Language,Singing,Vocal Mechanism

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Language, Singing,

and the Vocal Mechanism

All text in articles have been reproduced from Encarta Encyclopedia 2002Microsoft ! Encarta ! Encyclopedia 2002 " #$$%&200# Microsoft 'orporation All rights reserved

(iagrams are reproduced from Encarta Encyclopedia 2002 and gleaned from the )nternetMicrosoft ! Encarta ! Encyclopedia 2002 " #$$%&200# Microsoft 'orporation All rights reserved


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Language, the principal means used by human beings to communicate ith oneanother Language is primarily spo1en, although it can be transferred to othermedia, such as riting )f the spo1en means of communication is unavailable,as may be the case among the deaf, visual means such as sign language can beused A prominent characteristic of language is that the relation beteen alinguistic sign and its meaning is arbitrary -here is no reason other thanconvention among spea1ers of English that a dog should be called dog, andindeed other languages have different names 3for example, Spanish perro,.ussian soba1a, 4apanese inu5 Language can be used to discuss a ide range oftopics, a characteristic that distinguishes it from animal communication -hedances of honey bees, for example, can be used only to communicate the

location of food sources 3see 6oney 7ee 'ommunication5 8hile the language&learning abilities of apes have surprised many9and there continues to becontroversy over the precise limits of these abilities9scientists and scholarsgenerally agree that apes do not progress beyond the linguistic abilities of ato&year&old child

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7ecause most languages are primarily spo1en, an important part of the overallunderstanding of language involves the study of the sounds of language

Most sounds in the orld;s languages9and all sounds in some languages, such asEnglish9are produced by expelling air from the lungs and modifying the vocaltract beteen the larynx and the lips :or instance, the sound p rehoisan languages ofsouthestern Africa and in the 7antu languages of neighboring African peoples

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?honeticsis the field of language study concerned ith the physical propertiesof sounds, and it has three subfields Articulatory phoneticsexplores ho thehuman vocal apparatus produces sounds Acoustic phoneticsstudies the soundaves produced by the human vocal apparatus Auditory phoneticsexaminesho speech sounds are perceived by the human ear ?honology, in contrast, isconcerned not ith the physical properties of sounds, but rather ith ho theyfunction in a particular language -he folloing example illustrates thedifference beteen phonetics and phonology )n the English language, hen thesound 1 3usually spelled c5 occurs at the beginning of a ord, as in the ordcut, it is pronounced ith aspiration 3a puff of breath5 6oever, hen this

sound occurs at the end of a ord, as in tuc1, there is no aspiration?honetically, the aspirated 1 and unaspirated 1 are different sounds, but inEnglish these different sounds never distinguish one ord from another, andEnglish spea1ers are usually unaare of the phonetic difference until it ispointed out to them -hus English ma1es no phonological distinction beteenthe aspirated and unaspirated 1 -he 6indi language, on the other hand, usesthis sound difference to distinguish ords such as 1al 3time5, hich has anunaspirated 1, and 1hal 3s1in5, in hich 1h represents the aspirated 1-herefore, in 6indi the distinction beteen the aspirated and unaspirated 1 isboth phonetic and phonological

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Languages constantly undergo changes, resulting in the development ofdifferent varieties of the languages

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A dialect is a variety of a language spo1en by an identifiable subgroup ofpeople -raditionally, linguists have applied the term dialect to geographically

distinct language varieties, but in current usage the term can include speechvarieties characteristic of other socially definable groups (etermining hetherto speech varieties are dialects of the same language, or hether they havechanged enough to be considered distinct languages, has often proved adifficult and controversial decision Linguists usually cite mutual intelligibilityas the ma=or criterion in ma1ing this decision )f to speech varieties are notmutually intelligible, then the speech varieties are different languages@ if theyare mutually intelligible but differ systematically from one another, then they

