni"ersally and aconte.tually "alid, and e.pounded in a few simple slogans or assurances on a product label7 0n the other hand, it is e"ident that fairness is ne"er simplyfairness, and that it re4uires reinterpretation and rearticulation to ensure that it isoperationalied in locally appropriate ways on the ground7

5(airness6 is also largely conte.t!dependent7 #s ocker /;;3 points out, there ha"e beenchanges in (T paradigms o"er the past B; years= (T now targets more di"erse groups, co!operateswith intermediary organisations, etc7 /which has not occurred without stirring up its lot of internalopposition37 This means that, if the concepts in the @orth are dynamic and e"ol"ing, they are notstatic in the South either7

Since many issues relating to the fairness of a trading relationship in"ol"e an understanding of a5partnership6, the following conditions for healthy partnerships /Tallontire, ;;;3 will be used toe.plain certain research findings:

17 Shared understanding of the problem or issue and the conte.t=7 &utual commitment to the partnership=<7 # distinct or uni4ue contribution=B7 Shared ob+ecti"es= andE7 &utual trust7

8.2 (our @otions of the *ole of (air Trade in )e"elopment(T is a contested ground, and there are many different understandings of its role in triggeringde"elopment7 #ccording to )arryl *eed /personal communication, <;L;<L;B3 and following fromthe last section, there are four main ways in which the role of fair trade is conceptualied7 Thesefour roles will guide the discussion in this paper 7

Table 1: (our @otions of the *ole of (air Trade in )e"elopment

onception of the *ole of (T haracteristics

17 (T as %a"ing @o *ole

Sees (T as essentially counter!producti"e becauseit represents unwarranted inter"entions in themarket in the form of price subsidies

(T will not help small producers, because they will become dependent upon price subsidiesProducers will not become more efficient as aresult of (T

)oes not take seriously the problem of marketimperfections /like most of the corporate!ledgrowth perspecti"es3

This framework has its limitations7 (T can be understood using a "ariety of theoretical underpinnings:&ar.ist, -orld Systems, structuralist, dependency, human rights, feminist, etc7 It is ne"ertheless belie"ed that thisframework can ade4uately e.plain the empirical findings of this research7

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7 (T as helping small producers becomeefficient enough to compete in mainstreammarkets

)oes not see e.isting markets as unfair )oes, howe"er, see small producers asdisad"antaged /though typically as historical backwardness rather than as the result of

dependency and colonialism3The goal of (T is to get them producing efficientlyas 4uickly as possible /some technological,financial help, social infrastructure3(T is only a short term transitional strategyThis "iew might be compatible with SenRsunderstanding of +ustice as 5fairness6

<7 (T as helping to correct for the lack of ideal market conditions

Sees international markets as largely unfair /oligopolistic3(T can help small producers, but there is also aneed for reform to the international trade system

(T is re4uired until these reforms are madeThis position can be compatible with traditionalnotions of market!led growth and trade theory/comparati"e ad"antage3This position is compatible with some "ersions of hambers > onway?s /1HH3 Ysustainableli"elihoodsY

B7 (T as an alternati"e form of localde"elopment

This position agrees with the first two points of the position abo"eIt also promotes an alternati"e understanding of de"elopment /not oriented towards growth, butlocal control o"er the local economy andsustainability3This position reflects more a notion of Yendogenous de"elopmentY

5+5' FT as having no roleThe first role rests on a common assumption that the following preconditions define what 5idealmarkets6 are: a3 e4ual endowments, b3 perfect information, !3 no e.ternalities, and d3 many buyers and sellers7 This understanding is at the basis of an important element of liberal

economics, the first Theorem of -elfare economics, which states that any competiti"ee4uilibrium automatically results in Pareto!efficiency, a state at which nobody can be made better!off i7e7 ha"e increased utility without making someone else worse!off7 This result isakin to #dam?s Smith 5in"isible hand6, which is told to direct the economy in a state of efficientresource allocation7 This assertion e4uates e4uity with efficiency because it stipulates e"erybodyhas the same marginal utility of money and the discipline of economics is in no position to +udgeif one?s utility is more important than someone else?s7 &ilton (riedman and its colleagues at thehicago School are leading proponents of this libertarian approach to economic philosophy,

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which rests on the notion of Pareto optimality as a key decision rule for +ust economic decisions/Shaffer, )eller > &arcouiller, ;;B37 This neoliberal "iew holds that 5fair trade6 automaticallyfollows from these conditions, and Southern countries ought to de"elop using their comparati"ead"antage /*eed, personal communication, <;L;<L;G37

&ainstream economics "iew of (T e4uates de"elopment with economic growth, and the ultimategoal of (T becomes to pro"ide the technical assistance needed to build a capital stock andappropriate technology necessary to lead an economy to its steady state7 The (T price becomes aninstrument to gal"anie sa"ings, which in the Solow &odel is the main dri"er of economicgrowth7 This "iew argues that output is supply!led in the short!run, and demand!led in the long!run, and would then act on both the supply and demand side to increase a"ailability of (T products, by seeking to certify more (T producers and render the e.isting ones more efficient andcompetiti"e by undertaking detailed market studies to tailor (T products to consumer demands7

(T has no role because5it breaks trading rules since in theory -T0 agreements forbid 5discrimination between two

products on the basis of process or method of production6 /;;1!B: E37 This principle is a threat to

the de"elopment of (air Trade, particularly because it may re4uire limits to be set on the labelling of (air Trade products and on the amount of information pro"ided to consumers, and also because thereis fear that it will undermine efforts made to build a legal framework around (air Trade /'issaillon,Aendron > Turcotte, ;;F36

5+5+ FT as helping small produ!ers be!ome effi!ient enough to !ompete inmainstream marets

This "iew is opposed to protectionism7 0n one hand, protectionism can be seen as 5fair trade6nationally, because it seeks to limit the income polarisation brought about by globalisation forces7Import!substitution industrialisation has in fact been part of the founding de"elopment "iews held by the young (T mo"ement7 The (T price can be "iewed as a temporary 5subsidy6 that will

e"entually result in the producer?s emancipation and integration into mainstream markets7 0n theother hand, proponents of the second role of (T would deny the rele"ance of protectionistmeasure and would instead focus on increasing the efficiency of small farmers so that they canade4uately compete in perfectly competiti"e markets7

(rom this last undertaking stems an increasing focus on product 4uality and mi.ed certificationsuch as shade!grown, organic, gourmet coffee produced by women?s cooperati"es7 In this "iew,(T is "iewed as a brand that ought to differentiate itself in the global marketplace7 This lea"es alot of power to the consumer, and it is thought that (T networks will grow as more consumerssubscribe to the principles of (T networks7 )e"elopment can then occur through market!based,"oluntary solidarity between consumers and producers, and (T is not seen as completely different

from thical trade a mo"ement pushing for corporate social responsibility or corporateaccountability mo"ements, in terms of de"elopment outcomes7

These "iews relate the more right!wing "iew of local economic de"elopment /C)37 #t one endof the spectrum, C) is seen as a method for impro"ing the competiti"eness of cities in anincreasingly integrated economy, ensuring that stakeholders from the pri"ate and public sector areconcerted to ensure the town reaps its 5fair6 share of benefits from globalisation7 This "iew islikely to result in towns trying to attract corporations through a "ariety of subsidies and ta.

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concessions to spur e.port!led growth7 This "iew is not impermeable to some (Ters, who wouldargue that the large distribution networks held by corporations will open up new markets to (T products and hence result in increased income for the producers7 # (ordistLTaylorist mass production can be achie"ed through introducing plantation production into (T networks, andhence trading!off small scale humanied trading relationships for larger markets7

Indeed, the %eckscher!0hlin model predicts gains from trade for all parties in"ol"ed, and it hencemakes sense for producers to specialise in a crop in which they ha"e a comparati"e ad"antage7 (Tis now enabling an acceleration of a country?s +ourney through *ostow?s fi"e steps of de"elopment7 This is modernisation theory= the artesian notion of 5progress6 is accepted andeconomies is seen as set on a determinist path from # to ', where # is primiti"e, unci"ilied and' is modern, desirable7 (T +ust acts as a catalyst in the process7

5+56 FT as helping to !orre!t for the la! of ideal maret !onditions

0n the other hand, proponents of the third role of (T hold the "iew that 5ideal markets6 are basedon unrealistic assumptions= they note the absence of free markets and perfect competition in mostcommodity chains7 (T networks are thus meant to correct market imperfections by offering a parallel commodity chain7 The ultimate goal of (T in this "iew is to integrate producers intomarkets, as unfairness is seen as resulting from the absence of 5ideal markets6 /*i"oli, ;;D37

Proponents of this "iew ad"ocate for the abolition of all forms of interferences to cross!border trade, such as tariffs, 4uotas, subsidies and other regulations7 They would also subscribe to the-T0?s understanding of 5fairness6, as informed by rules of e4uality /e7g7 &ost (a"oured @ationsclauses3, reciprocity /e7g7 counter"ailing duties and trade retaliations3 and the Aolden *ule /e7g7transparency re4uirements37 (or e.ample, facing the reality that commodities such as cotton are

hea"ily subsidied by certain producing countries, many (Ters would ad"ocate for theeradication of these subsidies, because they see free markets as the best way to de"elop acountry?s economy7

This thinking is in line with economic theory that wishes to promote perfect competition /note thedistinction with free trade3 by curtailing monopsony power7 &onopsonies are most likely to beunfair because they use that power to dri"e the buying prices down /'erry, personalcommunication, 11L;BL;D37

In this "iew, (T can be seen as a system of 5go"ernance o"er production, commercialisation andconsumption of global commodities6 /Noung > $tting, ;;E37 This is compatible by the

5Sustainable Ci"elihoods6 de"elopment theory offered by hambers > onway /1HH3, whichstates that economy is sub+ect to une.pected shocks to which marginalised populations are "ery"ulnerable7 (T can then be a way to minimie these shocks by guaranteeing a minimum price and being conducti"e to the establishment of appropriate financial structures7

5+5* FT as an alternative form of lo!al development

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This "iew corresponds to the most left!wing "ision of C)7 Its proponents are who are morelikely to see local ownership as more "aluable than increased sales, and to ensure theoptimisation of local multipliers by trying to keep the money from the higher (T price and premiums within the community /Shuman, ;;F37 This "iew sees (T as a way to enablecommunities to take control o"er their de"elopment process through "oting the allocation of the

(T premium, and its proponents are likely to emphasie the impetus for (T to fa"our localeconomic di"ersification and the de"elopment of new income!generating acti"ities7 Tools of community economic analysis such as *eilly?s law of trade catchment area, push!pull factors, etc7/%ustedde, ;;E3 are seen as more meaningful than increased sales o"erseas, and the training andcapacity building aspects of (T are seen as essential to creating a local business climatefa"ourable to Cocally 0wned Import Substitution /C0IS3 businesses7 In other words,endogenous de"elopment is one of the greatest features that the otherwise top!down (T networks bring about7

These tools can also be taken outside of the purely economic realm and put into a communityde"elopment /)3 theoretical standpoint, which differentiates between four orientations that )can take: it can be process, acti"ity, program or mo"ement!oriented /hristenson, (endley >*obinson, 1HHB37 ) is about local leadership, citien participation, collecti"e decision!makingand community organiation /Shaffer, )eller > &arcouiller, ;;B37 In this "iew, the goal of anye.ternal inter"ention like (T is to gi"e the local community the power to shape its own agenda byguiding them through the problem identification and organiing processes7 The #T0 is then seenas a moderator that should lead the community to find their own ways to use the (T premium, for e.ample7 0nce again, (Ters are di"ided as to which elements process "ersus outcomes, politicalgains "ersus acti"ities they gi"e priority to7 Some (Ters emphasie the importance of technicalassistance, whereas others consider the processes of maintaining 5fair6 (T partnerships as themost transformati"e and significant aspect of the networks7

) can then be put side by side with community economic de"elopment /)3, another popular theoretical lens in which (Ters analye (T7 ) is a di"erse practice that encompasses "arioustypes of acti"ities ranging from cooperati"es to employability training, from social enterprise toimmigrant, refugee, women or youth!centered initiati"es /)@et, ;;G37 ) organisationsusually work with marginalised populations, a criterion that can be e.panded internationally toinclude (T efforts7 ) is bottom up, integrati"e /connections "ertically and horiontally3strategically dri"en /clear direction3, collaborati"e /multiple stakeholders working together3,interacti"e /knowledge!based input of local people into agenda setting and implementation,re4uires ongoing in"estment in local capacity through a combination of ) processes andinitiati"e mgt skills3, multidimensional /wide range of concerns, such as +ob creation, businessgrowth, and connecting people to +obs within the locality3, reflecti"e /learning from e.perience3,asset based, based on theory and analytics /Shaffer, )eller > &arcouiller, ;;B37

) is often implicitly seen as belonging to a social economy theory in which economic goalsare a means to achie"ing social goals7 The social economy often introduces triple!bottom linethinking into its business acti"ities, which ha"e to be sensiti"e to social and en"ironmental costsand benefits in their accounting techni4ues /&ook, Kuarter > *ichmond, ;;D37 (Ters adoptingthis "iew emphasise the positi"e social impacts of (T such as increased access to social ser"ices7This is in line with theories of social capital /-oolcock > @arayan, ;;;37

;



) has been criticied for not being transformati"e enough on the en"ironmental standpointand neglecting 5natural6 capital7 # more recent theory of de"elopment, Sustainable ommunity)e"elopment /S)3, challenges the con"entional production function N Z # ( /C,3, where NZincome, #Z total factor producti"ity, CZ labour and Z capital7 It adopts an ecological economics paradigm to argue that limited natural resources ha"e to be factored into the production function7

conomic di"ersification, self!reliance and social +ustice through citien empowerment andimpro"ed access to information are central to the theory and practice of S) /%amstead >Kuinn, ;;E37

This is certainly the point of "iew of many (T proponents who see en"ironmental re4uirementsas a first step to mo"e towards organic production7 This latter techni4ue is seen as a moreen"ironmentally sustainable outcome than con"entional chemical!intensi"e production, and thefact that yields originally decline when farmers switch to organic production is compensated for by a general idea that 5less is more6 and that 4uality is better than 4uantity7

This approach to de"elopment internalises e.ternalities and "iews (T as a leap forwards tointegrating true!cost pricing7 This feature of a onser"ation conomy /coTrust, ;;D3 is alsosupplemented by the product certification aspect of (T, which can be seen as a way to correctinformational asymmetries between consumers and retailers of primary products sold in the @orth7 This more liberal "iewpoint "iews (T certification as a way to formalise fairness throughthe creation of centralised institutions and bureaucracies such as (C0 and (C0!ert7

@ ethodology

H71 Study areaThe study with cotton producers took place in the "illage of arangasso!Sambla /Pro"ince:

%ouet, *egion: %auts!'assins3, located in the Southwest of 'urkina (aso in -est #frica7 The"illage of arangasso!Sambla is the head4uarters of the department of the same name, whichcomprises 11 other smaller "illages7 This "illage has been chosen because:

17 It has been in"ol"ed in cotton growing since the 1HD;s and, with its 1; Aroupements deProducteurs de oton /AP3, remains a large producer to this date=

7 )ue to its geographic location, it interacts with the S0(IT2 the biggest cottoncompany in 'urkina ! to buy inputs and selling outputs=

<7 The farmers? stories in regard to work relations and realities are representati"e of what istaking place in the country and

B7 It has not yet been approached by (air Trade organisations7It was also chosen for con"enience, since it is located BE km from the city of 'obo!)ioulasso andits inhabitants thus speak )ioula, a language in which the researcher can communicate at acon"ersational le"el7 In addition, ha"ing worked in the "illage at se"eral occasions during her work contract, the research gained familiarity with the local authorities, gatekeepers and population7

1



Part of the study also occurred in the countryRs two biggest cities, 'obo!)ioulasso and0uagadougou, which allowed the researcher to gain access to printed information materials andmeet with "arious stakeholders from producersR unions, ginning and e.porting companies and-estern @A0s in"ol"ed in (air Trade7

$pon return to anada, inter"iews were completed with 1 (air Trade @A0s and academics inanada and the $nited States to fulfil ob+ecti"es II and III and to augment the documentary filmattached to this paper7

H7 Study samplesThis study being a multi!stakeholder initiati"e, the researcher interacted with si. groups:

17 The cotton farmers and their elected representati"es=

7 ommunity members in arangasso!Sambla=

<7 S0(IT2 workers=

B7 -estern @A0s in"ol"ed in (T on site /I, %el"etas3=

E7 (T workers of (T cotton in anada and

F7 (T Scholars in anada and the $nited States

The first group is the one whose li"ing conditions the (T networks are trying to impro"e, hence itis essential that their notions, concerns and ideas are taken into account in this study7 The secondgroup can also bring a more holistic understanding of the current socio!economic conditionsrelated to the cotton growing income!generating acti"ity /IA#37 The third group is the local power loci of cotton, and hence needed to be in"ol"ed for this research to be complete and possible7 The fourth, fifth and si.th groups through their publications and insights on tradefairness, contributed greatly to the creation of the theoretical framework for this paper7

-ithin these groups, a snowball method was used for selecting participants, starting from the personal relations of co!workers and ac4uaintances7

9.3 Information collected# mi.ed basket of information was collected at the different stages of this e.ploratory study:

17 Situation analysis ngage in the collection of comments and feelings on the history andde"elopment of the cotton trade in the "illage as well as indi"idual stories7 This in"ol"edconducting inter"iews and focus groups with producers and AP to hear the main problems and 5unfair6 aspects of cotton growing, and their associated causes7

7 "air Trade discourse This information was collected through inter"iews and personalcommunications with (T workers and scholars, as well as through secondary sourcere"iew, to frame the way 5fairness6 in (air Trade is understood and +ustified by itsad"ocates7

<7 4ecommendations The stakeholders were asked to identify and prioritise aspects thatwould lead to a more enlightened inter"ention and would take into account their ob+ecti"es and points of "iew7



Informed consent was sought "erbally by either the researcher or her assistant before eachinter"iew7 Please see #ppendi. 1D7< for a written "ersion of informed consent /(rench37

H7B &ethods for gathering informationThis research ser"es both the purpose of generating new knowledge on cultural understandings of

(T and of practically determining if and how the idea is applicable to the cotton industry in rural'urkina (aso7 This is why se"eral methods were used:

17 %e!ondary %our!e #evie.( (irst of all, the researcher engaged in e.tensi"e reading onthe (T mo"ement, "iews on 5fairness6 in economics and international trade, the worldcotton trade, the representation of oppression, agency and partnership in (T, theunderlying assumptions and "alues in the (T @A0 literature, etc7 This pro"ided a background for designing appropriate tools for the remainder of the research7

7 Fo!us Aroups( Two preliminary focus groups were conducted at first to e.plore how producers represent other actors in the cotton trade, to understand whether they were seenas 5fair6 or not7 Subse4uently, two focus groups of 11!1G participants and of a duration of

1:;; 1:<; were directed as 5thought e.periments6 to obser"e the reactions of participants to an imaginary offer of (T certification7 Kuestions were asked aroundcontro"ersial aspects of (T, namely, gender e4uality, en"ironmental stewardship anddistribution of the (T price between indi"iduals and groups7 This was done to better understand the first, spontaneous reactions farmers would ha"e to the norms and criteriaof the (T networks7 The synergy effect caused by the group setting also lead to interestingstatements that could not arise otherwise7 Please see #ppendi. 1D7 for a complete list of focus group 4uestions7

<7 $ndividual %emi-%tru!tured $ntervie.s( 1F inter"iews with producers were conducted by the researcher in (rench, and H by her assistant in )ioula or Sambla7 These ser"ed for

the conte.t analysis of cotton growing and to identify what is 5fair6 and 5unfair6 in thecurrent situation according to cotton producers7 Please see #ppendi. 1D71 for a completelist of producers? inter"iew 4uestions7 # different type of inter"iew, elaborated on a case! by!case basis, was used for talking to community members, e.perts, @A0 workers, (Tworkers and scholars7

It is important to note that, at first, a 4uestionnaire based on the Surano"ic Principles of (airness/Surano"ic, ;;;3 was elaborated and passed on to <B producers7 This 4uestionnaire sought tounderstand what producers thought of fairness and +ustice in general, as well as applied to thecotton trade, using general principles of e4uality, reciprocity and optimisation7 -hile it would belying to deny the influence of the 4uestionnaires? findings on the content of this paper, theSurano"ic framework and 4uantitati"e analysis were later dropped because they added little to the

already rich data7 #s such, it has not been sub+ect to analysis7 0n the other hand, the secondarysource re"iew as well the 4ualitati"e data was submitted to standard te.tual coding and analysis, primarily using the nodes feature of the KS* @!i"o software7

9.5 Cimitations and Insights on *esearchThis section aims at acknowledging some of the limitations of this paper and its methodology toensure transparency while hoping to pro"ide ground for impro"ement to those undertaking futureresearch in (T7 It also aims to pro"ide the reader with some perspecti"e on the field work that

<



will e.plain some of the research findings7 In this section, the first person will be used to accountfor the researchers? positionality and personal thoughts on the research and acknowledge how itaffects her sub+ecti"ity7

@585' 7hallenges#n important difficulty was the gathering of 4uantitati"e data in the "illage7 (or "arious reasons,including literacy and numeracy challenges, most producers do not keep detailed written recordsof their e.penses and re"enues, and hence these are always rounded up or appro.imated7 Thisdifficulty resulted in a certain imprecision in e"aluating the actual profitability of cotton growingas an IA#7 That is not an uncommon problem= local unions and S0(IT2 also run into it7 Thisabsence of clear information makes it difficult to talk about a 5fair6 price in terms of a margin or benefit7

