Varieties of EnglishVarieties of English VARIATION: Natural phenomenonVARIATION: Natural phenomenon Language is a form of social behavior and Language is a form of social behavior and

communities tend to split up into groups, communities tend to split up into groups, each displaying differences of behavioreach displaying differences of behavior

Language manifests differences of Language manifests differences of behaviorbehavior

Language is the variety of speakersLanguage is the variety of speakers Speakers vary in their vocabulary and Speakers vary in their vocabulary and

skills to use itskills to use it Linguistic variables have both social and Linguistic variables have both social and

style variation, some only social, but none style variation, some only social, but none style variation onlystyle variation only

DialectDialect No universally accepted criteria for distinguishing No universally accepted criteria for distinguishing languageslanguages

from from dialectsdialects, although a number of paradigms exist, which , although a number of paradigms exist, which render sometimes contradictory resultsrender sometimes contradictory results

The exact distinction is a subjective one, dependent on the The exact distinction is a subjective one, dependent on the user's frame of referenceuser's frame of reference

Language varietiesLanguage varieties are often called are often called dialectsdialects rather than rather than languageslanguages::

BecauseBecause solely they are not,or not recognized as solely they are not,or not recognized as literary languagesliterary languages the speakers of the given language do not have a the speakers of the given language do not have a statestate of their of their

ownown they are not used in press or literature, or very little. they are not used in press or literature, or very little. because their language lacks because their language lacks prestigeprestige Difference between Accent and DialectDifference between Accent and Dialect

a a varietyvariety of a of a languagelanguage characteristic of a characteristic of a particular group of the language's speakersparticular group of the language's speakers

applied most often to regional speech patterns, applied most often to regional speech patterns, but a dialect may also be defined by other but a dialect may also be defined by other factors, such as social classfactors, such as social class

Defined as: Defined as: a sub-division of a language, a sub-division of a language, used by a group of speakers who have some used by a group of speakers who have some non-linguistic characteristics in common or non-linguistic characteristics in common or the the specific form of a language used by a specific form of a language used by a speech communityspeech community

Most common characteristic: the regional oneMost common characteristic: the regional one Link can also be occupational and socialLink can also be occupational and social Sometime variety depends upon the occasion Sometime variety depends upon the occasion

to use as wellto use as well the word "dialect" is sometimes used to refer the word "dialect" is sometimes used to refer

to a lesser-known language most commonly a to a lesser-known language most commonly a regional languageregional language, especially one that is , especially one that is unwritten or not standardizedunwritten or not standardized

often accompanied by the erroneous belief often accompanied by the erroneous belief that the minority language is lacking in that the minority language is lacking in vocabulary, grammar, or importancevocabulary, grammar, or importance

the difference between language and dialect is the difference between language and dialect is the difference between the abstract or general the difference between the abstract or general and the concrete and particularand the concrete and particular

Identifying a particular dialect as the "Identifying a particular dialect as the "standardstandard" or "proper" version of a language " or "proper" version of a language are in fact using these terms to express a are in fact using these terms to express a social distinctionsocial distinction

thethe statusstatus of language is not solely of language is not solely determined by linguistic criteria, but it is also determined by linguistic criteria, but it is also the result of a historical and political the result of a historical and political developmentdevelopment

MandarinMandarin and and CantoneseCantonese are often considered are often considered dialects and not languages, despite their dialects and not languages, despite their mutual unintelligibility, because they share a mutual unintelligibility, because they share a common literary standard and common body common literary standard and common body of literatureof literature

The number of speakers, and the geographical area covered The number of speakers, and the geographical area covered by them, can be of by them, can be of arbitraryarbitrary size size

a dialect might contain several sub-dialectsa dialect might contain several sub-dialects A dialect is a complete system of verbal communication oral A dialect is a complete system of verbal communication oral

or or signedsigned, but not necessarily written with its own , but not necessarily written with its own vocabularyvocabulary and and grammargrammar

A dialect is distinguished by its vocabulary, grammar, and A dialect is distinguished by its vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation including phonology and pronunciation including phonology and prosodyprosody

the "dialects" of a "language" which itself may be a "dialect" the "dialects" of a "language" which itself may be a "dialect" of a yet older tongue may or may not be mutually intelligibleof a yet older tongue may or may not be mutually intelligible

a parent language may spawn several "dialects" which a parent language may spawn several "dialects" which themselves subdivide any number of times, with some themselves subdivide any number of times, with some "branches" of the tree changing more rapidly than others"branches" of the tree changing more rapidly than others

among the modern Romance tongues, with among the modern Romance tongues, with ItalianItalian and and SpanishSpanish having a high degree of mutual comprehensibility, having a high degree of mutual comprehensibility, which neither language shares with which neither language shares with FrenchFrench, despite both , despite both languages being languages being geneticallygenetically closer to French than to each closer to French than to each otherother

French has undergone more rapid change than have Spanish French has undergone more rapid change than have Spanish and Italianand Italian

