Languages and Scripts

8/12/2019 Languages and Scripts

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Languages and scripts

Among the languages and scripts represented by papyri from Egypt and occasionally

from elsewhere are the following (in rough chronological order).Ancient Egyptian written in hieroglyphs:

There are no papyri with hieroglyphs in the Duke papyrus collection. Hieroglyphs

were used to embellish a ariety of religious te!ts on papyrus" such as the #ook of

the Dead. Their main use" howeer" was in inscriptions on stone. $t was in use for

about three millenia until the end of the fourth century AD.Ancient Egyptian written in a formal script used for papyri" so%called Hieratic

Hieratic was deeloped from the Hieroglyphs for writing on papyrus. $nitiallyboth documentary and literary te!ts were written in Hieratic. &ater its use was

restricted to literary" i.e. mostly religious" te!ts. $t is last heard of in the third

century AD.Ancient Egyptian written in a less formal script" so%called Abnormal Hieratic

Abnormal Hieratic was deeloped specifically for documentary te!ts while

Hieratic was increasingly restricted to literary te!ts. $t was in use until the si!th

century #'.Ancient Egyptian written in a cursie script used for papyri" so%called Demotic

Demotic is a cursie script deried from Hieratic. $t was used for documents andoccasionally for literature for about nine centuries until it was replaced by 'opticin the third century AD.

Ancient Egyptian written with mainly reek characters" so%called 'optic

'optic was inented in the third century AD to replace Hieratic and Demotic. $twas written with the letters of the reek alphabet plus a few letters representing

sounds peculiar to Egyptian. $t was ery conenient" because at the time a large

number of reek words were adopted by the Egyptian language. The Dukepapyrus collection holds a large number of sometimes uite important 'optic

te!ts. They range in date from the fourth to the tenth century A.D. and can be

anyhting from priate letters to liturgical te!ts.

AramaicThere are no Aramaic papyri in the Duke papyrus collection. Aramaic was used in

Egypt mainly by the military installed by the *ersians in +,+ #'. $t was also used

by some of the eterans" who settled in Egypt in the fifth century #'. Amongthem we find a -ewish settlement on the island of Elephantine in the south of

Egypt. utside Egypt Aramaic papyri hae been found in the -udean Desert" the

so%called Dead /ea scrolls.reek

reek was used in Egypt after the conuest by Ale!ander the reat in 001 #'

until about AD 2+3. The ma4ority of the te!ts from this period are in reek. $t was

not only the language of the administration" but also that of businessmen and

schools. The Duke papyrus collection holds a large number of reek te!ts rangingin date from the early third century #' to the eight century AD. Among them we

find works of literature" sometimes hitherto unknown" magical te!ts and all kindsof documentary te!ts" such as priate letters" contracts" ta! accounts" receipts and

petitions.

&atin&atin was used in Egypt mainly by the military installed by the 5omans in 03 #'.

$t was also used by some of the eterans" who settled in Egyptian illages in the

first two centuries AD.Hebrew


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There are no Hebrew papyri in the Duke papyrus collection. Hebrew was used inEgypt mainly in late antiuity" from the fifth century AD onwards. The -ewish

population of Egypt was almost annihilated by the 5omans in the early second

century AD and only recuperated once the 5oman empire turned 'hristian.utside Egypt Hebrew papyri hae been found in the -udean Desert" the so%called

Dead /ea scrolls.

*ahlaiThere are no *ahlai papyri in the Duke papyrus collection. *ahlai was used

during the *ersian or /asanid occupation of Egypt in the early seenth century

AD (616%6,7).

/yriacThere are no /yriac papyri in the Duke papyrus collection. /yriac was used in

Egypt in late antiuity by immigrants from /yria" mainly 'hristian monks.

ArabicArabic was introduced in Egypt by the Arab conuest in AD 683. $t was initially

used for administratie purposes only" but soon replaced reek and 'optic in

eeryday use. The introduction of paper by the Arabs put an end to the use ofpapyrus" which is not heard of after about AD 1333.

*icture (no te!t)

/ometimes a papyrus has no te!t on it" but 4ust a drawing. $t may be a professionaldrawing by an artist" a pattern for a weaer or 4ust a doodle.