In the field, I also ran into an information trap: producers are not always fully aware of dynamicsof the global te.tile industry, and they often do not ha"e the ability to actually gain possession of

and analyse this data7 It is thus possible that I sometimes interpreted a lack of information as alack of emphasis on certain 5unfair6 aspects of the cotton trade7 (or e.ample, the relati"ely lowfre4uency with which #merican subsidies are mentioned to e.plain the unfairness of cottongrowing in 'urkina (aso may be due to a lack of awareness of these subsidies and their conse4uences or it can be simply due to the fact that other factors take pre"alence upon it7 It canalso be a mi. of both7 #s mentioned abo"e, the issues of fairness in trade are challenging toanyone, and there are reasons to think that producers did not pre"iously engage in a thoroughconscious deliberation about it before I asked them to do so7 This is corroborated by languageissues= the word 5fair6 does not ha"e an e.plicit e4ui"alent in )ioula or Sambla, and one third of the producers inter"iewed were not comfortable in (rench7

This information differential is furthered by absence of comparing apples and oranges= producersand @orthern actors indeed come from different cultural backgrounds, educational and professional attainments, income le"els and social classes, and of this all inform their subscription to a certain "ision of international political economy7 %owe"er, the ob+ecti"e of thisresearch being to e"aluate the current (T proposal, the best thing to do is to in"ol"e as many (Tstakeholders as possible, no matter how di"erse they were, in order to garnish an holistic portrayal of the situation7

0ther challenges that occurred in the field were language!based7 Canguage was an issue and Icould not inter"iew many producers with only con"ersational )ioula and rudimentary Sambla, soI had to rely on my research assistant7 %opefully not too many insights were lost during the

translation process7There were some other issues in the field7 Sometimes producers, especially elders, would go off track during the inter"iews and it was 4uite difficult to bring them back to the topic withoutinsulting them7 I also had to be creati"e in finding ways to ask 5why6 certain things were 5fair6 or 5unfair6 without gi"ing the impression that they had gi"en a bad answer7 Sometimes the entireinter"iewing process was 4uite chaotic7 -hen busy doing one inter"iew after the other, I was notrigorous enough with obtaining informed consent= it was 4uite embarrassing to get to the end of

B



an inter"iew and being asked why e.actly I was doing this7 It was also "ery hard to controlconfidentiality7 (or e.ample, I went to Tountoun, 1E km out of town, for a focus group at the premises of a local AP7 -e had 11 people to start with777 but D people showed up along the wayand +oinedQ #lso, while I wanted to emphasise the thought e.periments to know their potentialresponse to an encounter with a (T agent, they all wanted to share their problems and difficulties

with me, potentially in the hope that I would be able to materially help them7 There were alsoissues with some people asking me for fa"ours<7

@585+ Positionality and #elationshipsI think a short description of my positionality would be useful here for my reader to understandwhere I came from doing this research7 I "isited the "illage of arangasso!Sambla E times, on +ourneys of !F days, before holding my first research meeting7 I was working with the#ssociation Siguignogonya de arangasso!Sambla /#SS3, a women?s association in Pont-ooro, as a "olunteer in support to IA#s and community microfinance7 I had met a few cotton producers, often the husbands or relati"es of the women I worked for7 0ne of the ad"isors for

#SS was a tremendous factor for getting me interested in cotton and he patiently answered by4uestions about the impacts of cotton growing in the "illage and S0(IT2 practices7 #lso, whilein 'obo, I was fortunate enough to work directly under the super"ision of a prominentgo"ernment official who was from arangasso!Sambla and was much respected there7 %is helpwas in"aluable in establishing the first research meeting, during which I e.plained my pro+ect toa number of producers as well as local authorities especially the &ayor?s #ssistant and we sete.pectations7 %e was also helpful in securing a meeting with the Prefet /administrati"e authority37%is brother then pro"ided an incredible support in terms of meals and location for focus groupsand inter"iews7 &y research assistant, who is also from that "illage, was e.tremely helpful ingaining access to the "illage chief and other research participants7 %is presence somewhatdiminished the ine4uality associated with my being a young anadian -hite women researching

for a higher education degree= I am con"inced that I got more honest and genuine because of his presence and endorsement7

-orking with partners of the cotton industry was not always a politically neutral thing to do7 I feltthat my interaction with $nion )épartementale /$)3 committee members was relati"elystraightforward7 In fact, their assistant manager was "ery helpful in spreading the word about thisresearch in its early stage7 I ne"ertheless got the sense that they wanted to look good and pleaseme7 I had the chance to work with the new $) president through my work with the &utuelled?Opargne et de rédit des #rtisans et Producteurs /&#P3B, and he seemed reticent to e.presscontention or issues during the group inter"iew7 #lmost all the answers to my 4uestions weregi"en by the young manager, probably because he was not elected and hence didn?t risk any

political losses from being in"ol"ed into this research7The work with S0(IT2 was more stressful and insecure7 I was warned by a few 'urkinab9ha"ing read my research proposal that S0(IT2 could well ob+ect to it and seie all my data andmaterial on the spot, at their whim7 To protect myself from that, I addressed a formal, $ of T!endorsed re4uest for academic study to élestin Tiendrébéogo, the President of S0(IT2 /see< I had chosen not to gi"e monetary compensation for inter"iews, but rather offer some drinks at the end of focusgroup discussions as was ad"ised by a few 'urkinab97B 0f which he is also the president7

E



#ppendi. 1D7B3, who swiftly replied in the affirmati"e and summoned me for a personal meetingat the S0(IT2 head4uarters in 'obo!)ioulasso7 Tienbrédogo himself was "ery supporti"e of this research, he himself seeing S0(IT2 emulating their counterpart S00&# and gettingin"ol"ed in (T in the future7 %e agreed to grant me access to the company?s archi"es and referredme to one of his ice!President, #ugustin Uagré7 (uture information sharing was halted after this

meeting as he ne"er replied to messages7 0n the other end, my work with Toé, the of arangasso!Sambla, and Saré, the 4uality control officer at the 'obo< ginning plant, was 4uitefluid, although they had their own institutional biases7

(urthermore, and as the reader will soon disco"er, S0(IT2 is seen as "iolent, unpredictable andcorruptE, and it is often associated with a "ariety of animist beliefsF7 )espite the official appro"aland gi"en that news tra"el fast in a small "illage like arangasso!Sambla, I could sense a climateof fear during the research7 I belie"e that some producers self!censored, in the fear of the potential conse4uences of the filmed inter"iews being intercepted by the S0(IT27

@5856 ethodologi!al $ssues(orming samples was not always ob"ious= I would often rely on ac4uaintances to inform participants of the time and location of the inter"iews7 # lot of the snowball effect was due toeffecti"e word!of!mouth7 The inter"iews would often be under the mango tree ne.t to mycolleague?s brother?s house, where my research assistant and I would conduct inter"iews and4uestionnaires concurrently7 Producers walking by would see us and come +oin at a later time70ur host would also go to town on his motorbike and inform e"erybody that I needed participants7 #s a result, we had a "ariety of people show up a first time, some of whom came tothe initial research meeting and stayed with us the entire time7 0thers lost interest when I statedthat there would be no monetary compensation, +ust complimentary refreshments after focusgroups7 I also inter"iewed producers in locations outside of the town?s core, such as Pont -ooro,

D km out, and Toutoun, 1E km out, where I chose to inter"iew producers I or my researchassistant knew7 This sample is partly a con"enience sample but it is not belie"e to ha"esignificantly biased the research findings7

@ot all of the inter"iews in the "illage were with producers= I thought it would be "aluable tointer"iew the &a+or?s assistant, as well as educators and health workers, to gain their insights7 Iunconsciously neglected inter"iewing women, probably because the man is always the oneresponsible for cotton farming and it is "ery rare that women ha"e their own fields in the Samblaethnic group7 -hile this paper did not focus on the gender aspect of (T, it would ha"e been "eryimportant to also inter"iew women in this e.ploratory research= they would ha"e pro"ideddifferent perspecti"es on the unfairness in the con"entional trade7 These insights would be key to

assess the 5fairness6 of the gender e4uality criteria of (T certification and to na"igate thiscontentious issue in a patriarchal society7

#nother methodological issue is that, to this date, there are "ery few (T workers of (T cotton inanada and none of the ones I talked to do business with 'urkina (aso= they work in India andAuatemala instead7 This is because (T cotton is so new, and anadian companies and @A0s doE (or e.ample, it will ne"er compensate a family for ha"ing killed a member with its truck7F It is belie"ed, for e.ample, that S0(IT2 dri"ers put #ac!s / negati"e spells3 in their trucks and, in the e"ent ofthem being laid off, the ne.t dri"er will automatically get into a fatal accident7

F



not ha"e as many ties to 'urkina (aso as their uropean counterparts7 That being said, the (Tworkers? sample is too small to get much beyond anecdotal e"idence7 %owe"er, with the wealthof books and +ournal articles recently written on (T and the amount of information a"ailableonline on (T workers? websites and through communication by email and phone, it is belie"edthat the small sample did not bias the results of this research7

The use of the camera to record inter"iews and other footage for transcription purposes and for Threads of Wrath, the documentary film associated to this search, was also problematic7 In fact,displaying high!tech gear in marginalised community is always touchy, as it readily attests thedifferences in ownership of material wealth between the researcher and participants7 This wasrendered e"en more difficult because there was no electricity in Pont -ooro, so there was no wayfor me to recharge batteries, transfer footage from mini!) tapes onto my laptop and transcribeinter"iews in the pri"acy of my own house7 Instead, I had to rent a power generator for arelati"ely high daily price, and had to locate myself where there was light, attracting a lot of attention in the process7

@585* /0ogenous Fa!tors0ne of the e.ogenous and unfortunate shocks to this research was that it had to be shortened for health reasons7 In fact, I was flown out of 'urkina (aso F weeks before my intended departuredate7 This resulted in a number of planned acti"ities "isits to (TLorganic certified producers inTiéfora, "isit to the S0(IT2 archi"es, appointments with different S0(IT2 agents andgenerally, opportunities for taking more footage being cancelled, and put a stop to an increasing process of collaboration with %el"etas7 This is highly regrettable, for ha"ing more time in thefield would ha"e undoubtedly enriched this paper7 In addition, there were logistical constraints inmy not being permanently based in the "illage, as it was "ery difficult to reach people on the phone from 'obo because of the unreliability of the network7

@5858 #e!ommendations to <ther #esear!hersI would recommend to those doing similar research the use of a mi.ed!methods protocol with a4uestionnaire based on a standardised test, such as the Swart alue Sur"ey or the AC0' Study,which ha"e been used in other research for similar purposes /lson, ;;F37 Such a methodologywould be useful allow broader comparison and address the occasional lack of con"ergence withinthe sample7

'& 7onte0t

10.1 (air trade: &o"ement and @etworks

This section aims at pro"iding background to help the reader understand when references aremade to (T networks or the (T mo"ement7 It is not meant to be e.hausti"e, because many

D



authors ha"e already addressed written about the origins of the (T mo"ement and networksefficiently and in much more detailD7

-hat we now call (T networks emerged gradually out of charity trade, a system under which#T0s established world stores that sold speciality products generally bought from Southernde"elopment partners /'issaillon, Aendron > 0tero, ;;F37 (rom the outset, the emphasis was put on pro"iding a 5fair price6 to the producer of raw commodities or crafts7 Cater on, churchesand @A0s came to use these products for their fundraising campaigns7 &a. %a"elaar, a )utchassociation and one of (T?s pioneers, initiated (T networks in response to the desire of small&e.ican coffee cooperati"es to sell their products in regular supermarkets instead of +ustspeciality 5ethical6 stores7

The call for mass production and mass consumption necessitated that charity trade become moreorganised, hence the formalisation and institutionalisation of the (T networks7 This occurredthrough the formation of large organisations such as the International (air Trade #ssociation/I(#T3 and (C07 I(#T is a federation of fair trade producers and #T0s= while it is percei"ed to bemore democratic and representati"e than (C0, it has historically been less focused on primary

products such as cotton so it will not be discussed at length here7 It is ne"ertheless important tonote that, in opposition to (C0, I(#T certifies producers, not products, and has more channels for producers? in"ol"ement than (C0 /*eed, personal communication, <1L1;L;D37

(C0 is an umbrella organisation head4uartered in 'onn, Aermany, and is responsible for go"ernance, strategy and policy for the de"elopment of (T standards7 (C0?s membershipincludes producers? networks as well as "arious national labelling initiati"es, such as Trans(air anada and &a. %a"elaar, which are responsible for controlling the use of the (T logo andtrademark by issuing licences within their national boundaries7 (C0?s associated certification body, (C0!*T A&'%, is the structure responsible for certifying new products or partners andinspecting e.isting certified producers and traders7 This business model, e"en if its 5fairness6 can

be 4uestioned, has been largely successful in generating sales= in fact, the global market for (Tcertified products is growing at o"er B;[ a year /Kuigley > 0pal, ;;F3, an astonishing rate byall standards7

(C0?s Standards ommittee sets the norms for 5what is fair6 within (T7 This consists of genericstandards on social, economic and en"ironmental de"elopment in addition to norms on labour conditions, for e.ample democratic go"ernance, gender e4uality and freedom of association/(C0, ;;D3G7 In addition to these, there e.ist a set of product!specific standards to account for particularities of each crop, commodity or market /(C0, ;;D3H7 #lso, for each of the 1G products certified at the time of writing, (C0 distinguishes between 5initial6 re4uirements, whichthe producers and traders need to comply with before obtaining certification, and 5progress6

re4uirements, which the producers and traders are e.pected to reach with time7 These guidelines

D Please refer to (ridell /;;D3, Cemay /;;F3, *aynolds, &urray > -ilkinson /;;D3 and 'arrat 'rown/1HH<3, for more general information on (T networks and mo"ement7G Please refer tohttp:LLwww7fairtrade7netLfileadminLuser\uploadLcontentLAeneric$airtrade\Standard\S($ec\;;D\@7pdf for acomplete list of generic standards7H Please refer to http:LLwww7fairtrade7netLfileadminLuser\uploadLcontentLSeed\otton\S(\)ec\;D\@7pdf for the product standards for seed cotton7

G

http://www.fairtrade.net/fileadmin/user_upload/content/Generic_Fairtrade_Standard_SF_Dec_2007_EN.pdf


http://www.fairtrade.net/fileadmin/user_upload/content/Seed_Cotton_SF_Dec_07_EN.pdf







are described at length on the agency?s websites, and a close e.amination or criti4ue of them goes beyond the scope of this paper7

In e.change for fulfilling that list of criteria and complying with standards, (C0 guarantees ahigher price to the producers, to be complemented by the (T premium, which is meant to berein"ested in local de"elopment pro+ects7 It also allows for pre!financing, ensures long!term partnerships and dialogue between certified producers, suppliers and retailers1;7

In the literature, (T is defined differently by different stakeholders7 0ne of the mostcomprehensi"e definitions is from the uropean (air Trade #ssociation /(T#, ;;F3:

5R(air Trade is a trading partnership, based on dialogue, transparency and respect, whichseeks greater e4uity in international trade7 It contributes to sustainable de"elopment byoffering better trading conditions to, and securing the rights of, disad"antaged producers andworkers ! especially in the SouthR7 (T organisations /backed by consumers3 are engagedacti"ely in supporting producers, awareness raising and in campaigning for changes in therules and practice of con"entional international trade76

(T networks are part of a bigger (T mo"ement to make trade fairer /de"elopment trade37 Thismo"ement is often associated with the slogan 5Trade @ot #id67 It has broader goals than the (Tnetworks, as put demonstrated by the following statement, put together by (I@, an informalassociation of the four main (T networks: (C0, I(#T, the @etwork of uropean -orldshops/@-SQ3 and (T#:

17 To impro"e the li"elihoods and well!being of producers by impro"ing market access,strengthening producer organisations, paying a better price, and pro"iding continuity in thetrading relationship=7 To promote de"elopment opportunities for disad"antaged producers, especially womenand indigenous people and to protect children from e.ploitation in the production process=<7 To raise awareness among consumers of the negati"e effects on producers of international

trade so that they e.ercise their purchasing power positi"ely=B7 To set an e.ample of partnership in trade through dialogue, transparency, and respect=E7 To campaign for changes in the rules and practice of con"entional international trade=F7 To protect human rights by promoting social +ustice, sound en"ironmental practices, andeconomic security7 /&urray > *aynolds, ;;D:E37

The (T mo"ement has its origin in broader efforts to reform the international trade system, as the political climate shifted from inter"entionism and regulation to free market capitalism in the1HG;s7 &any obser"ers were concerned with the po"erty impact of abolishing agriculturalmarketing boards and shifting to floating e.change rates7 They ad"ocated for a sustained role of the state to use fiscal policies, transfer payments and business ser"ices to ensure a minimum,

stable price to national producers /0.ford Policy &anagement, ;;;37 &ore precisely, their efforts are associated with the @ew International conomic 0rder /(ridell, ;;D:<<3, especiallywith efforts falling under the labels of the Integrated Programme for ommodities and theompensatory (inance Schemes, two initiati"es aiming at controlling price "olatility and

1; Please note that (C0 certifies producers of primary commodities, whereas most @orthern (T suppliers andretailers need to be accredited by their national (T initiati"e /Trans(air in the case of anada3, which is alsoa member of (C07

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ensuring a minimum price to producers of primary commodities7 'oth initiati"es failed, but the(T mo"ement continued being acti"e in condemning what it deems to be 5unfair6 trade practices7

The (T mo"ement?s ideological underpinnings can be traced to different de"elopment and political theories, attracting supporters and proponents from different loci of the politicalspectrum7 -hereas &cSween /;;D:B<3 suggests that (T is directly deri"ed from a &ar.istanalysis, because it responds to une4ual e.change and deteriorating terms of trade, (ridell /;;D3suggests that (T works in the @ew Social &o"ement theory7 That means it pursues the YnewYissues of gender e4uality, en"ironmentalism, human rights and local economy rather than partisan political endea"ours, while still reflecting some ideas of the nlightenment, especially regardingsocial +ustice and human rights /(ridell, ;;D:G37

10.2 The otton Industry #n Introduction

#ccording to the conomist magaine /;;3, cotton is the mostinfluential plant in the world7 @ot only was it at the basis of the

industrial re"olution in 'ritain, but it also fuelled the i"il -ar inthe $nited States, was a key instrument of threats during the old-ar and its culture is responsible for the world?s worst ecologicaldisaster: the drying of the #ral Sea7 otton is also associated withindustrial piracy11, e.ploitati"e labour conditions, from sla"ery tosharecropping passing by one!town industries and the hinesehu!ou system1 /*i"oli, ;;D37

otton is culti"ated in D; countries and occupies <E million ha7Its fibre, which only represents B[ of the usable plant butfurnishes GE[ of its commercial "alue, is present in a wide array

of consumption and industrial products, ranging from clothing tocar rags to beauty supplies /)eclerc4, )ate $nknown37

The red tape around cotton is probably some of the thickest for any resource7 #n e.tensi"esystem of regulations and 4uotas e.ists to protect #merican cotton farmers and restrict importsfrom any gi"en country7 The most famous cotton agreement is the &ulti(iber #rrangement/&(#3, which +ust came to an end in ;;B7 The agreement?s economic conse4uences weresignificant, and the post!&(# era might look 4uite bleak for smaller producers like 'urkina (aso, because the world market risks being flooded by hinese, Indian and Pakistani supply7 otton isat the middle of the current -T0 negotiations, where de"eloping countries, under 'railianleadership, are protesting against the current $S subsidies, a form of agricultural dumping whichdepresses the world price for cotton and renders it unprofitable in many parts of the world,including 'urkina (aso7 (C0 responded to this situation in ;;E by adding cotton as the 1 st non!