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are dialects of the same language -here are problems ith this definition,hoever, because many levels of mutual intelligibility exist, and linguists mustdecide at hat level speech varieties should no longer be considered mutuallyintelligible -his is difficult to establish in practice )ntelligibility has a largepsychological component )f a spea1er of one speech variety ants to

understand a spea1er of another speech variety, understanding is more li1elythan if this ere not the case )n addition, chains of speech varieties exist inhich ad=acent speech varieties are mutually intelligible, but speech varietiesfarther apart in the chain are not :urthermore, sociopolitical factors almostinevitably intervene in the process of distinguishing beteen dialects andlanguages Such factors, for example, led to the traditional characteriation of'hinese as a single language ith a number of mutually unintelligible dialects

(ialects develop primarily as a result of limited communication beteendifferent parts of a community that share one language nder suchcircumstances, changes that ta1e place in the language of one part of the

community do not spread elsehere As a result, the speech varieties becomemore distinct from one another )f contact continues to be limited for a longenough period, sufficient changes ill accumulate to ma1e the speech varietiesmutually unintelligible 8hen this occurs, and especially if it is accompanied bythe sociopolitical separation of a group of spea1ers from the larger community,it usually leads to the recognition of separate languages -he different changesthat too1 place in spo1en Latin in different parts of the .oman Empire, forexample, eventually gave rise to the distinct modern .omance languages,including :rench, Spanish, ?ortuguese, )talian, and .omanian

)n ordinary usage, the term dialect can also signify a variety of a language that

is distinct from hat is considered the standard form of that languageLinguists, hoever, consider the standard language to be simply one dialect ofa language :or example, the dialect of :rench spo1en in ?aris became thestandard language of :rance not because of any linguistic features of thisdialect but because ?aris as the political and cultural center of the country

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Singing, the use of the human voice to produce music )n singing, the lungs actas an air reservoir and bellos, forcing air beteen the vocal cords 3seeLarynx5 and causing them to vibrate, much li1e the double reed of an oboe-he resulting sound is amplified as it resonates in the cavities of the chest,nec1, and head, and it is articulated 3given voels and consonants5 by thesinger;s lips, teeth, tongue, and palate 3see Speech and Speech (isorders5Vocal training allos a singer to develop breath control, to regulate the degreeof relaxation or tension in the body, and to resonate and articulate sound8hether trained or not, singers in every culture exercise choice in their use ofthe voice American, Siss, and African ?ygmy yodelers intuitively alternaterapidly beteen high and lo registers, for example, and most men can

produce falsetto tones ithout 1noing that these tones depend on only partialvibration of the vocal cords

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Among the orld;s many singing styles, cultural choices are observable in thevariations in tone, color, physical tension, and acoustical intensity 'ulturaldifferences also exist in preferences for high& or lo&pitched ranges, solo orchoral singing, extensive or sparse melodic ornamentation, and the use oravoidance of rasps, yelps, grols, and other colorful voice modifications

-he rich variety of vocal styles found in the S includes the trained, resonant,ell&pro=ected tone of operatic singers@ the relaxed, intimate sound of popularcrooners@ the tensely sung, high, ornamented melodic style of Appalachian fol1singers@ the relaxed, subtly ornamented, rubato singing of blac1 fol1 musicians,sometimes augmented ith rough, guttural effects@ and the tense,electronically distorted sound of much roc1 singing 8here ancientMediterranean and Asian civiliations once flourished, singing tends to be high&pitched, tense, and ornamented, and solo singing predominates@ ithin thisbroad geographical area, hoever, sounds vary from the moderate&range,highly ornamented style of )ndian classical singing to the thin, extremely high,

ell&pro=ected tone found in 'hinese opera )n sub&Saharan Africa, here anabundance of choral music is found, lo voices for omen and high,penetrating voices for men are favored Many agricultural regions in centralEurope also have strong choral traditions, characteried by a straightforard,open vocal tone

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)n medieval European church music, high, clear&toned male voices ereapparently favored, resulting in a vocal


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Mouth, opening in an animal;s body used for ta1ing in food Mouths are alsotypically used for ma1ing sounds, such as bar1s, chirps, hols, and in humans,speech )n most animals, the mouth is found on the face, near the eyes and

nose

Lips, hich form the mouth;s muscular opening, are an especially familiar partof the body for humans Lips help hold food in the mouth and are used to formords during speech -hey also help form facial expressions, such as smilingand froning Lips open ide during a yan and s