Title: Literary text, [1--]Subject: Aphrodite (Greek deity) i literature --!" #$%$-&'"

A$$Literary papyri --*ypt --!" #$%$-&'" A$$

+aterial: 1 ite : papyru, outed i *la, .ery icoplete /0 c$ote: Actual dieio o2 ite are 3$& x '$' c$

4& lie$5ritte i t6o colu acro the 2iber i a

care2ulhad/ 6ritte alo* the 2iber o the recto i a

Title: Literary text, [1!th cet$ #$%$]Subject: God, *yptia --To !!4 #$%$

Literary papyri --*ypt --To !!4 #$%$+aterial: 1 ite : papyru, outed i *la, icoplete / 1' c$ote: Actual dieio o2 ite are 1!$' x 14$4 c$

4" lie$5ritte i t6o colu alo* the 2iber o the recto$7pper ar*i o2 1 c$/ lo6er ar*i o2 1 c$/ le2tar*i o2 1 c$ 8re.iouly part o2 a lar*er rollthat i o6 dipered$8$uk$i.$ 3"" 6a 2orerly 8$uk$i.$ 1$


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di22eret had$8$uk$i.$ 9&1 6a 2orerly 8$;ob$i.$ 4' $Literary text 2ro *ypt, 6ritte o papyru$

5rittei .ere, poibly lyric$ +etio Aphrodite$ ;ectoha a accout(ieratic$ecripti.e databae a.ailable i repoitory$

8ublicatio: ?oachi @rederich uack, Bi kleie @ra*etder B*roCe Litur*ie de GebB (puke =. 3""),BStudie Dur altE*yptiche Fultur 49 (1000) !"1-!14$

Tit

le: aily accout o2 ret ad tax payet i kid, [4d cet$ #$%$]Subject: Accouti* --*ypt --@ayyu --!!4-!" #$%$

;et --*ypt --@ayyu --!!4-!" #$%$Taxatio --*ypt --@ayyu --!!4-!" #$%$Tax collectio --*ypt --@ayyu --!!4-!" #$%$Teple lad --*ypt --@ayyu --!!4-!" #$%$%ro6 lad --*ypt --@ayyu --!!4-!" #$%$God, *yptia --!!4-!" #$%$Teat 2arer --*ypt --@ayyu --!!4-!" #$%$ocuetary papyri --*ypt --@ayyu --!!4-!" #$%$

Accout --*ypt --@ayyu --!!4-!" #$%$+aterial: 1 ite : papyru, outed i 9 2rae o2 *la, icoplete$ote: ieio o2 2ra*et are 4!$! x 14$9 c$ or aller$

1!" lie$xtracted 2ro uy cartoa*e 6ith 8$uk$i.$ 1!10-1!91$8$uk$i.$ 1!13 ; 6a 6ritte alo* the 2iber o therecto/ 6ritte acro the 2iber o the .ero ia di22eret had$

Accout o2 payet o2 ret ad taxe i kid 2rothe Arioite oe (oder ae: @ayyu), *ypt,6ritte o papyru$ 8ayet are ade by teato2 tate ad teple lad, icludi* lad o6ed bythe *reat *od oroucho ad 8heroeri$ otereaii* due$ ;eceipt 2or each day are added up$>a payet 2or lad ur.ey tax, adiitrati.ecot (cribeH 2ee), tax 2or 6io6i*, a oe t6ety-2ourthtax, tax 2or ha.i* a accout at the *raary, adtax 2or *raary *uard$ ero ha a re*iter o2 lad adret i Greek (8$uk$i.$ 1!13 )$= Greek$ecripti.e databae a.ailable i repoitory$
http://scriptorium.lib.duke.edu/papyrus/records/761r.htmlhttp://scriptorium.lib.duke.edu/papyrus/records/1318v.htmlhttp://scriptorium.lib.duke.edu/papyrus/records/761r.htmlhttp://scriptorium.lib.duke.edu/papyrus/records/1318v.html


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Title: Fora, [ot be2ore 9""]7i2or title: Fora$ Arabic$ Selectio$Subject: Literary papyri --*ypt --&'"-14I"$+aterial: 1 ite : papyru codex bi2olia, thirtee partly joii*