11 #fter in"enting the spinning +enny, the $nited ingdom forbade its e.portation, and an industrial pirate bythe name of (rancis abot Cowell took care of bringing it back to the $nited States /*i"oli, ;;D37

1 System resembling South #frica?s #partheid in which rural hinese are tied to their place of birth and cannot access the same labour pri"ileges as urban workers if they migrate to the city7 Such migrantsare often the ones working in te.tile factories in hinese cities7

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(ig7 1: Scattered cotton on theroad, arangasso!Sambla



food (T certified item7 This new initiati"e has a lot to learn from pre"ious debates around (Tcoffee, to be e.posed later7

#t the time of writing, (C0 works with only 1B cotton producer organisations in the global South/(C0 ;;F37 'urkina (aso, &ali and Sénégal are the first producers of (T cotton in -est!#frica7

10.3 otton industry in 'urkina (asoThe following chapter seeks to pro"ide the reader with some conte.t to na"igate the issues of con"entional and (T cotton in 'urkina (aso7 Information about the history and structure of theseindustries will be pro"ided7

'&565' History of !otton in 4urina Faso

(ig7 : &aps of 'urkina (aso and the %ouet Pro"ince7 Source : fr7wikipedia7com

0ne of the first icons one generally associates with -est!#frica is the "ibrant, colourful outfits7-hat is less well known is that less than <[ of the cotton fibre produced in 'urkina (aso istransformed locally into the typical wa. print fabrics /$nknown #uthor, ;;B3= the added "aluecomes from Auinea, the I"ory oast and %olland, for e.ample7 #lthough many peopleindi"idually engage in dyeing, wea"ing and tailoring as an income!generating acti"ity /IA#3,'urkina remains famous for one thing: being the largest producer and e.porter of cotton fibre in-est!#frica, as demonstrated by the huge industrial comple.es surrounding the ginning factoriesin 'obo!)ioulasso7

otton was not always grown in 'urkina (aso7 'urkinab9 are descendants from the 'antus andwere originally engaged in agriculture and pastoralism to make a li"ing7 They deri"ed significantwealth from such acti"ities, ha"ing the geographical ad"antage of being in the middle of thetrans!Saharan trade in"ol"ing the #rabs and the 'erbers in the @orth /Tieku, personalcommunication, HL1;L;D37 otton came to 'urkina through the (rench, who were interested in producing cheap raw materials to fuel their te.tile industry7 They con"erted much of what wasthen $pper!olta /which historically also became part of the (rench Sudan, or present!day &ali3to cotton production7 The powerful (rench state monopoly, the ()T /ompagnie (ranaise pour de )é"eloppement des (ibres Te.tiles3, 4uickly became one of the most influential

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structures in place in the (# /ommunauté (inanci9re d?#fri4ue3 one7 It still is to this days,through the company )#A*IS7

'&565+ 7otton in 7ontemporary 4urina Faso

The cotton industry in 'urkina (aso is competiti"e despite high utilities prices due to 'urkina?slandlocked status7 )espite its detractors and many commentators listing problems in the'urkinab9 cotton industry, S0(IT2 ne"ertheless won the ;;E (rancophonie conomic Prieand the International Trophy of the otton Industry /%el"etas, ;;D:E37 #s a matter of fact,'urkina is often cited as an e.ample for 4uality control within -est!#frica= Togolese and'eninese farmers often get their training at the 'obo< plant /Saré, personal communication,;1L;EL;D37 otton is now 'urkina (aso?s first e.port product it generates D;[ of e.portearnings to the country and is the largest earner of foreign currency7 It also contributes F[ of itsA)P /ompaoré, ;;F37 It is, as such, "ery much tied to the country?s hea"y debt ser"icing7'urkina is now -est!#frica?s leading cotton producer and, according to the International otton

#d"isory ommittee /I#3, it became the world?s fifth largest e.porter, after the $nited States,$bekistan, #ustralia and 'rail /&arsaud, ;;E37

0f 'urkina (aso?s BE pro"inces, about <; produce cotton7 otton is the principal IA# for morethan two million producers in 'urkina and is an integral part of the daily life work, socialiing,and food of most 'urkinab97 There are up to ;; small cotton oil plants in 'obo!)ioulassoonly, and many households recycle e"ery part of the cotton plant, using the seed?s shell as cattlefood or fuel and cotton ashes for cooking potash, a traditional dish7

The "illage of arangasso!Sambla was a latecomer in cotton production by 'urkinab9 standards7'eing situated in the low!lands, it was endowed with hea"y rains, which resulted in it being

famous in the sub!region for its production of potatoes7 egetables grew well and theneighbouring "illage, 'anon, was e"en growing rice for domestic consumption7 Peanuts are also produced by many Sambla women and constitute a prime ingredient in "irtually all meals7(ollowing successi"e droughts in ;;, and as the domestic price for cotton reached itsma.imum in ;;B, more and more producers con"erted their fields to accommodate the newculture7 In ;;D, cotton was the primary IA# in the "illage and pro"ided the large ma+ority of cash income to households7 &en are the head of households in arangasso!Sambla, and theyoften choose to grow a "ariety of other crops, mostly millet but also corn and ni5b5, a type of bean ! which are often split between household consumption and retail7 &any women di"ersifythe family?s income by also selling "egetables on the market, engaging in the peanut, shea butter or dolo /local beer3 trade7

The cotton producing cycle is precise, time consuming and spans most of the year7 S0(IT2often uses the national radio to communicate di"erse phases of the cotton calendar /which alsoe.ists in print form37 Sowing of seedlings occurs in &ay, while tilling and application of fertiliers start during the following <!B weeks7 otton picking starts as early as September!0ctober /early picking3, and lasts until #pril7 hemical pesticides and fertiliers are also appliedduring the picking season7 #fter that period, cotton farmers ha"e to clean the fields of left!o"er stems before starting the campaign again7 S0(IT2?s ginning plants stop most acti"ities in early

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&ay7 #pril, the month in which inter"iews were conducted, is the least busy month of the cyclefor producers7

10.3.3 %tru!ture of the industry

'&56565' 7otton 7ompany

The cotton company in 'urkina (aso is a redoubtable, mystic and powerful entity7 It is "irtuallye"erywhere7 0ne cannot spend a day in 'obo!)ioulasso, for e.ample, without seeing cottonflurries in the streets, or without seeing the huge o"er!packed trucks of the company clash withelectric lines7 # 4uick ride in the industrial district of the city is an impressi"e tour which allowsone to follow the crop in the first parts of its transformation cycle7 Ainning plants such as 'obo1,'obo and 'obo<, 4uality control laboratories, oil!e.tracting companies like S@!itec, and, to alesser e.tent, spinning plants like the (ilature du Sahel /(ICS#%3 and wea"ing plants like (aso(ani1< fill the industrial landscape7 &any agricultural research centres, such as the Institut de

lRn"ironnement et de *echerche #gricole /I@*#3, work on impro"ing the cotton crop7 Theyare e"en pioneering 't genetically!modified cotton in closed surfaces /&arsaud, ;;E3, a premiere in the region7 otton, in all its forms, is by far the largest employer in the country7

S0(IT2 is head4uartered in downtown 'obo!)ioulasso and is the national giant in 'urkina(aso7 It used to ha"e a complete monopoly o"er the buying and e.porting of cotton7 %owe"er, as part of the go"ernmental decentralisation process, it split into three regional monopolies in ;;B7S0(IT2 remains, by far, the largest one, and has control o"er the "ery producti"e and climate pri"ileged South!-estern production7 The Société otoni9re du Aourma /S00&#3 is locatedin the astern part of the country, and (aso oton, in the Southern part7

The structure of S0(IT2 is uni4ue7 It is still largely influenced by )#A*IS, a (rench brokerage and in"esting company, which possesses <B[ of S0(IT2? shares and still controlsthe cotton oil company, S@!IT7 #long the cotton marketing chain, S0(IT2 sells its cottonto )#A*IS who sells to hinese importers /0uédraogo, personal communication, ;HL;<L;D37#fter a pri"atisation in 1HHH, the state?s share of S0(IT2 went from FE to <E[ /&arsaud,;;E37 #n interesting feature though is that $nion @ationale des Producteurs de oton du'urkina /$@P'3 owns <;[ of the S0(IT2 shares, with pri"ate banks owning 1[7 Some pri"ate national in"estors are also in"ol"ed7

@e"ertheless, S0(IT2 is mostly a state company7 It is an intrinsic part of 'urkinab9 politics7Sankara, the former socialist president who is known as -est!#frica?s he Aue"ara, encouragedhis fellow citiens to wear locally produced clothing instead of recycled second!hand clothingcoming from urope and @orth!#merica7 %e based his 5consommons 'urkinab96 /5consume'urkinab963 campaign on cotton7 The current president, 'laise ompaoré, also has strong stakesin the company7 #fter the coup d+6tat , in which he gained power by ha"ing his former militaryfriend Sankara killed, ompaoré was in need for a reputation re"amp and engaged in massi"e printing of T!Shirts and pagnes /traditional fabric3 with his effigy7 Some say that this electoral practice is at the roots of the financial bankruptcy of (aso (ani7 ompaoré?s party, the )P, is by

1< 5(aso?s (abric6 in )ioula

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far the dominant one, and many elected officials or acti"e party members also work for S0(IT27 #s many people say, 5le coton est géré ] la présidence6: 5cotton is managed by the president6 /0uédraogo, personal communication, ;BL1L;D3,

)espite an ongoing lack of trust eroding the social capital of the industry , S0(IT2 remains a

"ery sophisticated and professionalised company, by any standard7 It has a "ery comple. pricefi.ing mechanism /Aoreu., ;;<3, which are based on selling forecasts and risk assessments aswell as "arious stock e.change indicators such as the otlook inde.7 ach year, a minimum priceis announced before the seeding occurs /1FE ((#Lkg in ;;D, down to 1E; ((#Lkg in ;;G37If S0(IT2 is able to make a profit out of it, it redistributes a prime, also known as ristourne, tothe AP7 Typically the ristourne is around <E;; ((#Lton, after E[ has been cut to pay for theAP?s ad"isors7 The AP uses it to pay its unions dues of E; ((# to each of the $), $P and$@P', and keeps the rest as a safety cushion or to co"er delin4uent credit7 In the past se"enyears, producers got a ristourne that a"eraged 1E[ of the minimum price /Aoreu., ;;<37

In the department of arangasso!Sambla as in most others, there are < permanent S0(IT2representati"es: one orrespondant oton /3 and two #gents Techni4ues du oton /#T37 Theformer is the manager, the latter, the technical assistants7 The role and duties of the are 4uitee.tensi"e= he is in constant negotiation with the local $nion and indi"idual AP7 #t the onset of the campaign, the distributes inputs /pesticides, fertiliers3 to indi"idual AP according totheir total cropped area from the pre"ious campaign7 To pre"ent cotton from gaining a yellowcolour that is hard to market, S0(IT2 encourages farmers to do F phyto!sanitary chemicaltreatments during the season, at regular inter"als7 These inputs are generally bought on creditfrom the S0(IT2 as producers are often cash!poor when they need to start seeding and treatingtheir fields in #ugust7 Inputs are e.pansi"e= for e.ample, a bag of fertilier was bought for 1 E;;((# in ;;D, which, in total, who comes up to a significant sum, often 1;; ;;; ((# per producer7

onsultations are held to prepare a schedule for cotton pick!up in the department, which arene"ertheless sub+ect to a final decision in 'obo!)ioulasso7 -hile as accommodating as possible,this schedule deals with the limited capacity of S0(IT2 /especially their limited numbers of trucks working a "ery large territory with poor road conditions3 and the need for S0(IT2 toha"e a smooth supply of cotton throughout the season7 The is the communication focal pointin the "illage and he is responsible for sending re4uests for pick!up and payment to 'obo!)ioulasso on behalf of the AP7 %e also handles the payments when they come back, in theoryno more than 1 days ma.imum after they had been sent out7

'&56565+ Produ!ersB Aroups and Unions

'urkina (aso has an organied social economy structure, of which cotton is a goodrepresentati"e7 Starting in the 1HD;s, producers were organied in Aroupements illageois /A3,which were responsible for the marketing of agricultural inputs and cotton fibre7 In places likearangasso!Sambla, the A was one big growing organisation dealing with S0(IT2, and the'#', /'an4ue agricole et ommerciale du 'urkina3 was responsible for pro"iding andreco"ering input credits with each indi"idual cotton farmer7 This system allowed a lot of free!riding, had plenty of management insufficiencies and was difficult to control7 )uring that time,

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S0(IT2 was engaged in one!on!one relationships with producers to reco"er its input credit, andit was facing a high rate of delin4uency7 Indeed, at the beginning of the 1HG;s, L< of As haddebt problems, which caused a trust crisis resulting in many producers abandoning cotton/)e"ee, ;;B37

Thus, in 1HHE, S0(IT2, along with the 'urkinab9 state, the uropean $nion and the #gence(ranaise de )é"eloppement, de"eloped a new system of representation7 ach cotton producer was now to be part of a AP, which typically has ;!E; self!selected members who must producea minimum of B; tonsLyear7 &embers of the same AP are co!guarantors for each other?s credits7The input credits still come from the '#', but now with S0(IT2 as an intermediary, whichaccounts for credits with the AP as a group rather than with e"ery indi"idual farmer7 In other words, it subtracts the total credit from the total payment for the AP, which is then responsiblefor distributing it fairly depending on each member?s production, 4uality and past credit7

AP are run as small democratic committees with a 'oard of )irectors comprised of President,Secretary and Treasurer, plus their respecti"e assistants, ad"isors and information delegates7Starting in 1HHG, AP started electing departmental unions, the $nion )épartementale /$)37 Therole of the $) is mostly administrati"e: it mainly liaises with the and to represent the AP?sinterests before S0(IT27 It is also responsible for communication and diffusion of informationamong all the partners7 It occasionally engages in other acti"ities and ser"ices in its members?interest, e7g7 it sells them cereal seeds at a /generally3 discounted price7

The $), in turn, is part of the $nion Pro"inciale /$P3, which is part of the well!known $@P',a professional syndicate which is a significant actor on the national and international politicalscene7 $@P' is led by the prominent and "ocal (ranois Traoré, a charismatic leader famousfor his ad"ocacy speeches during the ;;< -T0 &eeting in ancun7

10.3.4 FT !otton in 4urina Faso

-hen looking for academic sources on cotton in 'urkina (aso, one can find many authorsoptimistic that the con"entional industry can be reformed for the better /Aoreu., ;;<3 /)e"ee,;;B3, although none mention (T as a solution7 These arguments generally do not match thefeelings of people in the field, and they completely disregard the day!to!day interaction betweenS0(IT2 and the cotton growers7 (or e.ample, )e"ee /;;B3, in tracing the history of settingup the AP, points out the difficulty of organising producers in unions and cooperati"es, whichhe seems to identify as originating from a 5typically #frican6 mistrust of this kind of structure7

%owe"er, many people belie"e in (T as a solution for the problems of the con"entional cotton

industry in 'urkina (aso7 # Swiss de"elopment organisation by the name of %el"etas was thefirst to act on this con"iction and instigate a (T cotton program in 'urkina (aso7 %el"etas? primary concerns are en"ironmental and they hence started working with producers to obtainorganic certification from co!ert, which they were granted in ;;B7 They mobilised producers,of which E;[ are women, a "ery unusual distribution in an otherwise male!dominated IA#, infour regions of the country /%oundé, Tiéfora, )ano and (ada @?Aourma3, selected on the basis of their soil and agronomic characteristics7 The program faces budgetary and human resources

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constraints and thus wishes to consolidate its efforts and ma.imise the results in the e.istingones before e.panding, despite the large interest manifested by producers in other "illages7

The future organic producers were organised in AP's /AP biologi4ues3 and recei"ed a rangeof technical support from %el"etas and its new partner, $@P'7 The program was deemed a

success by many indicators, notably the high demand for certification from other regions7 Itne"ertheless had its own challenges: switching from con"entional to organic agriculture is not aneasy thing to do, gi"en the current chemical!intensi"e model, and the transition re4uires highle"els of skill and patience7 &ost people saw their crop shrinking dramatically because the fieldsare not as producti"e right after a shift to organic production7 Some farmers were not able to break e"en with organic cotton, because of its costs in terms of labour and the time put in creatingnatural insecticides from local plants and fertiliers like compost7 In fact, in ;;F, the a"erageyield was only E;D kg Lha, which is about half that of con"entional cotton /%el"etas, ;;F37

&ainly due to the dire en"ironmental impacts of cotton /it is deemed the world?s most pollutingcrop /The conomist, ;;<3, at the moment, there is more demand for organic cotton than for (Tcotton7 %owe"er, the prospects are "ery positi"e in the long run, and that encouraged %el"etas toreplicate their &alian e.periment in 'urkina and to go for (T certification7 In fact, (TLorganiccotton pays almost twice as much as con"entional cotton: the (TLorganic price is D ((#Lkg,to which a (T premium of <B ((#Lkg is added for community de"elopment pro+ects, adding upto a total of <;F ((#Lkg /%el"etas, ;;F3, as opposed to a con"entional price of 1FE ((#Lkgin ;;D7 It is important to note that one ought to subtract the cost of the (T and organiccertifications, which amounts to B;;; ^ or 1;F ((#Lkg of produced fibre7 That lea"es ;;((#Lkg in the hands of the producer, which is still more than the con"entional price for first4uality cotton7

%e"eltas?s new initiati"e re4uired some logistical gymnastics because, to this day, S0(IT2 isthe only cotton company in 'urkina to not be listed as a fair trade trader by (C0= S00&#,(aso oton and $@P' are7 Thus, gi"en that the "olumes are still "ery low 1B, %el"etas was ableto negotiate with S0(IT2 to mo"e the (TLorganic cotton originating from its +urisdiction to the(aso oton facilities in 0uagadougou for compliance with (C0 norms7 %ence, each year, the(aso oton ginning plant is e.tensi"ely cleaned, and all the %el"etas (TLorganic cotton from'urkina is transported there at the same time, and processed during the same day /*enauld, personal communication, 1L;BL;D37 It is then transported by truck and shipped through the Comé port in Togo7 The principal buyers of 'urkinab9 (TLorganic cotton are the Aerman and Swisscompanies %ess @ature and *einhart S#1E7 %el"etas responded to some of the producers?concerns by working to facilitate e4uipment credits for AP' members with the redit $nion @etwork in 'urkina, and has also engaged in "arious producer training programs, as well asengaging in crop di"ersification e.periments, notably with organic sesame, shea and ni6b6 /alocal bean31F.

1B <BD tons of (TLorganic seed cotton, gi"ing 1B1 tons of fibre1E 0ther companies like &ark > Spencer in the $nited ingdom and Ca *edoute in (rance, are amongst the

clients of (T cotton from elsewhere in the world7 In Kuébec, companies member of the (ibrthik collecti"eare the changing force, whereas in #nglophone anada, companies like (air #pparel and the (T lothingo!op use fairly traded but non!certified cotton7 Ten Thousand illages and Planet 'ean are also startingtheir (air Trade cotton programs7

1F (or more details on the %el"etas program, please refer to /%el"etas, ;;F3 and /%el"etas, ;;F37

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There are other (T cotton initiati"es in 'urkina7 S00&# has its own (T program /non!organic3and has much higher "olume /;;; tons in ;;F /*enauld, personal communication, 1L;BL;D33than %el"etas, and is hence capable of ser"ing a large uropean client like &ark > Spencer7#lbert Schwarter also started a (T cotton program in ayao, south of 0uagadougou7

'' #esear!h Findings

1171 (T workers and #cademics

#fter a discussion of what 5fair trade6 means to people in the mo"ement, and what 5unfairness6 itresponds to, this research turns to the empirical scrutiny about what research participants in the @orth understand as (T: what is it, what is its impact, what unfairness does it respond to/generally and in the case of cotton3, what are the challenges of (T, what are their criti4ues of (T,and how can it be impro"ed This is a first step to undertake before turning to non!certified producers? "isions, to finally allow for some comparisons between the two study groups7 Thefollowing sections attempt to e.amine how 5fairness6 is understood and e.perienced by @orthernstakeholders7

''5'5' ;hat is FT?

@orthern actors define (T in a wide range of different ways, incorporating some elements of thehuman rights discourse, social enterprise, post!colonial guilt and straightforward businessmentality7 %ere is a small sample:

• 5(air trade is a system that pro"ides dignity to the people in de"eloping countries6/Tumkur, personal communication, 1L1;L;D37

•

5(T is a way of making sure that e"eryone e"ol"es and e"eryone is kept to pace inhow weRre de"eloping as humans7 #nd it would be embarrassing if we actually left people behind7 #nd that there are billion people who are left behind, who li"e in po"erty e"ery day7 So we set about creating a company that sells a commodityVclothingW "ersus uni4ue items like crafts7 The reason why we took that on, wetook that approach, is that we belie"e the strength in the international trade and itsfairness comes through these markets6 /Jain, personal communication, 1GL1;L;D37

• YIt would be clearly irresponsible to say that to sa"e -est #fricaRs VcottonW sector that one must throw your support behind organic cotton7 -e are ne"er going to saythat7 'ut we are going to work at our own scale= the program is e"ol"ing nicely,and so is the marketY (ranck &ercerson, head of %el"etas!&ali /'assett,

;;D:F3(or many @orthern actors, the set of criteria that (C0 de"eloped is meant not to put constraintson (T producers, but rather to generate a "alue!added, which is seen differently by different @orthern stakeholders7 In fact, when asked what the most important thing is in (T or why theywork in (T, a wide range of responses is gi"en:

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a7 5(or me, the most important thing in (T, be it in cotton or other products, is for the producers to know that there are consumers at the other end of the world whoknow, who are aware of their li"ing conditions and do not stay put in front of their T doing nothing, but who get up and engage in a responsible consumption act7 #long!term relationship with the same small producers with whom we can

ma.imie the benefits of (T is also a key element in my "iew7 In addition, (T,through the e.tra re"enue it pro"ides, can finance the switch to organic production7 (T also allows a "ery high 4uality, and (ibrthik only chooses producers who are super committed to that6 / (auré, personal communication,;1L11L;G, free translation37

b7 I work in (T because it is a "iable, cost!effecti"e alternati"e to switch to wearing(T shirts and (T cotton "ersus sweatshop cotton7 There is a market for companiesconcerned with S* doing e"ents necessitating T!Shirts6 /Jain, personalcommunication, 1GL1;L;D37

c7 5)#A*ISR (ranois Airaudy belie"es that the real benefit of fair trade is toimpro"e the image of #frican cotton 4uality on world markets7 %e "iews fair tradecotton as Yan #mbassador of #frican cottonY not because of any social +usticecontent, but because of its high 4uality7 Airaudy depicted fair trade as little morethan charity, like gi"ing alms to the poor7 %e stated that impro"ing market positionthrough upgrading will do far more for #frican cotton growers in the long run than producing small 4uantities of cotton for niche markets at premium prices6/'assett, ;;D: D!G37

&aterials gathered from primary and secondary goals reassert that (T has many goals, including,according to Cyon /;;F3:

promoting educational consciousness!raising among consumers /Simpson and *apone,;;;, c7f7 Cyon, ;;F3, assuring historical trade relationships /(rundt, ;;E, c7f7 Cyon,

;;F3, ser"ing as an alternati"e to both free trade and protectionism /Celair, ;;=&aseland and aal, ;;, c7f7 Cyon, ;;F3, ensuring public accountability and safe andhealthy working conditions /Arimes, ;;;3, fostering changes in con"entional internationaltrade /*edfern and Snedker,;;= &oore, ;;B, c7f7 Cyon, ;;F3 and contributing to the$nited @ations &illennium )e"elopment Aoals /(C0, ;;Ea, c7f7 Cyon, ;;F37

#n additional goal of the (T mo"ement is to modify the international trade system7 This goalfollows an acknowledgement that the current political economy fa"ours the powerful and thatlong!term trading partnerships ought to be founded upon the basis of trust, transparency andfairness, and re!socialiing the commercial relation /'issaillon, Aendron > Turcotte, ;;F37

''5'5+ ;hat is the impa!t of FT?