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-eeth are used for biting into and cheing food-heir interaction ith the lipsand tongue helps a person spea1 clearly 'hildren have 20 primary teeth, hichbegin to erupt, or brea1 through the gums, at about six months of age At sixyears of age, the primary teeth start to fall out, as permanent teeth replacethem -he number of permanent teeth is %2 -he cron, or top, of each tooth

is covered ith enamel, the hardest substance in the human body

-he mouth also contains three pairs of salivary glands -hese glands secrete aatery fluid called saliva, hich moistens food and the tissues of the mouthSaliva contains amylase, a digestive enyme that starts to brea1 doncarbohydrates in food even before it is salloed Saliva also contains aspecialied protein, or enyme, called lysoyme, hich fights bacteria

(espite the presence of saliva, many 1inds of bacteria live in the arm, moistenvironment of the mouth 'aring for the mouth, called oral hygiene, helps1eep these bacteria from multiplying and causing illness (aily brushing of the

teeth and tongue, flossing beteen the teeth, and regular chec1ups ith adentist help 1eep the mouth clean and the teeth and gums healthy 3see(entistry5

-he most common ailment of the mouth is tooth decay /ther disordersaffecting the mouth include gingivitis, a condition mar1ed by inflamed,infected gums@ trench mouth, a severe form of gingivitis that causes bleedingulcers in the mouth@ and thrush, a fungal infection characteried by hite soresin the mouth /ral cancer is a ris1 for individuals ho smo1e or che tobaccoor ho drin1 alcohol excessively A small lump or thic1ened tissue in the mouthmay indicate cancer )t should be chec1ed by a doctor or dentist ithout delay,

as many oral cancers can be cured if treated early

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-eeth, hard, bony structures in the mouths of humans and animals usedprimarily to che food, but also for gnaing, digging, fighting, and catchingand 1illing prey -eeth are the bodyJs hardest, most durable organ9long afterbones and flesh have dissolved, archaeologists find ell&preserved teeth fromhumans and other animals that lived thousands of years ago

6umans use teeth to tear, grind, and che food in the first step of digestion,enabling enymes and lubricants released in the mouth to further brea1 donfood -eeth also play a role in human speech9the teeth, lips, and tongue areused to form ords by controlling airflo through the mouth Additionally,teeth provide structural support to muscles in the face and form the humansmile

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?harynx, muscular tube located in the nec1, lined ith mucous membrane, thatconnects the nose and mouth ith the trachea 3indpipe5 and esophagus andserves as a passageay for both air and food About #% cm 3D in5 long inhumans, it lies in the front of the spinal column -he pharynx contains thetonsils and, in children, the adenoids 7ecause it begins in the bac1 of thenasal cavity, the upper part of the pharynx is called the nasopharynx -heloer part, or oropharynx, refers to the area in the bac1 of the mouth -hepharynx ends at the epiglottis, a flap of cartilage that prevents food fromentering the trachea but allos it to enter the esophagus -o eustachian

tubes connect the pharynx to the middle ear and help e


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Larynx, hollo chamber in hich the voice is produced, at the front or upperpart of the indpipe of mammals, frogs, and toads@ it is also called the voice

box )n mammals it leads from the loer portion of the pharynx to the tracheaand is situated in front of or ventral to the esophagus, behind the s1in andconnective tissue of the throat -he larynx is supported by ligaments from thehyoid bone, situated at the base of the tongue

-he s1eletal structure of the larynx is made up of three large cartilaginousstructures, the epiglottis, thyroid cartilage, and cricoid cartilage, and ofseveral pairs of small cartilages, the most important of hich are 1non asarytenoid cartilages -heepiglottis is a broad cartilage attached in front to thetop of the thyroid cartilage -he epiglottis sings over the opening from thepharynx into the voice box 8hen an animal sallos, the larynx is raised to

press against the epiglottis and root of the tongue, preventing food fromentering the air passages 4ust belo the epiglottis is the angular thyroidcartilage, composed of to vertical plates that =oin in the front of the nec1-he =unction of these plates causes the pro=ection commonly 1non as theAdam;s apple, so called because of the legend, referred to in +enesis %G, ofthe apple that lodged in Adam;s throat -he rear portions of the thyroidcartilage grip the circular cricoid cartilage, hich 1eeps the laryngealpassageay open at all times /n each side of the rear upper border of thecricoid cartilage is a small, movable arytenoid cartilage