2ra*et outed i *la, icoplete$ote: ieio o2 2ra*et are 9$1 x 13$' c$ or aller$

&& lie$8$uk$i.$ 49' 6a 6ritte acro the 2iber o

therecto/ 6ritte alo* the 2iber o the .ero except2or t6o lie o the ecod 2ra*et ad three othe third 2ra*et$7pper ar*i o2 "$I c$/ le2t ad ri*ht ar*i o2"$I c$/ iide *utter o2 "$I c$

8apyru codex bi2olia 2ro *ypt$ =cludechapter1 ad 11!-11' o2 the Fora$ %hapter 1 i 6ritte

t6ice$= Arabic$ecripti.e databae a.ailable i repoitory$

Title: 8o6er o2 attorey, [!'3]Author: Aurelio Ao, Scholatiko, 2l$ !'3Subject: Aurelio 8hautio (+a*itrate 2ro 8aopoli, *ypt), 2l$ !'3$

8o6er o2 attorey --*ypt --!" #$%$-&'" A$$=heritace ad ucceio --*ypt --!" #$%$-&'" A$$*ypt --22icial ad eployee --!" #$%$-&'" A$$Sla.e --*ypt --!" #$%$-&'" A$$

Sla.eholder --*ypt --!" #$%$-&'" A$$La6yer --*ypt --!" #$%$-&'" A$$ocuetary papyri --*ypt --Akhi --!" #$%$-&'" A$$

+aterial: 1 ite : papyru ad lie cloth, outed i t6o 2raeo2 *la, botto o2 papyru i broke$

ote: Actual dieio o2 papyru are 4"$! x 4"$! c$ ieioo2 the lie cloth are 3$' x 1&$! c$4& lie$5ritte alo* the 2iber o the recto 6ith the ar*iallie 6ritte acro the 2iber/ 6ritte alo* the2iber o the .ero i the ae had$7pper ar*i o2 1$I c$/ ri*ht ar*i o2 4 c$ except2or the three ar*ial lie/ le2t ar*i o2 1 c$8$uk$i.$ 10 ; 6a 2orerly 8$uk$i.$ G 10 ;$Text 6ith a po6er o2 attorey 2ro 8aopoli (oderae: Akhi), *ypt, 6ritte o papyru$ AureliuAo o o2 8etearbechii, the 6ell-ko6 cholatikoor la6yer, 2ro 8aopoli authoriDe 6ith thi po6ero2 attorey hi 2ried Aureliu @autio, 2orera*itrate ad coucillor, o2 8aopoli to repreethi i Alexadria 6hile he i e*a*ed i *etti*hi lad o6$ The la.e 2orally o6ed by hi deceaed

brother >arpokratio ha.e bee claied by oeoei Alexadria$ Ao 6at @autiu to i2or @la.iuetoriu, the prae2ectu Ae*ypti or *o.eror o2*ypt, that Ao i hi brotherH ole heir$ Secod2rae o2 *la ha a 2ie lie cloth that 6a 6rappedaroud 8$uk$i.$ 10 6he it 6a rolled up$ eroha a dra2t o2 a petitio to the katholiko i Greek(8$uk$i.$ 10 )$8$uk$i.$ 10 joi 8$FJl i.$ 'I!4, 6hich ha beeo ide2iite loa to uke 7i.erity ice 103&$= Greek$ecripti.e databae a.ailable i repoitory$

8ublicatio: The Archive of Ammon Scholasticus of Panopolis(P.Ammon)ed$ 5$>$ 5illi ad F$ +arech$ = I$ plade

1009$

Title: ;eKuet to iherit, [ot be2ore 414]Author: Aureliu ioyiu (@ro xyrhycho, *ypt), 4d

cet$Subject: Arteidoru (So o2 idyu 2ro *ypt), 4d cet$

=heritace ad ucceio --*ypt --!" #$%$-&'" A$$

=heritace ad ucceio (;oa la6) --!" #$%$-&'" A$$Guardia ad 6ard --*ypt --!" #$%$-&'" A$$ocuetary papyri --*ypt --#ahaa --!" #$%$-&'" A$$