The field of &> has recently paid attention to the 4uestion of how to track and measure5fairness6 and its attainment within (T networks7 Their findings will be the topic of this section7

Impact assessment studies matter because 5fairness6, for many consumers, who are gi"en a newresponsibility status of 5donor6 or 5partner6 in the act of consuming a certified product, arises

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from seeing positi"e impacts7 %owe"er, the literature indicates that despite all its potential, (Tcan ha"e a nil impact on local de"elopment7 This brings up 4uestions about relocalisation of themo"ement= would (T be more effecti"e if producers had more control o"er it /Cemay, ;;F3

The small impact is also due to the "ery low "olumes of (T!certified products and limited

markets in the consuming countries /*ooen > ander %off, ;;:FF!FD, c7f7 &cSween, ;;D3This does not mean (T does not make a difference= e"idence of farmers lining up to obtain (Tcertification indicate that a higher price is highly desirable /*enault, personal communication,;BL1L;D37 (T can ha"e a positi"e impact, in "arious and possibly indirect ways, on landownership, in"estment in human capital, community pro+ects /Cyon, personal communication,;DL1L;D3 and market access /Shreck, ;;37 %owe"er, more efforts are needed to de"elopappropriate models to ma.imie that positi"e impact7

"ery new social inno"ation struggles at presenting their results, outcomes and impact7 So does(T, although authors such as *onchi /;;E3 would note that the "ariety of recipients interested insuch information is particularly wide for (T since consumers wish to know how their purchaseshelp, donors wish to know if their support is effecti"e and competitors wish to know what it is to be _fair?7

#nother writer on (T impact assessment, %assel /;;E:G3, accuses the certification regime of being a 5thinly "eiled eco!imperialism where @orthern countries enlist protectionist agendas thatrestrict market access to Southern e.porters67 Paul /;;E3, on the other hand, proposes a Cogical(ramework #nalysis for e"aluating the outcomes relating to certain (T ob+ecti"es7 -hile this is agood starting point, the framework does not 4uestion the top!down nature of (T, or suggest a participatory determination of ob+ecti"es to be tracked in &>7 She also fails to note, in her 5#ssumptions6 column, that 5(T is a good thing67

(T also has negati"e impacts7 5The benefits of fair trade are offset by increasing debt burdens,low prices, regular audits and outside super"ision and the potential for increased socioeconomicstratification6 /Cyon, ;;F, c7f7 Cyon, unpublished37

In &ali, it has been shown that non!certified cotton farmers are following their certifiedneighbours and adopting organic inputs /'assett, personal communication, ;EL1L;D37 (T ha"ealso had a number of indirect impacts on other commodities chains leading to changes in relatedinitiati"es, which allows 4uestions about the notion of fairness7 (or e.ample, the organisationalcapacity building in (T coffee in &e.ico allowed the cooperati"e to get in"ol"ed with other en"ironmental initiati"es during the slow season, hence di"ersifying their income /&utersbaugh, personal communication, ;FL1L;D37 -hile this can be seen as positi"e and 5fair6 from theoutside, cautious e.amination shows that producers in this particular case were, in a way,dependent on their (T certification to take on these other related en"ironmental +obs7 That wasthe case, e"en though the "alue of (T was declining in the eyes of producers, because steadyinflation ate up their re"enues while (T coffee prices remained the same7 In fact, (T certificationcreates a circle of moral "irtue, which has downsides, considering (C0?s progress re4uirements become increasingly time and energy consuming, and the benefits were going down7

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(urthermore, another particularity of (T cotton that differentiates it from other commodities is its"ery comple. transformation chain7 0ne of the most important issues with (T cotton is how totrace and certify it from the field to the T!Shirt7 In fact, con"entional cotton can be picked andginned in 'urkina (aso, e.ported through a Togolese port by a (rench company and sold tohinese brokers, made into thread in &adagascar, fabric in (rance, sewn in India, worn in the

$nited States and recycled in Tanania

1D

Q This greatly complicates the &> of (T cotton, asnoted by Kuigley and 0pal /;;F3 in their feasibility study for (T garments, which pro"ides a broad discussion of IC0 standards as understood by "arious stakeholders /labour rights acti"ists,#T0s, factory administration and workers, etc737

&ost criti4ues of impact assessments of (T pro+ects relate to limited scope and audience7 Theyare summaried in the following chart :

Table : riti4ues of the Impact of (T

Cimited scope andaudience

The limited market does not make (T the best alternati"e for thelargest number of people, compared to international commodityagreements, e7g7 during the International offee #greement, theregular price for coffee beans was sometimes twice what the (T price is now /(ridell, personal communication, 1DL1L;D3, andreached 1;;[ of the worldRs E million coffee farmers, incomparison to <[ for (T7

%ow democratic and responsi"e to the most marginalied producersR needs can a large organisation like (C0 be /0.fordPolicy &anagement, ;;;3

(T does not assist the most marginalied producers because theyre4uire skills, organisational capacity and product 4uality that the poorest communities do not ha"e /'issaillon, Aendron > Turcotte,;;F3

''5'56 ;hat is unfair in !onventional trade?

'efore presenting issues +eopardiing (T?s 5fairness6 and current debates in"ol"ing the 5fairness6of (T, it is important to understand what ma+or @orthern stakeholders of the (T mo"ement andnetworks understand as 5fair trade6, and why that is so7 This will also pro"ide a basis for discussion and comparison with the primary data collected with non!certified cotton producers in'urkina (aso7

1D (or more information on the tra"els of a T!Shirt, please refer to /*i"oli, ;;D37

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-hat do academics mean when they say 5fair trade6 The (T mo"ement and networksnecessarily originated from a "ision before its inception7 Interestingly, (T is not solely +ustifiedon the grounds of 5+ustice6, but also of 5need6 and 5de"elopment6, and it is clearly part of alarger package, a larger agenda7

(T literature mentions deteriorating terms of trade as the main cause of 5unfairness6 ininternational trade7 The con"entional economics cause for this, in the words of (ridell /;;D: E3,is that:

unlike manufactured goods, primary products had a relati"ely inelastic demand, which meant thatdecreasing prices did not necessarily lead to consumers buying more of primary goods7 The mainreasons for this were the physiological limits on the 4uantity of primary goods that indi"idualscould consume, the increasing de"elopment of industrial substitutes for primary materials, and thedeclining producti"ity of raw material output compared to industrial output due to technologicalad"ance7

%owe"er, (T proponents go beyond that understanding and identify the cause of this per"asi"e phenomenon as power ine4uality, which translates into increasing income ine4uality7 This is seenas unfair because it skews resources towards the wealthier side of the distribution and worsens

prospects for society?s poorest /Surano"ic, ;;;37

#nother central image relating to distribution of wealth in (T networks is the intermediary, themiddle man, the 5coyote67 This image emerges from small brokers in coffee marketing chainswho ha"e local monopsony /buying monopoly3 power o"er raw beans purchases, and henceimpose a "ery low buying price and take up most of the margin7 This is belie"ed to be unfair bythe (T networks because of the imbalance between the "alue added by the intermediary and theshare of profits /or producers? surplus3 it captures in the end7 There is a breach in reciprocity between the person doing the work and the "alue it gets from its labour in the form of wages7This argument points out the lack of choice and oppression of the small farmer7 %owe"er, thisimage is not directly replicable in other commodity chains like cotton in 'urkina (aso7 Cike

many other #frican countries, the trade is more "ertically integrated: there is only one buyer, butit is a large state company, and the cotton retailers form an oligopoly7 @e"ertheless, themiddleman image stresses the lack of agency of the poor producer as a cause of unfairness7 @onegotiation is possible for the producer, hence the supply side?s market power is ne.t to nil and power is not distributed e"enly7

In addition to ine4uality, the lack of reciprocity is also put forward as a cause of 5unfairness6:according to 'arratt 'rown /1HH<: <3, the e.changes are unfair because people who sell us thegoods we en+oy recei"e Ya bare pittance for their work and en+oy /if that is the word3, a standardof li"ing that is a bare twentieth of our ownY7 They gi"e a lot and recei"e little in e.change7

#nother argument made by international economists *i"oli /;;D3 and lgrably /;;F3, is thatthe unfairness in the cotton trade lays in the absence of markets, and 5market imperfections,VwhichW pre"ent Southern producers to fully take ad"antage of markets6 /Perna, ;;;: <F<!<FB,c7f7 Aendron, ;;B37 This has been seen historically in the $nited States, with the cotton industry being based on sla"ery, sharecropping and e.ploitation of migrant &e.ican workers, instead of free labour markets with competiti"e wages7 -ithin the #frican conte.t, the cause of this absenceof markets is often linked to internal go"ernance problem /at the state and industry le"el3 and alack of what Thomas (riedman /c7f7 *i"oli, ;;D3 calls the 5software6 of an economy: efficient

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police and court systems, applicable rights and laws and transparent rules to pre"ent corruptionand foster political and macroeconomic stability7

Increasingly, a lot of emphasis is being placed on the market in (T networks7 #nother cause of 5unfairness6 is related to another type of market failure: incomplete information7 "en the (Tfounders would not condemn the market economy altogether= they would, howe"er, despise thefact that consumers do not ha"e the right information to make ade4uate choices about thecommodities they buy, which results in real social and en"ironmental costs not being internalised7Proponents of (T belie"e that consumers ha"e a 5right to know6 the production conditions of their products to purchase in solidarity with producers whose identities ha"e been un"eiled by a process of defetishisation of the market7 They intend to do so through the creation of aon"ersation conomy where initiati"es like true cost pricing and product labelling fa"our moretransparent trade relations /coTrust anada, ;;G37

''5'5* Ho. is FT !otton 2ustified?

#ll industries ha"e their particularities, which impacts where the unfairness is percei"ed byobser"ers7 In the case of cotton, the political clout en+oyed by the #merican go"ernment due to its position as the largest financing body of International (inancial Institutions /I(I3 brings about a power ine4uality that allows the $nited States to act unilaterally and breach the rules of the-orld Trade 0rganisation /-T03 by gi"ing large subsidies to their own cotton producers/Tumkur, personal communication, 1GL1;L;D31G7 This protectionist measure has a tremendousimpact on po"erty and "ulnerability7 In fact, one study by the I# pro+ected that if all subsidieswere eliminated, global cotton prices would be 1E[ higher /I#, ;;<, c7f7 (airtrade(oundation, ;;E37 This is e"en more scandalous when considering that the #merican cotton! producing landscape has been totally engineered, creating an artificial comparati"e ad"antage for the $nited States, a situation that is only maintained by inflows of billions of dollars of E;million ta.payers? money for the benefit of a few cotton producers whose output is only ;,;;;B[of $S A)P /-orld 'ank, ;;<, c7f7 (airtrade (oundation, ;;E37

These subsidies ha"e a tremendous impact on #frican cotton farmers, and contribute toincreasing income ine4uality both locally and globally, as the poor become poorer7 That is so because the subsidies are so large that they create market distortions7 The $S subsidies betweencrop years 1HHG!;; amount to FG,E[ of total crop "alue7 #lso,

5In crop year ;;, the $S go"ernment pro"ided `<7B billion in total subsidies to the cottonsector7 To put this figure into perspecti"e, it is nearly twice the total $S foreign aid gi"en tosub!Saharan #frica7 It is also more than the A)P of 'énin, 'urkina (aso, or had, the main

cotton!producing countries in the region7 0.fam estimates that sub!Saharan #fricancountries lost `<;E million due to $S subsidies in crop year ;;16 /02(#& 'riefingPaper, ;;B37

Some ha"e argued that side effects of the subsidies are an increased use of child labor /and all itseducational implications3, e"en star"ation /Tumkur, personal communication, 1L1;L;D3, in

1G This is a "ery contentious issue, especially gi"en that agricultural products are current the gi"en specialtreatment under the -T07

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countries whose e.port dependency and unstable climate render already "ery "ulnerable toshocks to the economy /ompaoré, ;;F37

This is also unfair because of a lack of positi"e reciprocity, that is, a discrepancy between inputsand outputs7 onsider four factors normally put forwards to e.plain economic success: effort,

talent, luck and influence7 (or cultural reasons and probably as a legacy of a Protestant work ethic /-eber, ;;13, there is often a strong sense in ethical consumption circles that the first twofactors are worthy of praise, whereas the other two are despicable7 #s a matter of fact, the cottonlobby in Te.as has strong historical and current ties to -ashington and is, to this date, one of themost powerful agricultural lobbies in the world /*i"oli, ;;D37 (air traders dislike the fact thattheir mere political influence succeeds in guaranteeing them a better price than -est!#frican producers whose production costs are 1L< but they get only ;[1H of the price the #mericans get75#nd yet -est #frican farmers are well positioned as some of the most cost!efficient producers tocompete in this future market if only a le"el playing field is created6 /02(#& 'riefing Paper,;;B37 This is thus a case in which the *ules of the Aame are not the same for e"erybody7

#long with other factors, such as the appreciation of the uro;, the growing demand for synthetic fibres, hina?s decreasing consumption and demand for cotton imports, and theincreased supply of cotton from new countries /Aoreu., ;;E3, /02(#& 'riefing Paper, ;;B3,the subsidies also associated to 5dumping6 clauses /Tumkur, personal communication,1L1;L;D3 are causing the world cotton price to drop7 The case can also be made that producersfrom poor countries do not ha"e the resources to indi"idually take the $S to the -T0 disputesettlement committee /Tieku, personal communication, HL1;L;D3, which lea"es them incapableof reacting facing this 5unfair6 practice unless they all act together7 $ntil then, the precariousnessof their li"elihood is increased, in a conte.t where a small price differential can make a differencein a farmer?s ability to pro"ide for the basic needs of his family7 In fact, Tertius Uongo, the#mbassador of 'urkina (aso to the $nited States, e.plained that, in ;;1, the entire industry

could ha"e been profitable with an additional `;7;HLpound /02(#& 'riefing Paper, ;;B37

In addition, Structural #d+ustment Programs imposed by the -orld 'ank and the International&onetary (und make it difficult for the 'urkinab9 state to nurture the cotton industry which, inline with the infant industry hypothesis, may need e.ceptional financing to take off properly /de*ato, ;;E37 #lso, there is a sense that 'urkina (aso has no choice but to produce cotton nomatter what the conditions are to earn foreign e.change to ser"ice its e.ternal debt7 This debtser"icing, along with a balanced budget and low inflations, are conditions considered e.ternallyto be more important than triggering de"elopment of import competing industries in the te.tilesector or stimulating e.port!led growth7 The fact that the $S are allowed to subsidise their cotton, but 'urkina is not, shows that the 5rules of the game6 are not the same for e"eryone, which can

be considered unfair7

It is important to note that there is no unanimity with regards to the 5fairness6 of $S subsidies7 Infact, in the e"ent that the subsidies were to be eliminated, there would also be less $S!fundedresearch and de"elopment7 # higher cotton price coupled with a slowing down of technological

1H #frican farmers get <;[ of the world?s otlook price, on a"erage, whereas the #merican farmers, whenthey recei"e the go"ernment?s check, get 1E;[7

; # currency to which 'urkina (aso?s currency, the (ranc (# /((#3, is tied7

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progress would be detrimental to the global te.tile industry, which profits from cheaper cottonand is located in poor countries such as Pakistan, India, hina, Sri Canka, and Southern #frica/*i"oli, personal communication, ;EL1L;D37 The 4uestion to be asked, always, is 5fair, for whom6

In addition to the subsidies, the fact that cotton is an internationally traded commodity, there is awidespread understanding that the price of cotton is fi.ed by the @ew Nork stock e.change,mostly using the otlook # price inde.7 This brings about large fluctuations in the cotton price ona recent downward trend, which results in prolonged episodes where some farmers are unable to break!e"en7 This way of relying entirely upon market mechanisms to set prices is deemed asunfair by many because it does not gi"e any agency to producers and does not take rising production costs into account7

11.1.57hallenges of the /volution of FT&any critics of (T are related to how the mo"ement and networks ha"e e"ol"ed through time7There seems to be a consensus that the mo"ement does not hold to its original "alues of solidarity

anymore7 0ne of the common ideological criti4ues is directed at how the goals of (T changedo"er time= indeed, there has been a significant and symbolic shift when the word 5alternati"e6was taken out of (I@?s definition of (T /*eed, personal communication, 1BL;<L;G37

In fact, Cyon /personal communication, ;DL1L;D3 reminds us that (T is a brand, sub+ect to a"ariety of institutional standards, and labelling and auditing procedures, trying to differentiateitself to capture larger market shares7 This institutionalisation 5embodies a mo"e away from ane.plicitly ideological, situational, and political articulation of fairness as solidarity, and toward amuch more liberal notion that fairness can be operationalied and contained within a set of con$entions that can be impartially and ob+ecti"ely ad+udicated6 /ruger > )u Toit, ;;D:1F37This is described as a shift away from the following referential, translated from /harlier et al7,;;F3

Table : (T Solidarity *eferential

alues.change @orth South YTrade not aidYSolidarity and +usticeLautonomy

@ormati"e principles -ork with poor and marginalised producers#ssociate small producers "ia an organisation'etterment of life and work conditions

BB

(ig7 <: otton Prices on the @ew Nork Stock.change /otlook # Inde.37 Source:/%el"etas, ;;F:E37



(air price and premiumPre!financingCong!term engagement)irect relations with producersIntegrated or organic agriculture

Cobbying

Imagery

Intermediaries as factors of ine4uality in e.changesapitalism as a cause of dysfunctional e.changesooperati"es as the ideal organisational structure-ork with small producers

This shift amounts to saying that (T is mo"ing more towards the more reductionist "ision of thethical Trade mo"ement, which focuses on orporate Social *esponsibility /*eed, personalcommunication, <1L1;L;D37 In that "iew, (T is seen as a "oluntary compliance to labour anden"ironmental standards, which is institutionalised through the (T logo and then used torefurnish the brand image of big corporations7

(ridell /;;D:B3 also reflects on this change:

5(rom a theoretical perspecti"e, the origins of the networkRs de"elopment "ision lay in thestructuralist, dependency, and world system theories which were prominent within the fair trademo"ement in the 1HF;s and 1HD;s7 In recent years, howe"er, fair traders ha"e abandoned thestatist emphasis of these theories while maintaining their neo!Smithian understanding of thecapitalist market7 This neo!Smithian conception, which pri"ileges e.change relations o"er relations of production, is essential to understanding the current prospects and limitations of thefair trade network7 5

#s a matter of fact, the (T mo"ement is now facing a "ariety of new challenges, a lot of them

encompassing debates o"er #hat fair trade means. (rom its beginning as a top!down initiati"e,(T networks became a fast growing market niche generating more and more public interest777 andmore and more corporate interest, from such companies as @estlé and Procter > Aamble /&urray> *aynolds, ;;D:G37 #long with the prospects of a corporate take!o"er of the mo"ement /5(T!lite63, there are pressures to allow plantation growing as part of the (T model, which cause athreat to the original meaning of (T because they do not see local endogenous de"elopment anddirect and respectful relations with producers as a priority /harlier et al. ;;F3, /*eed, personalcommunication, <1L1;L;D37 %owe"er, they do pro"ide sales to producers, which is often the primary ob+ecti"e7 0ne could ask, figurati"ely: 5sales, at what price6

#lthough it is impossible to name them all, the following 4uestions point at the many comple.

and interesting debates relating to what 5fairness6 means within the (T networks andmo"ement1:! Should e"ery producer be selling 1;;[ to (T buyers /(orum Social Kuébécois, personal

communication, EL;GL;D3! Should e"ery retailer or product be 1;;[ (T to ha"e the (T logo /(orum Social

Kuébécois, personal communication, EL;GL;D3

1 Please refer to *aynolds > &urray /;;D3 for a more e.tensi"e discussion of these challenges7

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! %ow much profit must (T organisations make to remain "iable, and how does that impacthow much the producers make

! Should (T allow plantation production! Is it 5fair6 to concentrate on a few small producers for a long time instead of trying to

spread out the benefits of (T among a larger number of people

! -hat is the best way to protect and differentiate the term 5fair trade6 in the face of thenew initiati"es that "alue fairly!traded practices but do not wish to get certified by (C0! %ow 5fair6 is it that (C0 is also mo"ing to a lower wage frontier e7g7 starting to

produce coffee in Catin!#merica and progressi"ely to places with lower labour costs likeast #frica and South!ast #sia to find producers who can 5afford6 the low (T price/&utersbaugh, personal communication, 1L1L;D37

# lot of these issues arise because 5fair6 trade is "ery "aguely defined7 %owe"er, there seems to be a consensus that the recent growth of the (T sales, which are brought about mostly throughnew corporate traders, is not as 5fair6 as pre"ious and continuing efforts by small cooperati"esthat put more emphasis on the (T principles7

11.1.67ritiCues of FT pra!ti!es and rationale(T is a "ery interesting alternati"e, but it seems too good to be true7 #lthough many researchers?criti4ues of (T may come across as harsh, this is because (T is such an inno"ati"e and successfulinitiati"e and because great care is being taken so that it is impro"ed and does not becomecomplacent or immobile /Cyon, personal communication, ;DL1L;D37 It is hence necessary tolook at these "arious criti4ues of (T to ha"e a better understanding of what is inherently problematic or may turn wrong in (T networks7 This is important to understand how themo"ement can capitalise on these mistakes and a"oid them in the future7 This will also pro"ide alarger rationale for the current study, in naming many ways in which 5fairness6 within (T can be