)n frogs and toads the voice box leads directly from the pharynx into the lungs:rogs have auxiliary vocal sacs that, hen inflated, serve to ma1e the voicemore resonant Analogues of such resonating chambers are found amongmammals in the hollo hyoid bone of the holing mon1ey and in the sacleading from the larynx of a gorilla virtually to its armpit )n birds, the voice is

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produced in an organ 1non as the syrinx Loer animals use other methods toproduce sounds 3see +rasshopper5

)n the human larynx, to pairs of vocal cordsfolds are present -hey are madeof elastic connective tissue covered by folds of mucous membrane /ne pair,

the false vocal cords, extends from the epiglottis to the angle of the thyroidcartilage@ these cords narro the glottis 3the pharyngeal opening of the larynx5during salloing 7elo the false cords are the true vocal cords, extendingfrom the arytenoid cartilages to the angle of the thyroid cartilage Vibration ofthis pair of cords by air passing out of the lungs causes the formation of soundsthat are amplified by the resonating nature of the voice box -he pitch of thesound is voluntarily controlled by muscles that rotate the arytenoid cartilagestoard the center of the body 3slac1ening and lengthening the cords5 for lotones, and toard the sides of the body 3shortening the cords and pulling themtaut5 for high&pitched tones -he extent of the angle formed by the plates ofthe thyroid cartilage determines the depth of the human voice -he angle

decreases in males at puberty, causing decreased tension of the vocal cords anda conse


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-rachea, section of the mammalian respiratory tract in the nec1, extendingbeteen the larynx and the bronchi and lying in front of the esophagus -hetrachea, commonly called indpipe, is made up of numerous cartilaginous half&rings, the open ends of hich are ad=acent to the esophagus -hese rings,located one above the other, are connected by muscular and fibrous tissue -hetrachea in humans is about #0 cm 3BD in5 long and 2D cm 3# in5 in diameter )tis lined internally ith a ciliated mucous membrane -he trachea is highlysusceptible to respiratory infections A tracheotomy, the surgical opening of the

trachea, may be necessary if the tube is obstructed by a foreign ob=ect orbecause of a disease

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Lung, either of a pair of elastic, spongy organs used in breathing andrespiration Lungs are present in all mammals, birds, and reptiles Mostamphibians and a fe species of fish also have lungs

)n humans the lungs occupy a large portion of the chest cavity from thecollarbone don to the diaphragm, a dome&shaped sheet of muscle that allsoff the chest cavity from the abdominal cavity At birth the lungs are pin1, butas a person ages, they become gray and mottled from tiny particles breathed inith the air +enerally, people ho live in cities and industrial areas havedar1er lungs than those ho live in the country

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Air travels to the lungs through a series of air tubes and passages )t enters thebody through the nostrils or the mouth, passing don the throat to the larynx,or voice box, and then to the trachea, or indpipe )n the chest cavity thetrachea divides into to branches, called the right and left bronchi or bronchialtubes, that enter the lungs

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Although the ords breathing and respiration are sometimes usedinterchangeably, they have distinct meanings 7reathing is the process ofmoving oxygen&rich air into and out of the lungs .espirationrefers to all of theprocesses involved in getting oxygen to tissues, including breathing, diffusion ofoxygen from the lungs to the blood, transport by the blood, and diffusion fromthe blood to tissues .espiration is essential for aerobic respiration, the processithin cells in hich nutrients and oxygen are used to build the energymolecule adenosine triphosphate 3A-?5 )n aerobic respiration, body cells useoxygen to metabolie glucose, forming carbon dioxide as a aste product that

is exhaled

-he process of breathing is generally divided into to phases, inspirationandexpiration )n inspiration, air is moved into the lungs )n expiration, air isforced out of the lungs -he lungs themselves have no muscle tissue -heirmovements are controlled by the rib cage and the diaphragm(uring inspiration the muscles around the rib cage contract, lifting the ribsupard and outard, and loering the dome of the diaphragm until it forms a