Standard and non-standard dialectsStandard and non-standard dialects A standard dialect: a dialect that is supported by A standard dialect: a dialect that is supported by

institutionsinstitutions Such institutional support may include Such institutional support may include

government recognition or designation; government recognition or designation; presentation as being the "correct" form of a presentation as being the "correct" form of a

language in schools; language in schools; published grammars, dictionaries, and textbooks published grammars, dictionaries, and textbooks

that set forth a "correct" spoken and written form; that set forth a "correct" spoken and written form; an extensive formal literature that employs that an extensive formal literature that employs that

dialect in prose, poetry, non-fiction, etc.dialect in prose, poetry, non-fiction, etc. Standard Standard American EnglishAmerican English, Standard , Standard

British EnglishBritish English, Standard , Standard Indian EnglishIndian English, Standard , Standard Australian EnglishAustralian English, and Standard , and Standard Philippine EnglishPhilippine English may all be said to be standard may all be said to be standard dialects of the dialects of the English languageEnglish language

A A nonstandard dialectnonstandard dialect: has a complete vocabulary, : has a complete vocabulary, grammar, and syntax, but is not the beneficiary of grammar, and syntax, but is not the beneficiary of institutional supportinstitutional support

An example of a nonstandard English dialect is An example of a nonstandard English dialect is Southern EnglishSouthern English

The The Dialect TestDialect Test was designed by was designed by Joseph WrightJoseph Wright to compare different English dialects with each to compare different English dialects with each otherother

Regional dialectRegional dialect not a distinct language not a distinct language a variety of a language spoken in a particular a variety of a language spoken in a particular

area of a countryarea of a country Some regional dialects have been given Some regional dialects have been given

traditional names which mark them out as being traditional names which mark them out as being significantly different from standard varieties significantly different from standard varieties spoken in the same placespoken in the same place

Ex:Ex: 'Hillbilly English' from the Appalachians in 'Hillbilly English' from the Appalachians in the USA and 'Geordie' from Newcastle upon Tyne the USA and 'Geordie' from Newcastle upon Tyne in the UKin the UK

Minority dialect:Minority dialect: Sometimes members of a particular minority Sometimes members of a particular minority

ethnic group have their own variety which ethnic group have their own variety which they use as a marker of identity, usually they use as a marker of identity, usually alongside a standard varietyalongside a standard variety

Ex:Ex: African American Vernacular English in African American Vernacular English in the USA, London Jamaican in Britain, and the USA, London Jamaican in Britain, and Aboriginal English in AustraliaAboriginal English in Australia

Indigenized varietyIndigenized variety Indigenized varieties are spoken mainly as Indigenized varieties are spoken mainly as

second languages in ex-colonies with second languages in ex-colonies with multilingual populationsmultilingual populations

The differences from the standard variety The differences from the standard variety may be linked to English proficiency, or may may be linked to English proficiency, or may be part of a range of varieties used to express be part of a range of varieties used to express identity. identity.

'Singlish' spoken in Singapore is a variety very 'Singlish' spoken in Singapore is a variety very different from standard English, and there are different from standard English, and there are many other varieties of English used in India many other varieties of English used in India

SociolectSociolect the the varietyvariety of language characteristic of a social of language characteristic of a social

background or statusbackground or status A A dialectdialect which evolves from regional speech may which evolves from regional speech may

also have sociolectical implicationsalso have sociolectical implications Ex: standard Ex: standard ItalianItalian is a dialect in that it is is a dialect in that it is

particular to particular to TuscanyTuscany; yet, being the national ; yet, being the national language of Italy, it is also a sociolect in that it language of Italy, it is also a sociolect in that it carries a certain prestige from being the carries a certain prestige from being the lingua francalingua franca throughout the country – both in throughout the country – both in broadcasting, in the press, and by people of high broadcasting, in the press, and by people of high social statussocial status

IdiolectIdiolect a a varietyvariety of a of a languagelanguage unique to an individual unique to an individual manifested by patterns of word selection and manifested by patterns of word selection and

grammargrammar, or words, phrases, , or words, phrases, idiomsidioms, or , or pronunciations that are unique to that individualpronunciations that are unique to that individual

Every individual has an idiolectEvery individual has an idiolect the grouping of words and phrases is unique, rather the grouping of words and phrases is unique, rather

than an individual using specific words that nobody than an individual using specific words that nobody else useselse uses

idiolect can easily evolve into an idiolect can easily evolve into an ecolectecolect—a —a dialectdialect variant specific to a householdvariant specific to a household

languages are congruences of idiolects and thus languages are congruences of idiolects and thus exist only in the intersection between individual exist only in the intersection between individual speakersspeakers

Idiolects change through contact with other Idiolects change through contact with other idiolects, and change throughout their lifetime as idiolects, and change throughout their lifetime as well as from generation to generationwell as from generation to generation

RegisterRegister term was originated by: term was originated by: Thomas Bertram ReidThomas Bertram Reid in in