4uestioned7 It is important to note that many criticisms are aimed at particular practices inspecific case studies, hence necessitating targeted change7 They may not be as rele"ant elsewhere7%owe"er, the reality is that (T is not as 5fair6 as one would think, as e.emplified by the work of the following scholars7

0ne of the most interesting scholars to study how (T is selling false dreams is Tad &utersbaughfrom the $ni"ersity of entucky7 %is e.perience with a coffee cooperati"e in 0a.aca, &e.ico, pro"ides pro"ocati"e information about the day!to!day reality of such certification systems as (Tor organic7 &utersbaugh witnessed attrition rates of ;[ within (T!certified producers, whichaccording to him are due to widespread dissatisfaction of farmers with the networks? transparencyand their degree of participation /&utersbaugh, personal communication, ;FL1L;D37 This

discontent arose when the costs and burdens of certification e.ceeded the benefits, largely because of the pressing demands for 4uality coffee that were unrealistic to meet with low le"elsof capitalisation and such a low (T price7 In addition, (T cooperati"e members often werefrustrated with information!retaining (T representati"es who seemed to deny that the (T pricesetting mechanism is inherently political by e.plaining the (T minimum price as if it were rocket

It is already going on in (T bananas, and has been resisted by groups of &e.ican (T coffee producers, withthe help of I(#T /*eed, personal communication, 1BL;<L;G37

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science7 In that sense, (T is portrayed, at best, in an unclear and nebulous way, which is probablya strategy to reduce accountability7

#nother key scholar to influence this paper, also from the $ni"ersity of entucky, is Sarah Cyon7She also noted that the (T coffee price was too low in the opinion of coffee farmers in

Auatemala, and her research indicates that the romanticised "ision of the (T trading relationshipsas e4ual and well!functioning is a fallacy /Cyon, ;;<37 In fact, most farmers she works withcannot e.plain what (T is, and imagine of the consumer as a "ery demanding and picky richindi"idual, instead of a partner7 Their idea of the consumer is abstract, at best, and is often formed by encountering young tourists who often do not conform to the cultural norms of professionalism and self!pride /Cyon, ;;<37 %owe"er, this is not a uniform pattern and there areways in which (T is seen, if not as more 5fair6, at least as more human and personable7 The beste.ample is when (T partners take the time to engage in relationship!building with producers,through personal "isits and gift!gi"ing instead of limiting communications to the phone and theInternet7

Aa"in (ridell /personal communication, 1GL1L;D3 pushes the discussion out into the other end of the (T commodity chain: consumption7 %e asks, is there too much power gi"en to consumerswho may ha"e information asymmetry %ow 5fair6 can (T be if it perpetuates the e.isting power relations and ine4ualities by lea"ing it to the consumer to decide the fate of producers )oconsumers ha"e the right to ask producers to organise and struggle in ways we do not need to inanada because our go"ernment pro"ides social ser"ices Is that 5fair6

&aseland and )e aal /;;3 are two scholars adopting a con"entional economics approach to(T7 $sing an interesting 4uantitati"e methodology based on the %eckscher!0hlin model of international trade as well as new economic geography and location models, they argue that fair trade is always superior to protectionism, but not always to free trade, depending on certain"ariables ranging from price elasticity of demand to transportation costs and e.penditure share onmanufacturing goods7

0ther key criti4ues or 4uestions regarding the 5fairness of (T6 are presented in the followingtables7 They ha"e been di"ided between criti4ues addressing (T practices, and those addressingthe (T rationale7

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Table B: riti4ues of (T practices

ertification burden:too much paperwork for too few benefits

ertification costs include pre!assessment costs, actual certification costs, and ongoing compliance costs/Aio"annucci, ;;E:<B, c7f7 %assel, ;;E37 It is thus cumbersome to conform to International 0rganisationfor Standardisation /IS03 guide FE /certification3 each year and IS0 guide F1 /accreditation3, whichnecessitates training and e.aminations /&utersbaugh, personal communication, ;FL1L;D37

Paperwork e"en greater if combined with other certifications, such as organic /&utersbaugh, personal

communication, ;FL1L;D37Canguage issues: most documents are not translated in local indigenous languages /Tieku, personalcommunication, HL1;L;D3

(T paperwork and record keeping re4uires skilled, literate labour which is already in short supply andalways likely to migrate away from rural areas /&utersbaugh, personal communication, ;FL1L;D37There is a high opportunity cost for poor people to go to meetings, which are time consuming/&utersbaugh, personal communication, ;FL1L;D37

The (T price is not inde.ed for inflation, which means the real price /and "alue to the producers3 constantlygoes down, to a point where it may be more profitable to sell into the con"entional chain /&utersbaugh, personal communication, ;FL1L;D3

Partnership and

participation (C0?s structure was not representati"e of its stakeholders /*eed, personal communication, <1L1;L;D37

In response to recent criticism, (C0 has added four producer representati"es to its 1!member board of directors /(C0, ;;<37 #lthough progress has been made towards greater democratisation, namely becauseof pressure from I(#T, (C0 is still characteried by a 5pyramid decision!making structure, where the topoften does not communicate with the base6 /ander %off, ;;<:;, c7f7 Cyon, ;;F37There is no real channel to "oice complaints= the e.isting ones are not used /&utersbaugh, personalcommunication, ;FL1L;D3



&isunderstandings and miscommunications: 5In the @orth, people complain of late or missing deli"eriesand 4uality problems7 In the South, the complaints concern cancelled orders, ad"ance financing that isincreasingly difficult to obtain or arri"es late, late payments, lower prices paid, the aggressi"e attitude of buyers, and attempts to haggle about prices67/'issaillon, Aendron > Turcotte, ;;F3

@egati"e psychologicalside!effects/&utersbaugh, personalcommunication,;FL1L;D3

Skills de"eloped through (T capacity!building are underutilied most of the year

&ore en"ironmentally!friendly production methods /like organic3 shrinks the production "olume at first,and that is distressing(C0Rs inspections are sometimes 5really harsh6(T destroys regional differentiation of products by lumping them all together, which has negati"e impactson self!perception of one?s production7

Some norms are insidious, inade4uate and result in distress and paranoia /rogue norms3 by asking for morethan is practically needed, e7g7 using dangerous spiky plants for erosion control on a flat terrain

Sub+ecti"ity

ach inspector emphasies what they want e7g7 go"ernance, gender participation, etc7 ! in their e"aluation,/*enauld, personal communication, ;BL1L;D37Sometimes inspectors e"en make personal recommendations to producers when they are on duty, which isnot permitted /&utersbaugh, personal communication, ;FL1L;D37

@ational labelling initiati"es gi"e different deals to different people, e7g7 by lowering trader certification

costs to large coffee roasters /Jaffee, ;;D3 @o real gender e4uity/Cyon, personalcommunication,;DL1L;D3

0ne "ote per household Z male "ote

#uditors do not get out of their way to talk to women

Table E: riti4ues of (T rationale



Cow sustainability

(T preser"es the status 4uo and encourages e.cessi"e consumption of e.otic lu.ury products7 /colo, ;;G3-hy import (T honey or cut flowers if we can produce them locally /colo, ;;G3

The best option is to rethink, reduce, reuse and recycle clothing instead of buying new one, e"en if it is(TLorganic /(auré, personal communication, ;1L11L;D3

Power and paternalism

(T maintains colonial power relations of the political economy from the colonial period /Shreck, ;;3

(T imposes its standards of YfairnessY in labour and does not take the producersR wishes and preferences intoaccount7 (or e.ample, it fi.es a ma.imum number of hours worked per day instead of allowing for producers to work more in some periods to take longer breaks to "isit family li"ing far!away /&aillou.,;;D, c7f7 Aau"reau, ;;D37

Perpetuates myths about producers, ob+ectifies and 0theries them, e7g7 by saying how small producers lo"eto be stewards of nature /green nati"e myth3 and lo"e to cooperate /Cyon, personal communication,;DL1L;D37

Some (T training documents are condescending, and sometimes implicitly implies that producers did notknow how to do their +ob properly before /&utersbaugh, personal communication, ;FL1L;D3



The o"erriding theme from the pre"ious charts is that, most often, (T is being criticised for theway (T principles translate in practice7 This is of upmost importance for this empirical research,which seeks to unco"er what 5(T6 would look like in practice, in the opinion of non!certifiedcotton producers in 'urkina (aso7

11.1.7Ho. !an FT be made fairer?To conclude this chapter, there are a few "iews that ought to be carried from @orthernstakeholders and academics proposing reforms to the (T networks for an increased 5fairness67%ere they are:

a. (T networks should contribute to discussion around how to reform con"entionaltrade, following the efforts by Aoreu. /;;<3 /;;E3, /$nknown #uthor, ;;B3

b. (T producers should be rendered more competiti"e /Aendron, ;;B3c. The focus of (T should stay on human capital and appropriate technology /'arrat

'rown and #dam /1HHH3, c7f7 &cSween, ;;D3

d. alue should be added in country as much as possible /%el"etas, ;;F3<

e. The fi.ing of the (T price should be always done collaborati"ely, in line with theoriginal "ision: Y in these alternati"e markets, prices would not be determined bythe "agaries of supply and demand but would be formed through a process of negotiation between producers in the South and consumers in the @orth, based onthe premise of fairness to all parties /-aridel, ;;: H<!E= Simpson and *apone,;;;, c7f7 (ridell, ;;D37

f. The definition of 5fairness6 should be more large : 5onceptually, the notion of afair price would go beyond the unrealised aspiration of mainstream economists for a degree of Yprocedural fairness Y, such as free and consistent access toinformation for all trading parties, and include the goal of Youtcome fairnessY

designed to ensure that no trading partners are e.ploited or depri"ed incomparison to others /'lount 1HHD: BB!D3Y g. Proponents of the (T networks should become more engaged in the (T mo"ement,

who seeks broader change in international trade and reduced ine4uality, goals whocannot be only achie"ed through selling (T products /*aynolds, personalcommunication, 1L1L;D37 (T consumers should become (T citiens, and refrainfrom letting their identity being reduced to merely that of a consumer /(ridell, personal communication, 1GL1L;D37

11.2 ProducersThis section now turns to empirical results with the non!certified cotton producers7 It argues that

producers identify the 5unfairness6 in the cotton trade mainly at the local le"el= there is "ery littlee.ternal blame mentioned by the producers7 The principal issue is the current price le"el does notallow them to make a li"ing gi"en the inputs prices7 %owe"er, the terminology used aroundS0(IT2 and the $@P' re"eals that the lack of real partnerships /Tallontire, ;;;3 is the maincause of this unfairness, because it does not allow for meaningful participation by the producers7

< In fact, %el"etas wishes to make (TLorganic thread at (ilsah and sell it to sub!regional, @orth #frican anduropean markets through %ess!@ature7 To this effect, it started encouraging knitting with organic cotton withdifferent women groups in 'urkina7



-hen asked to construct (T as a thought e.periment, the result is similar to what (T networksoffer, with the emphasis o"erwhelming placed on raising the price of cotton7 Producers were alsofound to agree with the split between the (T price and premium and the en"ironmental criteria of (T, but where resistant to its gender e4uality criterion7

11.2.1

;hat is Unfair in the 7onventional 7otton Trade in 4urina Faso?# range of different reasons are gi"en to e.plain the current socio!economic situation, which producers consider as unfair7 %owe"er, this has not always been the case and the change is mostlydue to trends in prices and partnership7

The current price for cotton, 1FE ((#Lkg in ;;D falling to 1E; ((#Lkg in ;;G, is percei"edas too low7 This can be compared to input prices, 1,E;; ((#Lbag of fertilier in ;;D rising to1E,;;; ((#Lbag in ;;G, which are seen as too high7 -hile producers were able to realieconsiderable economic growth in the "illage after cotton growing started, its e.tent is highlydependent on the price7 The declining cotton price has been the most significant issue noted by producers7 otton is said not to be as profitable as other crops or "egetables /especially potatoes3

and not to be profitable for e"erybody7 The downward price trend comes in with its range of uncertainty that makes it difficult for producers to plan7 Producers often ha"e to start sewing in#pril or &ay, before the price for cotton is announced, which results in them 5li"ing in a blur inwhich they don?t know which basis to work upon67

#nother reason why the price issue is so important is that producers consistently identified cottonwith positi"e factors when looking back at the ;; season, where the price was 1E ((#Lkg7-hen asked about the benefits of cotton growing, producers identified the following benefits:

Table F : 'enefits of cotton growing according to producers

Pro"ides cash income to:• buy consumption goods such as mopeds and

motorbikes, cars• in"est in assets a better house with metal roof

• in"est in work material, labour bulls, donkeys, mills,tractors

• in"est in human capital through educating children

• afford getting married or taking up more wi"es

'rings a better 4uality of life /eat better, more meat in thesoup, more leisure acti"ities in the "illage, better familial

climate because people are happier3#llows more financial independence from the family member who has a better paid +ob

Stimulates the local economy, like the pharmacy, the Peulswho sell bulls, the mopedLmotorbike "endors, etc7otton production also:

• keeps clothing prices down domestically• pro"ides fertiliers to use for corn and other cereals



• has en"ironmental benefits /make the soils richer,allows maie to grow better, allows renewal of thefields3

In addition, the fact that the price of cotton is known in ad"ance of har"esting /it is usually

announced in #pril3 was said to reduce the "ulnerability of producers to arbitrage or local5coyotes6, who are infamous in the cereal trade for crunching the price during the high season7#lso, the fact that the cotton money usually comes all at once B results in a 5lottery winner6 phenomenon7 Producers find it easier to sa"e when they get paid in a lump sum than if they get alarger o"erall income but in small daily installments as they would when they sell "egetables, for instance7 This is mostly due to an historical lack of formal sa"ings institutions in the "illage E7Producers say this single large payment, on top of being encouraging and moti"ating, makes iteasier to mobilie funds for health e.penses= it is said that people die less because they ha"emoney to pay for transportation to the hospitals in 'obo7

It is important to note that all these positi"e aspects are much dependent on the going price7 #s put forwards by a participant: 5cotton growing is like a bid= you put money aside and then at acertain point it accumulates and then it comesQ6 This is not the only instance in which producersseem to place bets on their own li"elihoods with cotton= another participant mentioned that if theyha"e their cotton weighed many times during the season, it gi"es them more chances to ha"e their cotton rated first choiceQ These beha"iours relating to risk indicate that farmers ha"e grown toli"e with risk and consider it normal, although their use of such terms as 5delay6, 5late6,5unpredicted6, 5bad surprise6, 5bad conse4uence6, 5"ulnerability6 indicate that they still see it asnegati"e7 This is especially true gi"en the huge time commitment needed for cotton and the lack of fle.ibility of the IA#7

# number of other factors were identified to be 5unfair6 by producers7 They are summarised inthe following chart, in order of importance:

B AP can ask for numerous demands for payments to S0(IT2 but they usually find it cumbersome and

useless because a lot of the incoming money has to be used to settle their debt with S0(IT2 so they find it better to run through the whole process when their entire production has been picked7

E There is a new sa"ings institution in the "illage, the &utuelle d?Opargne et de rédit des #rtisans et desProducteurs du 'urkina /&#PL'3, which is linked to the #ustrian ooperation7 )uring the researcher?sinternship, she tied links between &#PL' and the local women?s association, and was able to see ageneral interest in the "illage for the institution, although many people are still suspicious of it because it isso new and is not fully recepti"e to lending to cotton growers because of the high risk /oné, personalcommunication, )#T37 The $) were also launching their own sa"ings and credit institution /@#&3 in;;D to fill that gap7



(ig7 B : Producers? *epresentation of S0(IT2

The S0(IT2 practice that is most criticisedand dreaded by producers is its field 4ualitycontrol7 In fact, to determine whether a producer?s cotton is 1st choice /and gets paid1FE ((#Lkg3 or nd choice /and gets paid1<E ((#Lkg3, a S0(IT2 agent called aconditionneur grabs a handful of cotton and pro"ides a diagnostic based on his appraisalof the fibre?s colour and length7 That decisionhas an enormous impact on the farmers because, o"er hundreds of tons, a few (# per kg make a big difference7

The conditionneurs ha"e incenti"es to declassify the cotton7 #s one participant reminds us, theyare hired by contract and due to high rates of unemployment, the company can allow itself todictate 4uotas to be met for each 4uality and only rehire those who fulfill them and sa"ing thecompany money7 Instances of the conditionneur asking for bribes to class one?s cotton 1st choiceha"e also been obser"ed7 These two things are denied by S0(IT2 /Saré, personalcommunication, ;1L;EL;D3 which, instead, emphasises how the cotton fibre has to allow for adurable, elastic, long and regular thread in order to be competiti"e and to generate re"enue on theinternational market7

S0(IT2

'iased#busi"e

Powerful

orruptInfle.ible andirrealistic

Selfish

@ot transparent

(ig7 E : otton Kualities



calendar at the beginning of the year, which is unresponsi"e to natural conditions such as precipitation rates that can highly affect the crop7

#nother cause of unfairness relates to how little the producers percei"e themsel"es to be in"ol"edin decision making acti"ities7 -hile the sense of 5local ownership6 of the IA# is not present,

there is a strong sense of S0(IT2 acting unilaterally and not consulting producers and their representati"es sufficiently7 #n e.ample in arangasso would be how S0(IT2 in"ites 1! APrepresentati"es to sit on committees to plan and monitor marketing, but how ultimately it?s the who writes the cotton e"acuation orders7 The resulting schedule is said by the to be basedon data from the AP /Toé, personal communication, FL;BL;D3, but it is also said by the producers to "ary constantly7 The scheduled pick!up days are often broken, and AP leaders donot ha"e any recourse7

# downward trend in S0(IT2!producers relations is identified by participants7 'efore the producers were organised in AP, all credits were engaged directly with the company instead of under solidarity caution within the AP7 #t that time, S0(IT2 was said to be more forgi"ingand could wait an e.tra season before reco"ering their credit7 It was also 5nai"e6 and ga"e inputsand seeds out for free, a practice which they stopped, apparently, because some producers weregrinding the seeds to get flour and sell it7 This is denied by producers7

(inally, the most recurring set of unfair aspects of cotton growing are directly S0(IT2!related7They all tell the same story: S0(IT2 is unreliable, as demonstrated by the following chart:

Table G : S0(IT2!related unfair aspects of cotton growing according to producers

Input problems

rrors in order deli"eries)elays in deli"ering inputs

(a"ouring certain producers as not e"erybody gets their inputs on the same

day

onse4uence of payment delays /up tosi. months3

0ther field work, e7g7 cleaning the field for the following har"est, is delayed

Some field work rendered impossible due to timing issue, e7g7 no time totrain new bulls because when the money comes itRs already time to pick cotton again @ecessary to sell cereals to co"er certain e.penses @ecessary to take commercial loans with loan sharks

@o money for health care or other emergencies when itRs needed

&oney comes too late to pay for tuition, and since student loans areuna"ailable, parents ha"e to li4uidate assets /like bulls3 or not send their children to school

&oney comes when cotton cropping has started again so there is no idle period in which people could do other IA#s e"en if they wanted too



The $nion, for its part, is talked about by the producers in the following terms:

(ig7 F : Producers? *epresentation of $@P'

Producers? are not content with the $@P', which is said to not be working hard enoughtowards concretiing gains for those it represents7 Through noticing how $@P' does not fightto get a better price for the producers? cotton and how it is progressi"ely charging higher pricesfor the cereal seeds it is supposed to sell to producers at hea"ily discounted rates, producersincreasingly feel that the $@P' is a S0(IT2 sell!out7 Its charismatic leader, (ranois Traoré,howe"er popular he may be in the -est for its forefront role in loudly denouncing $S subsidiesat the ;;< -T0 meeting in ancun, is considered corrupt by the producers in arangasso!Sambla7 %e is often designated as a _go"ernment official?, which alludes to the bureaucratisationof the $@P' and its new distance and disconnection from the interests of its intended beneficiaries7 $@P' is largely "iewed as a puppet of S0(IT27

The $@P' is not the real syndicate it should be in the eyes of the producers7 Some people areof the opinion that while the organisational structure is good a priori, but it is badly managed= theleaders li"e on the money of the producers and do not gi"e enough in return7 #s someone put it ina focus group discussion: 5$@P' is like a machete we paid to gi"e to S0(IT2 so that it cutsour throats with it7 'efore, $@P' members were cotton growers like us, but now I don?t see theimportance of it because it doesn?t do anything for us7 They ha"e to come remind us again whythey created such a structure67

The $@P'? role as a representati"e of the farmers is to find solutions to problems arising between partners and in the industry in general7 It would then act according to its role if it made agenuine effort to address the negati"e aspects of cotton growing brought forwards by the farmers7The farmers are unhappy with the $) of arangasso!Sambla, as demonstrated by many of themwalking out of the annual assembly meeting7 Some of the issues raised in that meeting werecorruption theft by the former president of the $)7 The entire session carried a general

$@P'

@on producer!friendly Inefficient

'adly managed

orruptS0(IT2 sell!

outs

)isconnected from producers? intereststs

@ot representati"e



sentiment of resentment, because most farmers had not been paid by S0(IT2 yet at the time of the meeting7

11.2.2;hat !an be done about this Unfairness?