+aterial: 1 ite : papyru, t6o 2ra*et 6hich do ot joi,outed i *la$

ote: ieio o2 2ra*et are !$& x 1!$& c$ or aller$3 lie$5ritte alo* the 2iber o the recto$7pper ar*i o2 "$I c$8$uk$i.$ '&& 6a 2orerly 8$+i$ !4$;eKuet to iherit o papyru 2ro xyrhycho (oderae: #ahaa), *ypt$ Aureliu ioyiu, a ioralo ko6 a 8auaia, aited by hi *uardia,Arteidoru, o o2 idyu, both citiDe o2xyrhycho, reKuet that the prae2ectu Ae*ypti,*o.eror o2 *ypt, ai* hi the iheritace o2 hi

other Aurelia 6hoe real ae ed i Btario,Bdau*hter o2 Sithoi ad citiDe o2 Atioopoli$= Lati$ecripti.e databae a.ailable i repoitory$
http://scriptorium.lib.duke.edu/papyrus/records/19v.htmlhttp://scriptorium.lib.duke.edu/papyrus/records/19v.htmlhttp://scriptorium.lib.duke.edu/papyrus/records/19v.htmlhttp://scriptorium.lib.duke.edu/papyrus/records/19v.html


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PREDYNASTIC AND PROTODYNASTIC EGYPT

and a Synthetic Model of the Ancient Egyptian Civilization Oigin and

Develop!ent"y #ance$co Raffaele

*alaeolithic %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%233.3339+33.333 % 7333 #'

eolithic % *redynastic %%%%%%%%+,33 % 03+3 #'Early Dynastic %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%03+3 % ,213 #' (Dynasties $ and $$)

ld ;ingdom %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% ,213 % ,1,3 #' (Dynasties $$$%


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The burials anyhow show no social difference and the population is still in a tribal%likestadium.

The impact on the territory begins to be more accentuate" because of the increase in

population that reuires more food" wood to burn" animals to kill and implies thepossibility of a better and more efficacious organiation for undertaking wider pro4ects of

architecture (like megaliths or dykes)C the enironment begins to be more heaily

modified for the urges of those who lie in it: a higher leel of technical skills is shownby the artefacts dated to that periodC but also the BthoughtB has become more comple! and

the ob4ects connected to the religious sphere are a clear proof of this fact.

(oember" , @*DATE):

During the ifth >illennium #' Egyptian eolithic societies were stepping towards theso called early predynastic phase" a transformation which will be accomplished at the end

of that millennium by different cultures from the Delta to the @pper ubiaC these peoples

were the result of a cultural9 racial crossoer which had occurred at interals all along thepreious centuries and millennia" when the local inhabitants of the ile alley had

merged with others entering the alley from the est (especially at southern latitudes)

and from the East (in Delta and ayum).

The i*ratio 2ro ater Sahara ad 5eter (*yptia) ae 6erecaued by the lo6 but pro*rei.e cliatic odi2icatio 6hich 6ere dryi* upri.er ad lake o2 6hat 6e ko6 to ha.e bee a hu*e ad hopital a.aah,tra2ori* it ito oethi* .ery iilar to the uihabitable deert o2 today(palaeocliatolo*y ha ho6 that the lat 6et phae -the eolithic Subplu.ialBclimatic optimumB- occurred i the Sahara 2ro c$ 3$""" to II"" (or !""") #%,the 6orei* be*a aroud !"""#% ad the .ery arid deert e.iroet o2today oly 4"""-!""" year a*o)$ Siilar cliatic cha*e ad relatedpopulatio o.eet had already happeed i later +iddle-8alaeolithic 6hethe eert had bee abadoed oly to be re-occupied i early >olocee$

A rich patrioy o2 rock *ra22iti ad paiti* preer.ed i the re*io o2 Taili--Ajjer, Tadrart Acacu, >o**ar, Air, Tibeti, edi ad Gebel 76eiatcotitute a boudle ecyclopaedia o2 the li2e i %etral ad 5eter Saharabe2ore thee re*io 6ere abadoed by ot o2 the aial 6hich thoe *ra22iti