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nearly flat sheet As a result of these changes, the chest cavity expands7ecause the lungs are attached to the chest cavity, they also expand 8ith theenlargement of the lungs, air pressure inside the lungs falls belo the pressureof the air outside the body, creating a partial vacuum, and air from outside thebody rushes into the lungs

)n expiration the muscles that lift the rib cage and loer the diaphragm relaxAs a result, the rib cage and the diaphragm return to their original positions,and the lungs contract ith them 8ith each contraction of the lungs the airinside them is forced out

A person can alter the rate of breathing and can even stop breathing for a shorttime 7ut it is impossible to voluntarily stop breathing permanently becausebreathing, li1e the heartbeat, is an involuntary activity controlled by nervecenters in the brain stem, the loer part of the brain -hese centers areconnected ith the muscles of the rib cage and diaphragm, and they increase

or decrease the rate of breathing according to the needs of the body

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(iaphragm, ide muscular partition separating the thoracic, or chest cavity,from the abdominal cavity )t is a characteristic of all mammals and isrudimentary in some birds )n humans the diaphragm is attached to the lumbar

vertebrae, the loer ribs, and the sternum or breastbone -hree ma=oropenings in the diaphragm allo passage of the esophagus, the aorta, theveins, the nerves, and the lymphatic and thoracic ducts

-he diaphragm is roughly elliptical in humans )t slants upard, higher in frontthan in the rear, and is dome&shaped hen relaxed 'ontraction and expansionof the diaphragm are significant in breathing (uring inhalation the diaphragmcontracts, becoming flattened and increasing the capacity of the thorax Airrushes into the lungs to fill the partial vacuum thus formed Air is exhaled henthe diaphragm relaxes 8hen the diaphragm contracts, it exerts pressure onthe abdomen, stimulating the stomach, and thus aiding in the process of

digestion A hiccup is caused by a spasmodic, involuntary contraction of thediaphragm

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.ib, in anatomy, a long, slender bone attached to the bac1bone that curvesaround the chest cavity, or thorax -he front of each rib ends in a short,

flexible section of cartilage .ibs occur in pairs and are found in almost allvertebrates, or animals ith bac1bones

6umans normally have #2 pairs of ribs, ith one pair extending from each ofthe thoracic vertebra -he vertebrae are the %% individual bones that comprisethe bac1bone, or spinal column -he upper seven pairs of ribs, called true ribs,are connected to the breastbone by the cartilage at the front of each rib -heremaining five pairs are called false ribs -he upper three pairs of false ribs areattached to the bac1bone, ith each rib connected to the cartilage of the ribabove it -he last to pairs of false ribs are called floating ribs because they

are attached only to the bac1bone, and not to the breastbone or any other rib/ccasionally an extra pair of very short ribs extends from the loest vertebrain the nec1

A.-E.C

Artery, one of the tubular vessels that conveys blood from the heart to the

tissues of the body -o arteries have direct connection ith the heart 3#5 theaorta, hich, ith its branches, conveys oxygenated blood from the leftventricle to every part of the body@ and 325 the pulmonary artery, hichconveys blood from the right ventricle to the lungs, hence it is returnedbearing oxygen to the left side of the heart 3see 6eart Structure and:unction5 Arteries in their ultimate minute branchings are connected ith theveins by capillaries -hey are named usually from the part of the body herethey are found, as the brachial 3arm5 or the metacarpal 3rist5 artery@ or fromthe organ hich they supply, as the hepatic 3liver5 or the ovarian artery -hefacial artery is the branch of the external carotid artery that passes up overthe loer =a and supplies the superficial portion of the face@ the

hemorrhoidal arteries are three vessels that supply the loer end of therectum@ the intercostal arteries are the arteries that supply the space beteenthe ribs@ the lingual artery is the branch of the external carotid artery thatsupplies the tongue-he arteries expand and then constrict ith each beat of the heart, a rhythmicmovement that may be felt as the pulse

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As the diaphragmcontracts and moves donard, the pectoralis minor andintercostal musclespull the rib cage outard -he chest cavity expands, andair rushes into the lungs through the trachea to fill the resulting vacuum 8henthe diaphragm relaxes to its normal, upardly curving position, the lungscontract, and air is forced out

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Language,Singing,Vocal Mechanism

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