''5+5+5' ;hat .ould =Fair Trade> be?-hen asked what their suggestions for a 5fairer6 trade would be, producers primarily stressissues of price and costs, as well as other things the (T networks theoretically address /cropdi"ersification, training, the en"ironment, etc737 They also want more e.ternal inter"ention in theindustry to diminish po"erty, but primarily to reduce ine4ualities7

0"erwhelmingly, and in parallel to the causes of unfairness outlined abo"e, the most recurrentsolutions pointed out by the producers were to increase the price for cotton and to decrease the price of inputs7 This is what the producers want and what politicians from the ruling party, theongr9s pour la )émocratie et le Progr9s /)P3, ha"e been promising for years7 -hen asked towhat le"els, the producers answered that it has to co"er production costs7 This can be achie"ed

through go"ernment subsidies7 In fact, 'urkinab9 producers call for more market inter"entionfrom the ruling party, which they see as inacti"e and unresponsi"e to their needs7

In addition to being paid more, their wish is to be paid in smaller, regular installments, so thatthey still get a high sum each time but they can also use that money to start up a parallel IA#7This would bring about a feeling of security7

#nother way to stimulate the emergence of such a positi"e feeling is to gi"e the power back tothe producers for their own IA#7 Producers pointed out different ways of doing that7 The mostimportant one is to announce the price of cotton and inputs earlier on, so that each person canmake their own operating pro+ections for the campaign and hence be in a position to make an

informed choice about whether to plant or not, and how much7 In fact, there is a lack of a clear,systematic and scientific analysis of profitability that accounts for all the costs of the producers7This may be because of the tendency that producers ha"e to not count their 5wage6 as ane.pense, and to associate it with the final profit7 -hile they "alue their labour and a largema+ority of them know most of the costs implied inputs, hiring labour, cooking, transportation,union dues, etc7D none of these estimates comprise key economic "ariables such as the wage or depreciation of capital7 The researcher worked with a few producers to establish the followingestimation:

D



Table H : stimated ash (low for 1; tons of seed cotton M1FE ((#Lkg produced in arangasso!Sambla

#evenues1 FE; ;;; ((#/0panses Eless labour3Inputs ! 1 ;;; ;;; ((#%ired Cabour ! 1E ;;; ((#(ood osts ! ;; ;;; ((#Transportation ! 1;E ;;; ((#Total e0panses ' *6& &&& F7F)Profits ++& &&& F7F) E8&@G3+

The lack of a comprehensi"e data set has been pointed out by the $) manager as one of the biggest obstacles for the cotton industry because, according to him, the price fi.ed by S0(IT2should be determined as a function of the costs of production, not as a function of the fluctuationsof world supply and demand7

#longside these monetary considerations, farmers stress other suggestions that ha"e their e4ui"alents in the (T proposal:

Table 1; : Producers? solutions relating to (T criteria

Training Aet management training= bookkeeping, financial planningInformal education

ropdi"ersification

(a"our other IA# /e7g7 bananas, millet3 as alternati"es tocotton

There needs to be more than one alternati"e crop becauseotherwise it will saturate the local market and the price willgo down, which will benefit the consumer but not the producer

0ther cash crops for e.port, especially cereals for which itis difficult to find a uropean market

n"ironment!related ncourage farmers to plant trees

*un agroforestry e.periments to preser"e naturalen"ironment

G #nother estimates that if the field yields well, it should gi"e <D ;;; ((# of profit per ha /app7 GF`Lha3, asone ha cannot yield more than 1!1L ton, compared to 1;; ;;; ((# of profits per ha /app7 <1,E;`Lha3 on a"eragefor cereals7



Tap certain local species ! e7g7 acacia - to preser"e water $se organic manure$se compost

onsultation and participation

'e consulted when fi.ing cotton price because e"erything

is imposed in cotton, in contrast to other crops where the producer is free to sell to whoe"er and at whiche"er pricehe wants

#bolish #mericanSubsidies

'ecause the #merican go"ernment signed to the -T0 principles and should hence respect them /condemningunilateralism3

Some of the solutions proposed di"erge from the (T networks? approach7 They are often case!specific and related specifically to the 'urkinab9 cotton trade at the micro!le"el:

Table 11 : Producers? solutions non!relating to the (T criteria

S0(IT2!related

lear S0(IT2 of unnecessary e.penses

ut down operating costs of so that producers can get ahigher marginCess stringent 4uality control

hange the management to impro"e organisation7

Ao"ernment!

related

(urther cut S0(IT2 ta.es to ensure the lowest possibleinput prices

nsure political independence of S0(IT2 to a"oidconflicts of interestH hannel foreign aid directly to producersSubsidie cotton

0thers

(a"our technological change /through more capital,machinery and e4uipment3

'etter use of cotton by!products to create "alue!addedand earn income, e7g7 as biofuel or firewood

Technical knowledge e.change with the #mericans andhinese

(orbid #mericans to grow cotton because they ha"e other alternati"es

H S0(IT2 and )P are tightly linked= many S0(IT2 officials are also "ery acti"e in the ruling party7̂-hile the impact of this is a contentious issue, there are fears amongst the population that this threatens theob+ecti"ity of the company and compromises the way it should make decisions7 # similar case happened in 'urkinawith (aso (ani, a wea"ing plant that went bankrupt after the )P election from ha"ing printed too many free T!Shirts with the President?s picture and slogan7



#n e.amination of this table imposes the conclusion that all these solutions aim at reducing the producers? "ulnerability, through stabiliing and di"ersifying strategies, and impro"ing their economic situation7 This is seen as a right by producers= a right that has been "iolated byasymmetric partnerships7

#t the same time, there seems to be a general desire among the producers from this sample togal"anie more national and international support for their plight7 -hile some use the term pity,most producers use the words support and partnership, which corroborates the pre"ious findingthat producers want 8ustice, not charity.

There are two ways of looking at this:! 5The $S is more ad"anced technologically and they ha"e more machines, so they should

help us7Y! 5-e are poor so we should be helped6= there is an implicit referral to ine4uality here=

howe"er, the most important feature is the need of producers for a better price, whichcalls to humanitarian sentiments, for a solution that is more charitable7

The first "ision is more pre"alent7 #ccording to that "iew, #merican cotton farmers should in"estin capital in 'urkina (aso, by buying e4uipment, supplies and so on7 The shared acti"ity of cottoncropping is enough to create an identification and sense of community in the eyes of the producers, and +ustifies their demands7 otton farmers e"erywhere are 5in the same boat6=howe"er, there is a striking ine4uality of opportunity7 %ence, it follows that the most successfulha"e the moral duty to help the least successful7 illage power relations are replicated at theinternational le"el7

This idea of e4uality is also present7 # solution for some of the social problems noted beforewould be to ensure e"erybody is treated e4ually during 4uality control, and e"ery AP gets their inputs at the same time7

It is interesting to note that in ;;D, the $) of arangasso!Sambla launched two newinno"ations for its producers in: a %ealth and a Sa"ings &utual /$), ;;D37 The former is meantto pro"ide insurance for health problems in the farmers? immediate families, while the latter aimsat addressing the difficulty cotton growers ha"e in getting credit from other formal sources like&#P7 #lthough the results of these initiati"es are impossible to assess due to their recentlaunch<;, there is a sense that $) ignores the more pressing in+ustices, problems and solutions presented by the farmers7

This is e"en more rele"ant considering that many farmers ha"e stressed how they or their ac4uaintances will be reducing their cropped areas this coming year and try to di"ersify their

earnings sources to be less dependent on cotton7 &any are 4uitting cotton altogether, because it isnot profitable for them7 0ne e"en drew the conclusion that the increasing po"erty amongst cottonfarmers has a potential to disrupt the entire 'urkinab9 economy, and how it can be a breedingground for political strife and e"en warfare7 In such a conte.t, coupled with the array of problems

<; There already is contro"ersy around these initiati"es7 The %ealth &utual, for e.ample, is criticied for itsdisorganisation and the incompetence7 There ha"e been cases of health insurance certificates issued withmany risible errors in the actual names, genders and ages of the producers? family members7



faced by the cotton trade, it is worth wondering what the potential for (T can be, and at whatscale7

(or their part, S0(IT2 representati"es see solutions differently7 The "illage says, literally,that it is the producers themsel"es who fi. the price they get, because they are in control of their fields? yield /Toé, personal communication, FL;BL;D37 #s an illustration, there are wide "arietiesin yields /they can go up to a 1: ratio3 across producers that S0(IT2 attributes to differencesin rigor around chemical treatment practices7 The town?s most successful farmer also agrees withthat, and sees the entire process as an ob+ecti"e set of agrarian procedures to follow to ma.imiereturns7 #nother S0(IT2 inter"iewee sees the impro"ement of 4uality as the ultimate solution/Saré, personal communication, ;1L;EL;D37 %e points out how competiti"e the world cottonmarket is, and how 'urkina (aso has to fight hard to maintain a reputation as a 4uality supplier with its trading partners7 # higher 4uality fetches a higher price on the market, it seems ob"iousthat by working hard on technical "ariables such as treatment, e4uipment appropriateness and picking hygiene, farmers can become better off7 In sum, they each define success in the cottoncropping IA# as resulting solely from effort, and not from talent, luck or influence7

''5+5+5+ ;hat produ!ers thin of the FT model

The three focus groups conducted were built as thought e.periments too see how participantswould react to a (T representati"e introducing (T to them for the first time7

The first topic of con"ersation was gender7 -hen asked about the role of women in cottongrowing, producers identified seeding, picking, cooking and bringing water to the hired labour inthe fields7 -hen asked whether women should be in APs, participants pointed out that therewere some limitations to how much women can do in the cotton growing IA#7 (or e.ample,certain types of work, like loading the S0(IT2 trucks, are physically intensi"e and often occur o"ernight, hence the husbands do not wish to face the risk of their wi"es going out alone at night

and possibly being fined E;;; ((# for being late to a loading session7 #lso, most women do notha"e access to transportation as easily as men, so it is hard to get around to the "arious acti"itiesof the AP7 In addition, the phyto!sanitary treatment has side effects that men would not want tosee their wi"es suffer, especially if they are pregnant7 #ll in all, most men disagreed with women becoming in"ol"ed in APs, and did not see the rele"ance of two household members makingdecisions7 In their "iew, women were sometimes to be consulted, but their ultimate role is tosupport their husband, because women and men do not 5see things the same way67 The raresingle woman who manages her own cotton field is always supported by a man /brother, cousin3in arangasso!Sambla7 &en said it would bring conflict if women were in"ol"ed in APs: menwould 4uarrel amongst themsel"es as to which woman works the most, which is pregnant mostoften, etc7 Since all the women in the same AP would not be a single man?s wi"es, they said it

would be hard to stay in control of their beha"iour /it seems like many people seem to see APmanagement as being similar to a family37

%owe"er, when asked what they would do if someone came in and offered a price of <;F((#Lkg, but demanded e4ual participation by men and women, a minority of people changedtheir minds and said women could be in"ol"ed7 They thought out solutions for the pre"ious problems, for e.ample dealing with women members case!by!case in pregnancy, and pointed outthat women are better at money management than men7 %owe"er, there was some agitation in the



groups and men asserting that women shouldn?t be responsible, or else what would happen tochildren -hat would the family eat The resistance occurred from the entrenched cultural ideathat women?s prime IA#s are making dolo and selling peanuts and soumbala /local spice mi.from the n6r6e tree37

# second 4uestion asked to the focus groups had to do with the (T premium7 If a representati"ewas to offer, again, <;F ((#Lkg, but asked that it was split up between the AP and the producers, what would they choose (rom the onset, there was no resistance to the price sharingsystem, although the AP was more recognied as a social business than as an e.plicitcommunity de"elopment agent7 The first estimates fa"oured the indi"idual producers but after some discussion, they came to a consensus that E!1;[ /1E!<; ((#3 of the sum should be gi"ento the AP for pro+ects who would benefit to the community7

The last 4uestion asked to the focus groups was regarding en"ironmental stewardship7 #lthoughmost producers weren?t able to see a "iable alternati"e to chemical inputs, after ha"ingconfronted the situation where the price of <;F ((# would be gi"en only upon a con"ersion tonatural inputs, producers unanimously embraced the idea7 They had already made demands onS0(IT2 for helping with composting and using manure as a fertilier7 They agreed that thenatural inputs, although more labour!intensi"e, were worth it as they would also translate insignificant sa"ings on production costs and hence reduce their indebtedness7

'+ "is!ussion

12.1 -hat notion of the *ole of (T do Producers and (T -orkers Share

There are "ariations in which (T workers and producers understand the role of (T= this sectionseeks to bring them together, using the research findings to describe an ideal (T partnership for

the arangasso!Sambla conte.t7

The producers inter"iewed in this research do not subscribe to the "iew in which 5markets produce fairness67 (or them, (T would lift them out of po"erty and guarantee subsistence for themsel"es and their families= this can only occur if they ha"e a greater degree of control o"er their local economy7 This does not mean that they wish for autarky= many producers are 4uittingcotton and going back to a more subsistence form of agriculture because the price of cotton islow, not because they belie"e that the "illage should not be integrated in the global economy7 In principle, this integration is not a problem= the problem is the fluctuations that it entails, which intheir "iew should ne"er compromise a basic standard of li"ing in which their children can go toschool and each family member has access to ade4uate nutrition and healthcare7 In summary,

while they do want to be integrated in the global economy for the monetary benefits it engages/and other benefits named in Table F3, they belie"e this in"ol"ement should be on their ownterms, meaning that they should be able to negotiate prices of inputs and cotton as well asdeli"ery schedules and other aspects of the cotton IA#7

-hile they acknowledge the market imperfections resulting from the monopolistic power of S0(IT2, they also ad"ocate for subsidies from the national go"ernments and aid transfers fromwealthier producers7 These are reminiscent of socialist politics of the Sankara era7 They wish the



price of cotton would reflect their production costs77 In terms of de"elopment theories, it can beasserted that they do not subscribe to the neo!liberal approach, and do not feel like markets can produce 5fairness67 The process is understood in a &ar.ist sense, as a political issue in whichactors engage in a power struggle7

The construction of a (T model from the bottom!up at the basis of this research shows that producers? "ision of de"elopment is a mi. of ) and S), as the concern for sustainability anddi"ersification has been e.pressed many times7 #t the same time, there ne"ertheless remains animportant role for 5outsiders6, in the form of technical and financial assistance, abolition of subsidies, etc7 This role is stressed many times and hence it is difficult to conclude that producers?subscribe to the idea that (T promotes endogenous de"elopment7 It seems that producers wouldrather be in"ol"ed as e4ual partners rather than becoming promoters of their own ) bymarketing and managing their own cotton growing acti"ity7 This might result from accumulatedfrustrations with collaborati"e democratic structures which face so many financial constraints thatthey become irrele"ant and paralyed7 0n the other hand, many producers ha"e ideas of alternati"e IA#s /banana plantations, cereal production, etc73, but they cannot seem to see howthey could self!finance these initiati"es, gi"en the current po"erty profile of the community7 Insum, (T would be an alternati"e way of de"eloping the community because it entails enhanced participation by community members in cotton production and marketing decision!making aswell as social de"elopment pro+ects, but it cannot be concei"ed as coming solely from within thecommunity, a result that might stem from the constant disempowerment producers face in their relationship with S0(IT2 and $@P'7

Aenerally speaking, )#A*IS and %el"etas are pragmatic and more en"ironmentally!focused,whereas (air #pparel and (ibrthik are social enterprises and hence go beyond how (T is usually5sold6 by (C07 5(airness6 is not all that matters, and other things such as the "alue!added on site,dignity, e4uality through using markets, feasibility, 4uality, human relations, impro"ements to thereputation of -est #frican cotton, en"ironmental stewardship and a focus on small groups of producers all matter as well7 There is definitely a pragmatic and realistic emphasis on ser"ing @orthern consumers, which necessarily entails a focus on enhancing producers? competiti"eness/notion in Table 13, for e.ample in terms of 4uality7 %owe"er, (T is clearly seen as more thanthat, as a social economy pro+ect that goes beyond addressing market imperfections7 -hile effortsare mobilised to internalise e.ternalities such as pollution, the (T workers inter"iewed go beyondthe notions of supply and demand to set labour and en"ironmental standards for themsel"es,something that is largely ignored by markets7 These markets are indeed seen as unfair andmonopolistic, because they 5keep two billion people in po"erty6 /Jain, personal communication,1GL1;L;G37 If the two (T organisations inter"iewed did stress the need for consumer education,they failed to mention how they understood the role of the (T mo"ement in reforming the globaltrade7 This might be a methodological weakness, but it is more likely to be that notion < in Table1 is not the most important in their "iew, and that they understand their role at the socialenterprise rather than the policy le"el7

In summary, producers? "ision of (T comes closely in line with notion B from Table 17onse4uently, it appears that producers in 'urkina (aso could define a positi"e workingrelationship with @A0s such as (air #pparel and (ibrthik7 0ne of the important findingsresulting from the abo"e discussion is that any (T cotton pro+ect in arangasso!Sambla shouldreally emphasie education and capacity!building, because there is a lot of underutilied



entrepreneurship in the community that would benefit from (T?s pre!financing and other kinds of support to create a more di"erse local economy7 The researcher ha"ing limited knowledge of theinner functioning of %el"etas, she cannot comment on whether they would be better or not7 Ai"enthe hostility of producers towards big, impersonal structure, she can ne"ertheless suggest thatsmall organisations are more likely to contribute to the realisation of producers? "isions of (T in

arangasso!Sambla than large corporations would7 The sie of partners is an essential point here= bigger is not better, as producers highly "alue direct human contact in their trading relationships7Ai"en the repeated stress put on "alues of solidarity, fle.ibility and empathy, it seems like socialentrepreneurs and cooperati"es sharing these "alues would be most welcome7 Transparency isalso "ery important to producers7 -hile this can be understood as correcting for the lack of perfect information in markets, it seems to be more based on basic positi"e reciprocity, honestyand integrity producers e.pect from their trading partners7 In all partnerships, howe"er, a point of pinnacle importance emerges: producers need to feel like they ha"e agency in the process of building the (T pro+ect, or else it will resemble the oppressi"e con"entional trade too much7 Thisemphasis on participation suggests that the long!term focus of %el"etas, (air #pparel and(ibrthik is in accordance with the producers? desires7 The e.tent to which (T networks canaddress the unfairness of the con"entional cotton trade in 'urkina (aso is the sub+ect of the ne.tsection7

12.2 Is the current (T cotton model in 'urkina (aso an alternati"e adapted tolocal priorities

The preceding e.ploration of which notion of (T workers and cotton producers subscribe to is agood starting point for e"aluating whether or not the current (T cotton practices are adapted tothe producers? ideas and realities7 In this section, it will be suggested that while %el"etasembraces a sustainable ) approach to (T, it fails to allow for enough participation of producers, hence replicating the breaches in partnership found in the con"entional cotton trade7 It

has to be noted that the coming section is primarily based on personal obser"ations, and manyaspects especially those touching particular cultural realities such as child labour and gender e4uality would, as noted, benefit greatly from more empirical research7

'+5+5' )n alternative?The (T cotton proposal is referred to by @orthern actors as a positi"e, fair 5alternati"e6 tocon"entional trade, but there are a number of e.amples showing its failure to be a real alternati"eresponsi"e to particular local needs7 This can be e.plained mainly by the structure of (T cotton in'urkina (aso, which carries plenty of the con"entional trade problems through acti"elyintegrating actors such as $@P' /'assett, personal communication, ;FL1L;D37 -hileS0(IT2 is not in"ol"ed directly in (T cotton, the cotton company in"ol"ed, (aso oton, has

emerged from the break up of the monopolistic S0(IT2 into three regional monopolies7 %ence,it carries the past and li"ing history of S0(IT27 The 4uestion as to whether $@P' isrepresented more positi"ely by the (T!certified AP' working with %el"etas remains anempirical one7

In addition, a lot of typical (T solutions are already incorporated within the 'urkinab9 industry ,which echoes with social economy practices7 In reality, the fact that (T ideologies are defined insuch 5uni"ersal6 terms and are based on a model that originates in the Catin!#merican coffee



)emocratic organisations can be 4uite different around the world /*aynolds, personalcommunication, 1L1L;D3, and it is important for (T to recognise that the e.isting AP structurehas its own problems and can be impro"ed7 It is not clear how %el"etas is addressing thesego"ernance issues, and that +eopardies the 5fairness6 of (T cotton, because many producers pointed at the AP as a potential threat to harmony in the "illage7

'+5+56 oney $ssues#nother thing to be 4uestioned is the (T Premium7 Is it better than the ristourne in thecon"entional trade %ow 0f course, the (T premium is about ten times higher than the typicalristourne, and that does make a difference in the community?s capacity to engage in pro+ectsrele"ant to them7 %owe"er, there is no empirical data in 'urkina (aso on the use of the premium,which has the potential to be counter!producti"e as well7 In fact, as 'assett notes, social premiums ha"e the potential to be eroded by free!riding, and can be used /as they currently are3mostly to settle the debts of less successful farmers, not for endogenous de"elopment pro+ects7This has created tensions in Xte d?I"oire, where successful farmers got frustrated and formedtheir own cooperati"es, leading to increased segmentation and segregation in "illages /'assett,

personal communication, ;DL1L;D37 This indicates that the (T premium may not always ser"e itsde"elopment purpose= it may contribute to reducing ine4ualities in other ways, but also hasindirect side effects7 0nce again, the higher (T price has the potential to reduce the debt problems after a few years, but no research has addressed that yet7