repreet ad by the hua 6ho had dra6 the$The tudy o2 thee culture ha e.ideced itereti* parallel bet6ee theSaharia ad ile alley d6eller/ probably the local *atherer2iher ihabitato2 the alley ixed up 6ith *roup o2 cattle herdi* people 2ro the Sahara(ad 6ith capro.ie herdi* *roup 2ro the Le.at), but it i till di22icult toiolate the i2lux o2 the a*ro-patoral icoer oto the ile alley Hidi*eouHocietie ad to de2ie the chroolo*y o2 thee e.et/ 6orthy o2 a etio arethe iilaritie i the art o2 the t6o acro-*roup/ the dico.ery, i 10I0, o2 achild buried 6ith trace o2 itetioal ui2icatio i the Tadrart Acacu,5eter Libya, dated I'"I M 13" #8/ 2urtherore there are e.eral idicatio o2cotact bet6ee ater Sahara, 5eter *yptia ae ad the ile alley,

elta ad @ayu: ;ed Sea hell 2oud i Sahara ite/ coo ue o2 otrich2eather ad e**-hell/ iilar coca.e-bae bi2acial arro6head/ Sudaeeceraic traditio beari* clear aalo*ie 6ith the ipreed wavy lineSahariapottery (ipreed Di*-Da* decoratio i alo reported 2ro lo6er layer o2 eltaite like Tell el-=6id, Tell el-@arkha, Tell =brahi A6ad ad Tell @araHi-#uto,but o6here i the ile alley orth o2 Fhartou)$There2ore, a it already happeed duri* older dry phae, the 6hole ile alley6a a ob.iou, atural pole o2 attractio i the i*ratio o2 Sahara (ad earater, c2$ belo6) ihabitat$


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etio the preece o2 dik-haped ace-head, coetic palette ad toe.eel/ copper i 2oud i Kuatitie pre.iouly e.er atteted/ there 6aitead carce 2ocu o *ra.e *ood ad tob i *eeral (6hich ulike at+eride 6ere eatly eparated 2ro the .illa*e)$ The cited trade cotact that+aadi etertaied 6ith 8aletie, 7pper *ypt ad perhap e.e Libya are thepricipal 2eature o2 the +aadi culture$ = cha*e o2 exported cereal (tored iilo ad traported by dokey cara.a), the +aadia iported rou*haterial a Siai copper, Le.atie oil, 2at, aroatic ubtace ad aloproduct like 2lit tool ad lace blade$ Soe arte2act 2ro the 7pper *yptake u uppoe a ajor iterediatio role o2 +aadi i the trade circuitbet6ee Le.at ad 7pper *ypt/ perhap it i ot a chace that +aadiH declie6a coteporary 6ith the outet o2 the GerDea expaioi, ad thi latteray ha.e i tur a tro* reao to be i the aKadiaH 6ill to ha.e a directacce to the lucrati.e et6ork o2 BiteratioalB trade 6hich +aadi cotrolledad ediated$ =t chroolo*y i till rather ucertai, but it ee that +aadi 6arou*hly coteporary 6ith the 7p$*$ Aratia ad arly GerDea phae(!0""!3"" -!I"" #%)/ 6e ha.e ee that the ite 6a abadoed aroud+iddle aKada ==/ but the 5eter elta ceter o2 Tell @araHi-#uto retaied theLo6er *yptia cultural iprit 2or alot t6o ceturie ore (up to aKada==4)$+iddle *ypt (2ro +atar to >eaieh) 6a the cradle o2 the Badarian(I"""


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(&ate erean F aada $$d1" $$d,) 0033%0,33 #'(aada $$d1 0033%0,+3C aada $$d, 0,+3%0,33)

(aada $$cd F /D 8398+%60)

Potodyna$tic

(aada $$$a1%$$$c1) 0,,3%03+3 #'(a. $$$a1 0,33%0123C a. $$$a, 0123%01,3C a. $$$b1 01,3%0373C a. $$$b, 0373%

03+3C a. $$$c1 03+3%0333)

(2Dyna$ty ))2% Abydos tomb @%4 aada $$$a, c.01+3 #'C 2Dyna$ty )2F aada$$$b1", c.01,3%03+3 #')

(aada $$$ab F /D 60%26)

Ealy Dyna$tic

(Dynasty $ F aada $$$c1","0) 03+3%,763 #'(aada $$$c1 03+3%0333Narmer,AhaC aada $$$c, 0333%,?,3Aha,Djer,DjetC aada

$$$c0 ,?,3%,7+3Den-Qa'a)

(Dynasty $$ F aada $$$d) ,763%,213 #'(aada $$$cd F /D 22%78)

The predynastic is the period in which the Egyptians began to take the first steps towardsthe @nification of their country.