)ebt was mentioned as one of the primary non!partnership!related 5unfair6 features of con"entional trade7 (T networks offer pre!financing to producers7 -hat is the plus "alue of that pre!financing, in a conte.t where e.isting alternati"e means of financing already e.ist and are putin place by local actors for the community (or e.ample, as mentioned before, the $) inarangasso!Sambla is setting up a financing instance, and &#P also e.ists for other creditneeds7 (T pre!financing automatically creates a liability between the producer and the (Tdistributor7 -ould (T interfere with these mechanisms if it were to be implemented inarangasso!Sambla 0r would it significantly reduce the debt burden This is an importantempirical 4uestion, because cotton debt is at the origin of many social problems in the "illage7-hen contrasted with the potential solution of making credit generally more a"ailable, producerse.press their reser"e towards the easy fi. solution of facilitating microcredit in the region7 That ismostly because, according to one research participant, 5we gi"e a microcredit to someone so thatthey can do an IA#, but if a problem comes than the person uses this money to sol"e it, thenshe?ll be unable to pay back and may prefer to lea"e7 If they can raise it Vthe cotton priceW, theyshould do it or else po"erty will continue in 'urkina (aso7 %ere in 'urkina (aso, the cottonfarmers are the poorest and when that?s the case, it has effects on all the layers of population76 #nemphasis on pre!financing and microcredit, as opposed to the fair trade price, would thus not be +ustified in the "iew of producers7

This discussion of premium and pre!financing ine"itably leads to the discussion of the (T price,which is the "ariable for which research participants really want to see a positi"e change7 #sample of <B producers were asked what would be a 5fair price6 for cotton, and the a"erage gi"enwas F1 ((#Lkg, which is lower, in fact, than the (TLorganic price offered by %el"etas /D((#Lkg, <;F when counting the premium37 It is e"ident that producers are not makingunrealistic price demands= howe"er, there are a few problems with (T as it is7 (C0 does not ha"econsistent practices for fi.ing the (T price, although it is usually the result of a commodity



e.pert?s research7 -hat happened in 'urkina is a whole different story: the (T price was in factset using the current S0(IT2 estimates and adding a margin to it /'assett, Personalcommunication, ;EL1L;D37 It is hence calculated using market mechanisms and an arbitrarysurplus7 In this particular case then, the (T price has not been calculated in terms of productioncosts and e.ternalities7 -hether the (T price actually encompasses all the costs remain an

empirical 4uestion7 %owe"er, the price fi.ing mechanism merely replicates the S0(IT2mechanisms denounced consistently by producers, since they were not in"ol"ed in the process inany way7 In this case, 5if it is true that the con"ention setting process in"ol"es consultation andnegotiation mainly among an elite of technical e.perts and politically powerful ideological brokers, the notion that (air Trade works in a direct and simple way to empower workers and producers needs to be taken with a pinch of salt6 /ruger > )u Toit, ;;D: 1D37

#lso, (C0 does not ha"e set inde.ing practices7 There ha"e been numerous cases of coffee producers complaining that the (T price was too low /&utersbaugh, personal communication,;FL1L;D3, /Cyon, personal communication, ;DL1L;D3, mostly because it had not been changed in1; years despite steady inflation7 The "alue of (T declines for the producer as inflation increases,and the (T price reaches a point where it is definitely not considered 5fair6 anymore7

'+5+5* uality 7ontrol and /nvironment#nother issue about theoretical 5fairness6 is linked to the debate about the power ne.us within(T, which is often said to reside with consumers or with (C07 In practice, (T cotton (T workerssuch as (air #pparel and (ibrthik are "ery concerned with 4uality, because that is what theconsumer wants7 There are problems with this, because producers consistently pointed out that4uality was a huge point of disagreement between S0(IT2 and them, and it contributed todeeply souring the partnership7 Kuality is not seen in the same way by different stakeholders: asan illustration, while consumers often see it as a positi"e thing that cotton is hand!picked,

producers themsel"es see it as an annoying disad"antage compared to using machines7 In fact,5Kuality re4uirements placed on e.porters by distributors farther along the chain ha"e become anunofficial gatekeeper, permitting only the YbestY of the small!scale producers to access the lucrati"e,specialty market7 (rom the perspecti"e of these producers, (air Trade hardly resembles a strategy thatconfronts the Yin+ustices inherent in the world economy and tries to transform @orthLSouth tradeY/*aynolds ;;;:<;1, c7f7 Shreck, ;;3, much less one that Yalle"iateVsW po"erty in the SouthY /(T#;;1b:E, c7f7 Shreck, ;;3 or helps producers Yget back on their feet and trade their way out of po"ertywith a renewed sense of prideY /(C0 ;;;a, c7f7 Shreck, ;;36

In this conte.t, an emphasis on 4uality by (T partners could not be possibly seen as fair unless itis introduced differently, more ob+ecti"ely and in a less stressful way in which producers can be brought to participate in what (T is7 -hether this happens currently between %el"etas andAP's is an empirical 4uestion7

This research shows that one of the (T features which would be most welcome by producers inarangasso!Sambla is related to natural inputs and en"ironmental stewardship, although thisseems to be a strategy for cost!cutting and reducing health haards rather than for en"ironmental5+ustice67 # deeper in"estigation of this 4uestion is necessary for (T stakeholders to understand producers? understanding of the role of en"ironmental stewardship in trade +ustice7 This can be amanifestation of a sense of 5fairness6 that e"ol"es through time7 &urray /personalcommunication, 1L1L;D3 in fact points that the negati"e health effects of chemical inputs slowly



become part of the daily life of producers, to the e.tent that it can become difficult for them toidentify it as 5unfair6= for them, it is unpleasant, but normal7 This is something to take intoaccount when making claims about en"ironmental 5fairness67

(ig7 D: otton hemicals

'+5+58 7hild Labour and Aender /Cuality

0ne thing (C0 has been intensely criticied for is its former policy on child labour, which usedto be more infle.ible7 #t the moment, lesser use of child labour is part of the progressre4uirements for certification7 #s this research shows, cotton definitely has an impact on child?seducation7 There are e"en instances of "illagers gatheringchildren going to oranic School in 'obo!)ioulasso to putthem to work in cotton fields7 %owe"er, child labour,according to this research?s participants, is a form of positi"e reciprocity within the family unit: the parents needhelp, but pro"ide for their children in e.change7 Then whenthe child grows up, hisLher parents can take care of their grandchildren when they age7 hild labour is a "ery

contro"ersial issue in the @orth, and there are some cases inwhich it is deemed as 5unfair6 because it is not fullyunderstood by (T proponents who are not familiar with thelocal conte.t to which their ideas are applied7 (or the'urkinab9 sample studied, re4uiring children to not work inthe fields would clearly be seen as 5unfair67 The 4uestionwhether this progress re4uirement is realistic remainsempirical, and it is addressed in a forthcoming study onchild labour in the (TLorganic trade in 'urkina (aso/*enauld, personal communication, ;BL1L;D37

(ig7 G : otton child labourer

#nother issue that matters to (T consumers is that of gender e4uality, which is de"eloping into anew niche, especially in the coffee market<7 #s it was discussed, although superficially, in thefocus group and inter"iews, the empowerment of women is not associated with the producers?definition of what 5fairer6 trade should be like7 It is not mentioned in the solutions section7 &ostdo not see the current gender ine4uality as 5unfair6, and reacted strongly to the idea that womenshould become in"ol"ed in APs in order to get the (T price7 This is likely to be one of the most< Planet 'ean, a cooperati"e from Auelph, 0ntario, is now marketing women!cooperati"e (TLorganic coffee7



important theoretical discrepancies between @orthern stakeholders and Southern producers, and itought to be researched more7 0nce again, applying seemingly 5uni"ersal6 but -estern!centricideals of 5fairness6 may not be interpreted as 5fair6 on the ground7 &ore research on how%el"etas reached a E;[ rate of women participation in their AP's and the resistance itencountered by doing so would be most interesting7

'+5+5I #ole of the Aovernment0ne last clash between @orthern proponents of (T and the study sample has to do with the role of the go"ernment in the cotton trade7 #s mentioned before, @orthern actors emerge mostly from amore inter"entionist background, but they hea"ily condemn the #merican subsidies to their cotton industry as a ma+or source of 5unfairness67 %owe"er, producers in 'urkina (aso are notagainst these subsidies and see them rather as a way for the $S go"ernment to help and supporttheir cotton growers, which is desirable in their "iew7 People consistently said they would liketheir own go"ernment to gi"e them more subsidies7 -hether (T certified producers would alsowant subsidies remains an empirical 4uestion7 This shows that producers do not agree with what @orthern actors identify as the ma+or cause of 5unfairness6 in the cotton trade7

In summary, the (T model has to be adapted to come up with practical solutions to these problems in order to truly be 5fair67 # uni"ersal or easy fi. will not do, and it appears that (T isnot participatory, transparent and transformati"e enough to be an adapted and 5fairer6 alternati"eto the current situation7

'6 7on!lusion

1<71 Summary of (indings

In this thesis, three points ha"e been argued:

17 (or @orthern stakeholders, (T is a contested notion, and its impact can be seen positi"ely and negati"ely7 &ost academics identify challenges in the way (T e"ol"edfrom its inceptions, and how the "alues of the mo"ements are shifting away fromsolidarity and into more commercial concerns7 &ost criti4ues of (T are directedtowards how principles of (T translate in practice, in specific case studies, althoughsome stakeholders 4uestion the rationale for (T7

7 The most important cause of 5unfairness6 according to the producers is the state of thecurrent relationships with their trade partner and union, which are dominated byunilateralism7 They do not fulfill Tallontire?s /;;;3 fi"e criteria for a healthy partnership, because S0(IT2, $@P' and the producers inter"iewed do not share acommon understanding of the problems and issues, are not mutually committed in the

same respect, ha"e conflicting interests and lack mutual trust7 #s a result, S0(IT2does not offer producers a 5fair price67 This pattern has the potential to be replicatedwithin (T networks7

<7 The solutions proposed by producers and @orthern actors are somewhat similar, butmany are conte.t!specific and cannot be addressed properly using a uni"ersal, criteria! based definition of 5fairness67 (T for them should stem from their own criteria, notfrom ones imposed e.ternally7 The 5(T6 constructed in the thought e.periment should be an agent of holistic ) in the producers? "iew /allowing crop di"ersification,



social and infrastructure de"elopment3, but it should still allow for a role for outsidersin term of purchasing, /e7g7 buyers paying a higher price3, technical assistance /e7g7help in switching to less chemical inputs3 and political inter"ention to facilitate a broader conte.t of trade +ustice7 The current (T model, although it responds to most of the producers? concerns, is inade4uate because it does not allow for enough

participation and genuine partnerships7Producers argue things are unfair because they are determined outside of their control7 "enthough they point out their po"erty to appeal for e.ternal support, this is warranted by the feelingof a breach of a social contract between them and S0(IT2, them and the go"ernment and themand the #merican producers, respecti"ely7 The unfairness arises locally through interactions withsuch actors as S0(IT2 and the $@P', and it is mostly seen as resulting from partnershipissues and lack of positi"e reciprocity7 The in arangasso!Sambla insists that since they ha"egood intentions there is no unfairness, +ust human mistakes and misunderstandings7 There is norecognition on the part of S0(IT2 as to how the process of the cotton trade itself can be unfair7#merican subsidies are not pointed out "ery fre4uently= the producers are calling, rather, for ane.change of resources, technology and knowledge between cotton producers from their "illage

and those in the $nited States or hina7

-hile the solutions proposed encompass these three actors, the members of this sample of non!certified cotton producers in arangasso!Sambla ne"er mentioned the role of cotton consumers intheir discourse7 This notion seems to be abstract /Cyon, ;;<37 (urthermore, their solutions arenot market!based= they in"ol"e direct, targeted inter"entions to lift them out of their current stateof depri"ation7 #s such, it is possible to conclude that cotton producers in 'urkina (aso feel theydeser"e a higher price for their labour, and that their partners S0(IT2 and $@P' are notade4uately 5pro"iding6 for them7 In their "iew, they are being un+ustly treated7 The o"erridingtheme in this research is that it is "ery difficult for the cotton IA# to be profitable gi"en thecurrent price= producers desire a higher price like any business person, but for them being lifted

out of po"erty is a greater concern than ma.imiing financial returns, e"en if the former stemsfrom the latter7 -hile some claims are backed up by charity arguments and others by fairnessarguments, the charity "s7 +ustice debate is only rele"ant within the conte.t of depri"ation due tocircumstances mostly out of the producers? control7

(T cotton in 'urkina (aso has to be conceptualied within an endogenous ) framework, re!emphasiing participation and e4ual partnerships fulfilling Tallontire?s criteria7 0bser"ers oughtnot get caught in the 5trade6 "ersus 5de"elopment6 debate= for producers inter"iewed in thisresearch, it is clear that the former relates to the latter and that reforms to 5make trade fair6 oughtto ha"e significant impacts on )7 #s Kuigley > 0pal /;;F3 note, 5-orkers do not need RaidRor social premiums, but they do need fair wagesY7 #lthough these are not all +ustified by

5fairness6, they are a necessary component for (T networks to get appro"ed funding from bilateral donors7 &oreo"er, for non!certified producers in 'urkina (aso, (T is mostly +ustified bythe higher price and to correct the conse4uences resulting from skewed partnerships withS0(IT2 and the $nion7

There are lots of local unfair impacts of cotton named by producers which other stakeholders failto address directly, maybe because it does not fit with their agenda7 -hen asked to e.plain fair trade, @orthern actors in"ariably use international trade phenomena and general macro!terms



of culture and position as an iceberg whose underwater mass contributes to shaping "irtuallye"ery aspect of human beha"iour7 "idence shows the current model of cotton cropping to be unprofitable, stress causing and polluting7 It seems like it is a catch! that is encouraged by the 'urkinab9 go"ernment to earn

foreign e.change to finance the country?s foreign debt= it does not seem to be able to sustainli"elihoods7 Still, nobody has e"er asked cotton growers about their problems and their roots= as amatter of fact, people make a series of statements on how the $S go"ernment is to blame for thedrop in cotton prices, but we must admit that the information differential is not the sole reasonwhy the producers identify other things as the main cause for that7 otton is in the mediaspotlights nowadays, but if many people know about the conditions of te.tile factory workersthrough "aluable campaigning efforts, not many people in the -est can e"en e.plain where their T!Shirts originally come from and under what circumstances they ha"e been produced7

*ecent e.perience in &> show that (T organisations and producers groups ought to +oin forcesin fi.ing common ob+ecti"es, but these are usually "ery broad and uncontro"ersial /i7e7, enhancethe standards of li"ing for a gi"en group, etc737 This understates particular cultural conceptions of +ustice, fate and solidarity in economics7 If we do not understand these "iews, then we risk de"eloping a (T model that answers to the @orthern, rich, left!leaning consumer?s needs rather than to the priorities of the producers in the South7 -e talk about the impact of social enterpriseslike (T cooperati"es, but impact is measured through the realisation of ob+ecti"es7 #nd ob+ecti"esare sub+ecti"e and informed by culture7

This research is significant because it gi"es non!certified cotton producers from 'urkina (aso a"oice that they should ha"e had from the onset of discussions about setting (T standards7 Theclose e.amination of their "ision of 5fairness6 can act as a guide for practitioners and policy!makers to e"aluate their model and see how it can be impro"ed7

(urthermore, the (T mo"ement is changing, and as people belie"ing in an alternati"e tocon"entional trade, it is necessary to ensure the mo"ement is changing in the direction that the producers /the beneficiaries3 want it to7 This is the only way its raison d+9tre can be preser"ed7

#s (T consumers, we also need to know what organisations are encouraging when they promote(T= 5+ustice6, 5charity6 or 5de"elopment67 To make an informed choice, we first need to knowwhat the rationale behind our personal act is, and then compare it with the "alues and operating principles of the cooperati"e, @A0, social enterprise or corporation we are buying from7 This iscrucial because marketing strategies and tools /promotional materials, web sites, etc73 do not domuch to eliminate consumer confusion and tend to blur the distinctions between different kinds

of (T products7 To eliminate that blurriness, one needs to hear what the stakeholders think, and besufficiently informed to analyse it7 This is what this thesis offers7

onsumers buy (T because it is a symbol /Cyon, ;;D:BEG3, but they do not know what the producers want, and what they want often ends up being 4uite different from what the consumersmay think7 The force of the (T mo"ement is how it creates and intensifies on the consumer! producer relationship /*aynolds, ;;, cf7 Cyon, ;;<:3, but the mo"ement does not facilitatedialogue across actors as to what is fair and what is not7 Such cases arise fre4uently in the (T



mo"ement= for e.ample, Ca Siembra, a anadian cooperati"e selling (T products, pointed outha"ing different "iews than their coffee producers regarding corporate in"ol"ement in (T7 -hilethey were concerned about -al!&art displacing local businesses in anada, the producers wereenthusiastic about being able to sell such large "olumes /(orum Social Kuébécois, personalcommunication, EL;GL;D37 Ideological principles need to be concealed with practical realities

and they are through negotiations, and these negotiations can only be facilitated if (T practitioners know what their trading partners belie"e to be 5fair67

#s a matter of fact, the term 5fair trade6 is being used to fulfill a "ariety of political purposes7 Itcan embody protectionist practices and hence be 5fair6 to those who lose their +obs in sectors inwhich the country does not ha"e a comparati"e ad"antage7 #t the other pole, it can be used as asynonym for free tradeQ &oore /;;B3 is right to state that a fully worked!through theory of fairness is needed in the case of (T= this thesis is a starting point in this process7

Ai"en the "ariety of ways in which (T is understood, important 4uestions arise about power,oppression and agency in the (T processes /ruger > du Toit, ;;D37 If these are not unco"ered,then it is impossible to say whose "ision, of all the (T stakeholders, dominates, and where these"isions do and do not o"erlap7 This research shows the "isions do o"erlap but there is still a hugedisconnect that is manifested in the way (T cotton is structured in 'urkina (aso7

13.3 *ecommendations

These research findings are not only significant for (C0 policy, but also for broader go"ernment policy7 #ll (T is not the same= there are cooperati"es and mutuals, non!profit organisations, socialenterprises and big business in"ol"ed7 These actors can be positioned along the (T referential,and they disagree on business practices, price setting, etc7 #s (ridell /personal communication,

1DL1L;D3 points out, there is indeed a huge difference between the act of consuming (T coffeefrom Planet 'ean, a cooperati"e dedicated to the sale of (T products and to (T education, andfrom Starbucks, a large multi!national corporation known as a union!buster7 If these nuances arenot publically acknowledged by (C0, the certifying body, there is a risk of confusing theconsumer and of diluting the (T principles7 The apparel and fashion industry being so harshlycompetiti"e and hosting some of the worst labour abuses, there are reasons to think buying (T!certified clothing from a large retailer or a small business is not the same consumption act, andconsumers ha"e to be educated about that7

#long with the differentiation of retailers, it is important for consumers to be educated aboutdifferent labels that are in the process of being de"eloped in urope for (T!organic cotton /(aure,

personal communication, ;1L11L;D37 -ith the term 5(air Trade6 being less protected legally than5organic6, consumers ha"e to be aware of the manipulation of the term, but also the burden (Tcertification can place upon producers and retailers due to its high cost and ongoing paperwork re4uirements7 There is a di"ision in the mo"ement in the @orth between (T and non!(T certifiedretailers who both claim to ad"ance 5trade +ustice6= these parties essentially work for the sameob+ecti"es, with a di"erse degree of bureaucratisation which comes with benefits andincon"eniences7 They should be brought together as a group to make collecti"e demands toad"ance the political case for trade +ustice7 (or their part, consumers should be aware of these



tensions and discriminating enough to buy fairly traded clothing from retailers they trust for their practices, not solely because they e.hibit the (T logo7

This research confirms that trade relationship building in 'urkina takes a lot of time and peopleare more likely to appreciate a constant present and face!to!face report to make it more effecti"e7

That is an initiati"e that Iciéla, a Kuébec cooperati"e starting to engage in (T cotton and sheaimporting from &ali, seems to e.emplify 4uite well according to its founder?s attitude towardsdoing business /)ufresne, personal communication, <L;GL;D3: by "isiting trade partners se"eraltimes to build trust before starting talking of importing7

To a"oid mistakes from (T coffee in &e.ico and to a"oid repeating clashes from thecon"entional trade, clear e.planations of complaint mechanisms and decision!making instancesought to be made7

(T @A0s with strong educational mandates should re"iew their ad"ocacy pieces to allow for amore nuanced appreciation of $S protectionism7 (or e.ample, it is known that the $Sgo"ernment delinked cotton subsidies from production, which means cotton producers in the $Sget fewer incenti"es to o"erproduce and hence lower world prices /*i"oli, personalcommunication, ;EL1L;D37 This kind of subsidy does not disturb trade per se7 It would beimportant for @A0s to distinguish between different categories of subsidies /#mberLNellowL'lue'o.3 within the -T0 and e.plain their respecti"e impact7

ducation at the farmers? le"el is needed to remo"e some ambiguity regarding the en"ironmentalimpacts of chemical fertilisers7 Similarly, 5more attention could be gi"en to educating participants about (T, so that they might e"entually fill their role as e4ual partners, rather than as beneficiaries of an aid package and suppliers of a specialty market6 /Shreck, ;;: ;37

Similarly, (C0 should be publically more transparency on what (T can and cannot do7 The (C0website is not user!friendly7 #lthough it is understandable that they try to minimise administrati"ee.penses, the current situation is not conduci"e to a proper understanding of what (T is7 If (Treally ought to defetishise markets by creating more human trading relationships and pro"idinginformation about how and where goods are produced, it should also allow its weaknesses andflaws to be seen7 It would be interesting for the website to link to impact and case studies, and todiscussion forums uniting practitioners, academics and the general public7 If (C0?s definition of (T remains unclear, then it could be seen as pushing for one single authoritati"e "ision of fairness, which clearly is not fair7