Na3ada I(Amratian) is a phase of transition between the >iddle Egypt #adarian and the

@pper Egypt erean.$ts characters are still those of egalitarian societies. #ut at the endof aada $ phase the first tombs with high status indicators do appear at Abadiya (#

131" #13,)" aada (>ain *redynastic 'emetery tombs 1+72"" 1+30" 18?2" 1613% in

which a essel with a red crown decoration was found%)" Abydos ('em. @ tombs @% +3,"@%,0?) and Hierakonpolis (&oc. 6 cem. tombs 0 and 6).

The following Na3ada II(erean) sees the increase of thesocial inequalitiesas attested

by prestige artifacts as the ebelein painted te!tile (aada $$bc) and especially by theHierakonpolis Tomb 133(aada $$cd).
http://members.xoom.virgilio.it/francescoraf/hesyra/dynasty00.htmhttp://members.xoom.virgilio.it/francescoraf/hesyra/dynasty0.htmhttp://members.xoom.virgilio.it/francescoraf/hesyra/hk100.jpghttp://members.xoom.virgilio.it/francescoraf/hesyra/dynasty00.htmhttp://members.xoom.virgilio.it/francescoraf/hesyra/dynasty0.htmhttp://members.xoom.virgilio.it/francescoraf/hesyra/hk100.jpg


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This latter had to be the tomb of a chief and therefore thereBs eidence that a ruling elitehad taken power in some places.

aada $$ is also the period in which the decorated ware appearsC iory statuettes" already

known in the Amratian" become finer and more numerous. #ut one of the most importantcharacters of the Gerzeanis the diffusion of artefacts and ideas to the northC this probably

first happened for commercial contacts" then for needs of e!pansion and of trade routes

control.Howeer the way in which this northward migration of the aada $$ culture happened is

still ob4ect of debate : we see that it happens by the changes in the style of the essels

shape and decorations" mudbrick architecture" elite cemeteries and so onC it remains

doubtful whether warfare and real peoplesB migrations were the means through which thiswas realised or whether it was only a slower and peaceful cultural superimposition (the

former of the two hypotheses" which has always been credited as the more erisimilar

one" has a main flaw in the lack of weapons and of warfare%artefacts in general in the elitetombs).

Also a ery important and debated uestion is the influence of the >esopotamian

ciiliation in the egyptian aada $$ and $$$.There are some similarities with sumerian moties that can only be e!plained hypothiing

direct contacts and borrowings (artistic and religious moties like BserpopardsB" palace

facade deice" hero between two standing bulls" bark designs and many others" mudbrickarchitecture" writing).

The writing is another element that scholars hae always considered an Egyptian

borrowing from /umerians (-emet asr" @ruk $


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This period" although probably still far from a real unification under one single ruler" isalready recogniable as one of cultural uniformity through all the country as shown by

the general uniformity of artefacts and uses which the regional cemeteries show.

$n the ne!t period" Na3ada IIIa(BDynasty 00B456)" the ruling elite of Thinis (whose

chiefs are buried in the Abydos cemetery @) re%emerges as a power in the @pper Egypt

(aada begins to decline) and the (beginning of) Na3ada IIIa(tomb @%4 is the richesttomb of Egypt eer found until that period (c. 0,33%01+3 #'). At the the end of this

phase and in the beginning of the subseuent one the earliest rulersB designations and

names appear" in the form of anonymous serekhs (palace facade) incised or ink%inscribed

at Abydos tombs @%4" @%k" @%s" @%i but also elsewhere as at Abusir el >ele tombs 13,1"1188 and 5afiah.

('fr. an den #rink in /pencer ed. BAspects of Early EgyptB" 1??6 pl.+ p. 1+1).

$n the followingNa3ada III"5(BDynasty 0B) essels are inscribed with serekhs with orwithout a falcon onto them.