(C0 should be more consistent and adopt a clearer policy of what a 5fair price6 is7 Is it a pricethat co"ers production costs plus a margin of 1;[, ;[ Should it be allowed to fluctuatedepending on market prices, to ensure the profitability of (T retailers, as (C0 almost allowed/&utersbaugh, personal communication, ;FL1L;D3 -hat costs capital and land "alues, wagele"els, costs of certification, en"ironmental standards, transportation, administration, o"erhead,marketing should be taken into account -hile this is a contentious topic going back to thetimes of Thomas #4uinas, there ought to be a more consistent and 4uantitati"e procedureallowing for inflation and based on purchasing!power parity currency, so that countries where thecosts of li"ing is higher are gi"en a higher (T price7 There is no reason why the price for (T



rooibos in South #frica should be set using 4uestionnaires and wide consultations, while the (Tcotton price in 'urkina (aso is set according to the market price7

&ore work can also be done with consumers of (T products7 'uyers of (T products are oftenmiddle! or upper!class people li"ing in the 0)7 There are intrinsic ine4ualities between them

and the people they are trying to help7 -hile encouraging ethical consumption is an importantstep forwards to redress some of these ine4ualities, consumers ought not to be mobilised solelyalong the lines of their 5consuming6 identities7 The tremendous political resources they ha"eaccess to should be tapped and @A0s should appeal to (T consumers as citiens, and encouragethem to think about fairness in their political choices /(ridell, personal communication,1DL1L;D37

This research indicates the negati"e impacts of buying inputs on credit in the con"entional cottontrade7 These difficulties could be replicated in (T, due to its pre!financing component7 &oreresearch on microfinance and (T would thus be desirable7 It should also encompass in"estigationabout how well (T organiations fare in terms of integrating sa"ings education in their capacity building programming7

-hile it is difficult for the author to comment on the internal (C0 system, it seems reasonable torecommend an e"aluation of current information systems7 urrent communication technologiesas well as language and cultural pro.imity results in (C0 being more closely linked to (Tretailers than to (T producers worldwide7 This is unfortunate gi"en (T?s stated mandate, which isto help small producers7 # more intricate information system should bring stakeholders together,and should also internalie the social and en"ironmental benefits of (T7 This would be facilitated by the recent de"elopment of social accounting and auditing systems targeted to @A0s,cooperati"es and umbrella organisations /&ook, *ichmond > Kuarter, ;;D37

#long the same line of thought, a rigorous &> scheme ought to be de"eloped for (T, so that allstakeholders can know what it is to be 5fair6, in practice7 This should be done participati"ely,mapping the producers? ob+ecti"es and tracing a plan to achie"e these, as the uapa okoo cocoacooperati"e did in Ahana /*onchi, ;;37 )ifferent @A0s ha"e different reporting traditions,formats and re4uirements, so it is essential for (T pro+ects to de"elop a consistent and defendablesystem7

&ore transformati"e changes are needed in the way (T cotton is handled in 'urkina (aso7 In thatrespect, cotton is "ery different from coffee= the cotton industry is dominated by an oligopoly of E!F traders /'assett, personal communication, ;EL1,;D3, some of them such as )#A*IS beinganchored in the colonial era and with a "ery negati"e reputation7 There are certainly limits to theability to curtail that monopsony power in practice, and it is not necessarily easy, for politicalreasons, for a Swiss @A0 like %el"etas to try to go around e.isting structures like S0(IT2 and)#A*IS7 %owe"er, if the (T mo"ement points out issues arising from the role corporations inthe coffee realm /(ridell, ;;D3 or plantations in the banana realm /*eed, personalcommunication, <1L1;L;D3, it ought to pay attention to the market structure particular to cotton or else its 5fairness6 would be at best 4uestionable7 0ne way of doing this is to encouragerelocalisation efforts like those already put forwards by %el"etas to encourage the production of (T!organic thread in!country to supply 'urkinab9 women who will then e.port knitted goods or work with local or e.patriate designers on site /%el"etas, ;;D37



In essence, the author belie"es it is crucial to problematise the current (T model and e"aluate its5fairness6 according to what matters most to the producers7 It is her opinion that it is a good thingthat (T is being increasingly criticised7 In her "iew it is important to +oin 'assett and thediscussion he launches about the 5alternati"e6 characteristics of (T to see how we can make (T

better7

13.4 Suggestions for (urther *esearchconomic literature lacks a comprehensi"e paper addressing (air Trade and creating a model toe.plain its deli"erables and shortcomings7 This paper attempted to relate the (air Trade idea anddebate to se"eral economic models or principles<B to show that the discipline?s terminology can be used to describe it7 This theoretical model building e.ercise should be done more thoroughly because it would help to determine how 5fair6 (T is7

In the same order of ideas, (air Trade has to be distinguished from other de"elopment strategies7

Kuantitati"e data should be collected and used to test the (air Trade model to identify its uni4ue"alue and impact on economic growth and de"elopment7 0nly then can interest in (air Trade befostered at the policy!making le"el7

The field of organisational beha"iour would ha"e a lot to gain from creating a standardisedsur"ey tool /in the style of the Swart alue Sur"ey, the -orld alue Sur"ey or the AC0'study3 to analye (T networks and other 5ethical6 businesses7

)ata should be collected and submitted to statistical analysis to identify the homogeneity of the"alues and opinions held by (air Trade practitioners and (air Trade products customers7 If harlier et al7?s /;;F3 (air Trade Solidarity *eferential is useful to understand the ideological

shift taking place in the mo"ement, it is not based on empirical e"idence7 Similarly, Cemay?s/;;F3 discussion of debate and disagreements in the (air Trade mo"ement is not supported by baseline data sub+ected to standard de"iation calculations and significance tests7 (urther researchshould address this discrepancy and gather data from all (air Trade stakeholders using astandardised test7

(T begins historically in one commodity, coffee, in one region, Catin!#merica7 -e cannot makeassumptions about the kinds of organisational patterns in other commodities in other regions/*aynolds, personal communications, 1L1L;D3, or merely transfer them7 Production and marketrealities differ, and the bulk of (T research has indeed focused on coffee, the largest (T!certifiedcommodity7 0ne e.ample would be land rights7 -hile "ulnerability for many coffee growers in

Catin!#merica arises from landlessness, this issue is not rele"ant in 'urkina (aso, where producers own their land7 &ore recently certified commodities, including fast!growing ones suchas cotton, need to be studied in their intricacies7

There are reasons to think the concept of fairness e"ol"es with time7 In fact, some perceptions of fairness can be due to a lack of awareness of alternati"e options7 (or e.ample, producers in

<B %eckscher!0hlin model, e.ternalities, human capital, producer surplus, "ertical integration, marginal benefit, etc7



&ore research should also be done on (T and human rights7 This e.ploratory research sought toidentify what producers thought their rights were and how and when they felt their rights to be +eopardised by other actors7 # small part of the field work was de"oted to that 4uestion, and itwas meant mostly to assess the health and reciprocity of partnerships in the con"entional trade7 Itwould be interesting to compare the terminology and founding te.ts of the (T and the human

rights mo"ements to see how they o"erlap and how the former uses the latter as a framework toframe itself as +ustice7



'* #eferen!es

4ibliography

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K$IACN &aureen > harlotte 0P#C /;;F37 "air Trade Earments Standards: "easibilityStudy. Trans(air $S#7 DF p7

*#@S0&, )a"id /?00?, The Ao-nonsense guide to "air Trade, @ew InternationalistPublications Cimited, Toronto, 1B< p7

*#N@0C)S, Caura, )ouglas &$**#N > Peter Ceigh T#NC0* /;;B37 5(air Trade offee :'uilding Producer apacity "ia Alobal @etworks6, Bournal of &nternational e$elopment , 1F:11;H!1117

*I0CI Pietra /;;D37 Ces #"entures d?un Tee!Shirt dans l?Oconomie Alobalisée, (ayard,(rance, <EG p7

*0@%I Coraine /;;37 Conitoring &mpact of "air Tade &nitiati$es: < ase Study of Kuapa Ko!oo and the ay hocolate ompany, Twinsight, $nited ingdom, < p7

S%#((*, *7, )CC*, S7, > &#*0$ICC*, )7 /;;B37 ommunity economics: Cinkingtheory to practice7 0.ford, $: 'asil 'lackwell, <EG p7

S%$&#@, &7 /;;F37 The small!mart re"olution: how local businesses are beating the globalcompetition, 'errett!oehler, San (rancisco, GE p7S%* #imee /;;37 5Just 'ananas (air Trade 'anana Production in the )ominican*epublic76 &nternational Bournal of Sociology of "ood and <griculture 1;/3: E!E7

S$*#@0I Ste"e /1HHF37 < ne# ;erspecti$e on the hoice et#een "ree Trade and ;rotectionism, a"ailable at http:LLinternationalecon7comLTradeLTch1ELfeature7html, site "isited

1HL;<L;D7

S$*#@0I, Ste"en /;;;37 < ;ositi$e <nalysis of "airness #ith <pplications to &nternational Trade7 The -orld conomy, <:<, p7 G<!<;D7

S$*#@0I Ste"e /1HHD37 Trade Theories and 4ealities: Why 'conomists Should Study "airness, hallenge, B;:E, pp7 1;H!1B7

T#CC0@TI* #nne /;;;37 5Partnerships in (air Trade: *eflections (rom a ase Study of afédirect76 e$elopment in ;ractice, 1;:1FF!1DD7

The conomist /;;<37 < Ereat Jarn. <FH:G<EE, Condon7

$nknown author /;;B37 adre Strat6gi)ue pour le 6$eloppement de la &ndustry oton au ur!ina "aso, D p7 #ccessed at www7cotton!forum7orgLdocsLpresentationsL7!fr7pdf , on 1GL;L;G7

-'*, &a. /;;137 The Protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism, *outledge, Condon, D1 p

http://internationalecon.com/Trade/Tch125/feature2.html,%20site%20visited%2019/03/07.%20


http://www.cotton-forum.org/docs/presentations/2.2-fr.pdf



http://www.cotton-forum.org/docs/presentations/2.2-fr.pdf



-00C0, &ichael, and @#*#N#@, )eepa7 /;;;37 Social capital: Implications forde"elopmental theory, research and policy7 -orld 'ank *esearch 0bser"er, 1E /3, E!BH

N0$@A -illiam > arla $TTI@A /;;E3, "air Trade, usiness and Sustainable e$elopment,Sustainable )e"elopment, $ni"ersity of Ceeds, 1<:1<H!1B7

Personal 7ommuni!ations

'assett Tom

-est!#frican cotton specialist, Aeography)epartment, $ni"ersity of Illinois at hampaign!$rbana ;E!dec!;D

'erry #lbert )e"elopment conomist, $ni"ersity of Toronto 11!a"r!11)ufresne Jean!Sébastien (ounder, *éseau de itoyenneté Iciéla <!ao!;D(auré &arc!%enri (ounder, (ibrthik ;1!no"!;D

(orum SocialKuébécois

Pour un commerce solidaire a"ec les petits

Producteurs: les en+eu. du commerce é4uitable/round table at the Kuébec Social (orum3 E!ao!;D

(ridell Aa"in #uthor, "air Trade offee: ;rospects and ;itfalls 1D!dec!;DJain &onty (ounder, (air #pparel 1G!oct!;D

Cyon Sarah(air Trade Scholar, conomic #nthropologist,$ni"ersity of entucky ;D!dec!;D

&urray )ouglaso!)irector, entre for (air and #lternati"eTrade, olorado State $ni"ersity 1!dec!;D

&utersbaugh Tad

(air Trade Scholar, Aeographer, $ni"ersity of

entucky ;F!dec!;D0uédraogo#madou )e"elopment conomist, $niterra, 0uagadougou ;B!a"r!;D

*aynolds Caurao!)irector, entre for (air and #lternati"eTrade, olorado State $ni"ersity 1!dec!;D

*eed )arryl(air Trade Scholar, Professor: 'usiness > SocietyProgram, Nork $ni"ersity

<1!oct!;D,1B!mar!;G

*enauld Thierry )irector, %el"etas 'urkina (aso 1!a"r!;D

*i"oli Pietra#uthor, The Tra$els of a T-Shirt in the Elobal 'conomy ;E!dec!;D

Saré Jean )ésiré Kuality control agent, S0(IT2, 'obo!)ioulasso ;1!may!;DShirley, lyde (ounder, Alobal #ware 1G!mar!;GTieku wasiThomas

Professor: #frican Studies, @ew ollege,$ni"ersity of Toronto H!oct!;D

Tumkur Suresh #ccount &anager, 4uity ! 02(#& (air Trade 1!oct!;D



'8 )ppendi0

15.1 Inter"iew 4uestions

Introduction

1 Ereetings. Please introduce yourself, and say what AP /ProducerRs group3 you are in< (or how long ha"e you been growing cottonB %ow many acres do you cropE %ow was the season this year

onte.t S-0T #nalysisF -hat are the ad"antages /strengths3 of cotton cropping -hat were you able to realise

with the cotton moneyD -hat are the difficulties /weaknesses3 of cotton growingG -hat are the causes of these difficulties

H #ccording to you what are the perspecti"es for the future /negati"e and positi"e31; -hat are you wishes for the amelioration of your lifeLwork conditions for a fairer cotton

industry

Justice11 #ccording to you, is the present situation unfair1 -hat are your rights as cotton producers #re they respected1< -hat are your responsibilities in front of the AP The S0(IT21B an you tell us a storyLanecdote in which you think the S0(IT2 has been unfair to the

peasants

omplement /to ask to 1! people, especially for the documentary31E -hatRs a typical day in the life of a cotton grower1F -hat is the seasonal cycle for cotton work1D -hat is the history of cotton growing in arangasso!Sambla1G an you make an estimate of the spending and re"enues you get from cotton growing1H an you e.plain to us the details of AP functioning

onclusion; %a"e you got anything to add before we end the inter"iew

T%#@ N0$QQ #nitié ossob9Q

1E7 (ocus Aroup Kuestions

;reliminary "ocus Eroups 1 ?Talk to us about the actors /$S#, hina, (rance3Talk to us about the structures /AP, $@P', are they efficient Problems, solutions3



"ocus group 1 /Tountoun at Salif>s place L 11-1M people

-hat is the role of women in cotton growing, should they be part of AP● )o you think you could get along● situation : somebody comes up and offers <E( a kilo on the condition that women

participate in the AP, what do you do /reactionLchoice3 /add ceteris paribus● &S, this same person offers your FE( and proposed you should split it between the producers and the AP for community impro"ement7 %ow do you split it -hyonse4uences Impact/)uestion badly as!ed, add ceteris paribus because of the inputs> price

● -hat are the strengths and weaknesses of cotton growing /producers insisted to tal! about this.

"ocus group ? /do#nto#n Karangasso, at <rd8uma>s place /11 people● -omen

womenRs role in cotton growing

should there be women in the AP ould men and women get along Situation : what if someone offered <E((#Lkg for your cotton insisting women

should be in"ol"ed e4ually in AP, what would you do /idem 4uestion < of focusgroup 13

● Price and premium di"ision Situation : Suppose someone offers to pay FE((#Lkg, but the condition is that

you split it between indi"idual producers and AP7 -hat proportion should begi"en to each -hy

The person insists that the AP has to use its share for community impro"ement7-hat do you think of this

●

n"ironment The buyer offering <E((#Lkg does not want you to use chemical inputs7 -hat

do you think The buyer says he cannot gi"e the inputs ready but you ha"e to make it yourself

/compost, manure37 Is that a good deal

1E7< Informed onsent (orm

Étude de FaisabilitJ du 7ommer!e ÉCuitable du 7oton au 4urina FasoFormulaire de 7onsentement ersion FranMaise



$ntrodu!tionJe mRappelle Omanu9le Capierre!(ortin, +e suis une étudiante canadienne de lR$ni"ersité deToronto7 Je suis "olontaire pour 1; mois ] la &aison des #ssociations de Cutte ontre le SI)# ]'obo!)ioulasso7 Je m9ne présentement une étude de faisabilité sur le commerce é4uitable du

coton dans le département de arangasso!Sambla7n tant 4ue cotonculteur ou résident de arangasso!Sambla, +e "ous demande de mRaider ]réaliser cette étude7 )urant mon sé+our ] arangasso, +e "ais parler ] plusieurs personnes 4ui sontimpli4uées dans la industry du coton= ensuite +e "ais leur poser des 4uestions, on "a discuter engroupe et faire une série dRacti"ités amusantes pour 4ue +e comprenne mieu. les réalités du cotonau 'urkina7

e document "ous e.pli4ue le su+et de cette recherche et "ous dit ce 4ue +Rattend de "ous7 Si "ousaccepte de participer, +e "ais laisser une copie du document a"ec "ous7 Je "ous dis ceci parce4uRau anada, il y a une loi 4ui e.ige 4uRa"ant de faire une étude a"ec des gens, on doit leur dire pour4uoi on fait cela, et sRassurer 4uRils sont dRaccord7

7onditions de parti!ipationotre participation est "otre choi., "ous pou"e me dire tout de suite si "ous ne "oule pas participer et "ous tes libre de "ous retirer ] nRimporte 4uel moment sans consé4uences7 #pr9s4uRon ait finit de lire toute lRinformation sur cette étude, "ous pourre me dire si "ous "oule participer ou pas7

SRil y a des 4uestions a"ec les4uelles "ous nRtes pas confortable ou au.4uelles "ous ne "oule pas répondre durant les entre"ues, groupes de discussions, 4uestionnaires ou acti"ités, "ous nesere pas obligé de répondre7 ous pou"e aussi me demander dRarrter lRenregistrement de notrediscussion si "ous "oule7

Si "ous décide de participer ] cette étude, "ous alle "ous +oindre ] dRautres gens de arangassoainsi 4uR] mon assistant et moi!mme7 Je "oudrais sa"oir 4uelles sont les réalités de la productiondu coton ici au "illage, et +e aussi si cRest une bonne idée de certifier ce coton comme 5é4uitable67n tout, +e "ais "ous demander en"iron trois heures de "otre temps, et on "a décider le temps, ladate et lRendroit de notre rencontre pour 4ue a "ous arrange le mieu.7

Je "ais enregistrer ce 4ue "ous me dites sur une cassette "idéo pendant 4uRon se parle7 Je fais cela pour me rappeler de toutes les choses importantes 4ue "ous mentionne et cela "a mRaider ] faireun meilleur tra"ail 4ui sera plus utile au. gens de arangasso7 Je "ous filme aussi pour 4uRensuite +e puisse montrer au. gens du anada 4uelle est la situation des gens ici, car la plupart ne sont aucourant de rien par rapport au coton et au 'urkina7 Toutefois, si "ous préfére ne pas tre filmé, +e"ous prie de me le dire a"ant 4uRon commence ou ] nRimporte 4uel moment pendant notre tra"ail,et +e "ais arrter la machine7 #ussi, "ous nRa"e pas ] dire "otre nom lors4ue "ous tes enentre"ue si "ous le souhaite7 omme a, si "ous le souhaite, la personne 4ui "a traduire "os propos ou "oir le film ne saura pas 4ui "ous tes7

#isCuesN4JnJfi!es



Je ne crois pas 4uRil y ait de ris4ues, probl9mes ou dommages potentiels pour "ous en participant] cette étude7 Il y a certaines 4uestions 4ue "ous pou"e trou"er biarres ou personnelles, mais"ous a"e tou+ours le choi. dRy répondre ou pas7

n tant 4uRindi"idu, "ous ne rece"re pas de moti"ation en argent pour mRaider dans cette

recherche7 Par contre, 4uand +Raurai fini dRécrire ma recherche au anada, +e "ais "ous en en"oyer une copie pour 4ue tout le monde puisse "oir ce 4ue +Rai trou"é7 #ussi, cette recherche de"raitentraner une meilleure compréhension de lRindustrie du coton au 'urkina par les anadiens, ce4ui peut aussi "ous aider7

)!!ès O linformation, !onfidentialitJ et publi!ation des rJsultats

Personne ] part mon assistant et moi!mme ne "a entendre les choses 4ue "ous me dites ou "oir les matériels de nos acti"ités7 $ne fois 4ue +Rai écris ce 4ue "ous mRa"e dit, +e "ais garder toutcela sur mon ordinateur, et personne dRautre ne pourra y a"oir acc9s7 $ne fois 4ue +Rai fini monrapport de recherche en &ai ;;G, +e "ais détruire tous les documents en liens a"ec ce 4ue "ousmRa"e dit pour 4ue personne ne puisse a"oir acc9s ] "otre information personnelle7

#"ant de commencer nos acti"ités, on "a donner un code ] tous les participants, pour 4uRapr9s, onnRutilise plus "os noms mais plutXt un numéro7 #insi, ce 4ue "ous dites reste entre nousseulement7 Cors4ue +e prendrai des images "idéos de "ous pour les pro+eter de"ant la famille, lesamis et les coll9gues au anada, +e ne "ais pas écrire "otre nom sur lRécran si "ous ne "oule pas,et +e peu. aussi brouiller "otre "isage sur lRécran de mani9re ] ce 4ue personne ne puisse "ousreconnatre mme sRils "iennent ] arangasso7 SRil y a des moments du film 4ue "ous ne "oule pas 4ue +e rende public, "ous pou"e me le dire et +e ne les diffuserai pas7

7oordonnJesSi "ous a"e des 4uestions par rapport ] cette étude ou bien si "ous "oule en sa"oir plus sur "osdroits et les implications de "otre participation, nRhésite pas ] me contacter ] :

manuele Capierre (ortin @o ( ;G, ite #@, Secteur , 'obo )ioulasso, 'urkina (aso, ' P <G F7DF71<7F7Be7lapierre7fortinMutoronto7ca

0u ] contacter mon super"iseur ] :enneth &ac)onald,Professor, Program in International )e"elopment Studies,$ni"ersity of Toronto, Toronto, 0ntario, anada, &1 1#B7;117B1F7GD7DH< kmacdMutsc7utoronto7ca

Signature du participant Signature de lRen4uteur )ate

mailto:[email protected]

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Lapierre Fortin - Constructing Fair Trade From the Bottom Up

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