/ome names arePe or, Dou!le "alcon, at or, Ni or, #corpion G (from >inshat

Abu mar" different from Tomb @%4 /corpion $ and HierakonpolisB /corpion $$),$roco%ileC the serekhs are found from the Delta to the @pper ubiaC

but these must hae been local rulers who held power on restricted regional areas een if

they all shared a common culture.As for the &ower Egypt rulers of Tarkhan (tomb 123," at orG" tombs 0+1" 1+8?

$roco%ile) and Delta" it can be shown that &ower ubia 4(6 was under the domain of at

least two regional entities during the early aada $$$ (A group): at /eyala (cemetery 102

tomb 1) and een more in the south at ustul (cemet. & tomb ,8 from where a famousdecorated incense burnercomes) two polities grew probably by the e!ploitation of the

@pper ubian tradesC later" in >iddle aada $$$" these regional centres were destroyed"

ery likely by the e!panding Hierakonpolis power (H; loc.6 tomb 11" aada $$d,9$$$a,)as the ebel /heikh /uleiman battle scenes graffiti do attest (fig. below: the scene was

once erroneously attributed to the reign of D4erC .>urnane -..E./.86).
http://members.xoom.virgilio.it/francescoraf/hesyra/dynasty00.htmhttp://members.xoom.virgilio.it/francescoraf/hesyra/dynasty00.htmhttp://members.xoom.virgilio.it/francescoraf/hesyra/dynasty00.htmhttp://members.xoom.virgilio.it/francescoraf/hesyra/dynasty0.htmhttp://members.xoom.virgilio.it/francescoraf/hesyra/dynasty0.htmhttp://members.xoom.virgilio.it/francescoraf/hesyra/dynasty0.htmhttp://members.xoom.virgilio.it/francescoraf/hesyra/qustul.gifhttp://members.xoom.virgilio.it/francescoraf/hesyra/dynasty00.htmhttp://members.xoom.virgilio.it/francescoraf/hesyra/dynasty0.htmhttp://members.xoom.virgilio.it/francescoraf/hesyra/qustul.gif


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The main reasons for themilitary actiity led by these

kingdoms at this time were

the e!ploitation of gold andstone uarries and

also the will to control long%distance trade routes on which precious (elite) goods

traelled (the long%distance trade was also a ery important factor in the relations of

Eastern Delta and southern *alestine during this and the following period).The Thinite rulers were probably those who inherited the territory of aada (which

controlled the adi Hammamat) : they initially by%passed the ena bend through the

road of the ebel T4auty (Theban western desert) to access to the ubian trade routesC inthis phase there seems to hae been a decisie ictory of Thinis9Abydos oer aada asattested by a rock drawing in the &u!or%arshut desert roadC this brought the southern

Abydene boundary touch the Hieraconpolite northern one 4/6.

The Hierakonpolis rulers remained the only rials of the Thinite kings and this rialrylasted until the time of the @nification.

$n the periodNa3ada III"( ('&n% of Dynasty 0') the Abydos (Thinis) chiefs are buried in

the cemetery # (#3919,ry or, #29?(a) in which the later tombs are those ofNarmer(#12917) andAha (#1391+91?916) beginners of the irst Dynasty.

(in) #corpion *+is considered a predecessor of armer who could hae belonged to the

Hierakonpolis ruling family.


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The name $ry Hor is attested only at Abydos (alcon oer a mouth" with no /erekh%)" ;ais instead known from Tell $brahim Awad" Helwan" Tarkhan and Abydos. This Abydene

dynasty ($ry Hor" ;a" armer) is a real ruling family (initially the term BDynasty 3B was

attributed to these kings of Abydos only" not also to other local rulers of @pper % &owerEgypt).

armer is one of the most widely diffused royal names of the whole Early Dynastic

period (many e!amples from *alestine too)and he was regarded as the founder of the irst Dynasty (perhaps he did originate the

legendary figure of >enes).

He is associated with the beginning of the phase Na3ada IIIc(Dynasty $).

This king must hae also be the one who soled the uestion of the Hierakonpolisrialry : but the way in which he did this can only be speculatedC there arenBt traces of

military ictories of Abydos oer Hierakonpolis" thence the uestion could hae been

peacefully brought to an end by recogniing the authorithy of ekhen with kingBsconcessions to the powerful local families.

This aspect of the Egypt @nification" like many others" is still surrounded by shadow.

Notes

456IDynasty 00I Jsee the related pageK is a term used by some authors to indicate all the

rulers of the period before Dynasty 3C but" alike this latter" there isnBt any relation amongmany of the rulers within Dynasty 33" because they are local chiefs of different centres

and they did not recognie themseles as being part of the same ruling family e!cept at a

local leel. This BdynastyB would thus begin with the ruler buried with the ebelein cloth

in Turin" the owner of H; tomb 133" those of some elite tombs in aada cem. T(ilkinson" 1??? p. +,) and finally the Abydos later cem. @ rulers" or those of the early

serekhs from Hierakonpolis loc.6 tombs 1"13"11.

Therefore Dynasty 33 indicates a period in the protodynastic" not a single line of rulers ofa specific placeC indeed the first use of the term Idynasty 33I" by an den #rink (in id. ed

BThe ile Delta in TransitionB 1??, p.i n.1) was related to the Bmem!ers of the rulin)

class !urie% in cemetery at A!y%os mm el Qaa! B who were Bpossi!ly the pre%ecessorsof the Dynasty 0 (in)sB.

#y the same way" initially" IDynasty 3I was applied only to the Abydos kings buried incem. # ($ry Hor" ;a" armer).

4(6 $n the Eighties it has been much debated about the Bubian riginB of the EgyptianEarly Dynastic kingshipC but this indeed was a misinterpretation of an article of #.

illiams (Archaeology 00.+" 1?73 p.18%,1) by .L. Adams (-..E./. 88" 1?7+): the

same author (#. illiams in -..E./. 86" 1?72 p.18 ff) clarified that he only supposed aubian @nification in an earlier period than in Egypt (but at that time the D.A.$.;.

discoeries in the Abydos cemetery @ hadnBt yet been done).

4/6/ee >.D.A.$.;. +6" ,333 p.022%?+ (T. ilkinson) for a reconstruction of the historyof the period aada $c to $$$b,.

The Model of the Egyptian State fo!ation#. ;emp has proposed in 1?7? (Ancient Egypt% Anatomy of a ciiliation p.01%60) amodel of state formation for early Egypt.

rom an initial scenario of leaderless aggregates practising settled agriculture in their

own stretch of land" psychological factors as a deeper sense of territorial ownership

caused by the continuous e!ploitation of the same territory" faoured the creation of theconcept of property oer all the things that the territory comprehended" including the

people.

>ystic"symbolic and mythical factors surely were e!pressions of this sense of right thatgenerated the idea of BsoereigntyB in the mind of some indiiduals who began to aim to

reach a superior welfare %agricultural products surplus% by forcing others to work for
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15/17


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B&ocal traditionB is all the comple! of beliefs and symbols displayed by the elites toreinforce their right to rule. >any of these (some myths" traditions" religious beliefs"

symbols of power) became part of the dynastic culture" while others disappeared.

B'ontainment of the unruleB is the concept which creates the Bneed for kingshipB: themythical golden age where and when BmaatB ruled is continuously menaced by the forces

of chaos. The diine king is the only power that can make maat preail oer chaos. The

BArchitecture as political statementB is another comple! concept: a number of symbolic(religious" political"social) and also psychological factors are linked with (monumental)

architectureC the meaning of Bpalace facadeB enclosure walls and of buildings within them

(mounds) and other monuments lies in the sphere of the religious beliefs (think about the

D4oserBs comple! symbols)" but it also has an heay impact on the minds of the ruledmasses" astonished by the elitesB display of richness.

/uch a Bconspicuous consumptionB of wealth for building larger and larger tombs

reinforces the right to reign and augments the authority of the leaders oer the submittedclasses which marel at the creations of their rulers (made by their own hands).

'hronological Table (T. ilkinson in >.D.A.$.;. +6 " ,333 p. 0?,)


17/17

ote (of .5.): the indication of 2Dyn ))2in this table should be moed further up" beside aada $$$a,

NOTE*:A part o2 thi pa*e i a excerpt 2ro y article "Dynasty 00": The earliest

kings of Egypt(pt$ 1), TM&, 4""4 the joural the article alo iclude di22eret ia*e, table, the ecod part

ad i tralated ito @rech$
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