19561956 Become common: in the Become common: in the 1960s1960s introduced by a introduced by a

group of linguists who wanted to distinguish group of linguists who wanted to distinguish between variations in language between variations in language according to the according to the useruser and and variations according to variations according to useuse, ,

each speaker has a range of varieties and choices each speaker has a range of varieties and choices between them at different timesbetween them at different times

(Halliday et al, 1964)(Halliday et al, 1964) focus is on the way language is used in particular focus is on the way language is used in particular

situationssituations HallidayHalliday (1964) identifies three variables that (1964) identifies three variables that

determine register: field (the subject matter of the determine register: field (the subject matter of the discourse), discourse), tenortenor (the participants and their (the participants and their relationships) and mode (the channel of relationships) and mode (the channel of communication, e.g. spoken or written)communication, e.g. spoken or written)

from Quirk et al (1985), who use the term from Quirk et al (1985), who use the term attitudeattitude rather than rather than style or registerstyle or register

Formality Formality scalescale

Very formal, Very formal, Frozen, RigidFrozen, Rigid

← ← FORMFORM

ALAL

         

NeutraNeutral     l     

INFORINFORMAL →MAL →

Very informal, Very informal, Casual, FamiliarCasual, Familiar

Joos (1961) describes five styles in spoken English:Frozen: Printed unchanging language such as bible quotations; often contains archaismsFormal: One-way participation, no interruption. Technical vocabulary; "Fussy semantics" or exact definitions are important. Includes introductions between strangersConsultative: Two-way participation. Background information is provided — prior knowledge is not assumed. "Backchannel behaviour" such as "uh huh", "I see", etc. is common. Interruptions allowedCasual: In-group friends and acquaintances. No background information provided. Ellipsis and slang common. Interruptions common. Intimate: Non-public. Intonation more important than wording or grammar. Private vocabulary

IsoglossIsogloss Greek Greek isosisos equal + equal + glossaglossa a tongue a tongue the geographical boundary or delineation of a the geographical boundary or delineation of a

certain certain linguisticlinguistic feature feature Ex: the pronunciation of a Ex: the pronunciation of a vowelvowel, the meaning of a , the meaning of a

word, or use of some syntactic featureword, or use of some syntactic feature A line on a map enclosing an area within which a A line on a map enclosing an area within which a

particular linguistic feature is foundparticular linguistic feature is found Various types of isogloss are distinguished: an Various types of isogloss are distinguished: an isophoneisophone is a feature of pronunciation, an is a feature of pronunciation, an isolexisolex an an item of vocabulary, an item of vocabulary, an isomorphisomorph a feature of a feature of wordformation, and an wordformation, and an isosemeisoseme a particular word a particular word meaning meaning

the isogloss separates rather than connects points the isogloss separates rather than connects points

of equal languageof equal language

The line on the map of southern England The line on the map of southern England separates the areaseparates the area

where the vowel in a word such as where the vowel in a word such as cutcut is /V/black is /V/black circles circles

from the area where the vowel is /U/crossesfrom the area where the vowel is /U/crossesfrom Laver (1994)from Laver (1994)

Isoglosses on the Isoglosses on the Faroe IslandsFaroe Islands

PidginPidgin a new language which develops in situations a new language which develops in situations

where speakers of different languages need to where speakers of different languages need to communicate but don't share a common languagecommunicate but don't share a common language

The vocabulary of a pidgin comes mainly from The vocabulary of a pidgin comes mainly from one particular language; the 'lexifier‘one particular language; the 'lexifier‘

An early 'pre-pidgin' is quite restricted in use An early 'pre-pidgin' is quite restricted in use and variable in structureand variable in structure

the later 'stable pidgin' develops its own the later 'stable pidgin' develops its own grammatical rules which are quite different from grammatical rules which are quite different from those of the lexifier those of the lexifier

Once a stable pidgin has emerged, it is generally Once a stable pidgin has emerged, it is generally learned as a second language and used for learned as a second language and used for communication among people who speak communication among people who speak different languagesdifferent languages

Ex:Ex: Nigerian Pidgin and Bislama spoken in Nigerian Pidgin and Bislama spoken in VanuatuVanuatu

CreoleCreole Latin Latin crearecreare, meaning "to beget" or "create" , meaning "to beget" or "create" The term was coined in the sixteenth century during The term was coined in the sixteenth century during

the great expansion in European maritime power and the great expansion in European maritime power and trade and the establishment of European colonies in trade and the establishment of European colonies in the the AmericasAmericas, , AfricaAfrica, and along the coast of South , and along the coast of South and Southeast and Southeast AsiaAsia up to the up to the PhilippinesPhilippines, , ChinaChina, , IndiaIndia, and in , and in OceaniaOceania

Originally, therefore, "Creole language" meant the Originally, therefore, "Creole language" meant the speech of those speech of those Creole peoplesCreole peoples

a stable a stable languagelanguage that originates seemingly as a that originates seemingly as a nativizednativized pidginpidgin

When children start learning a pidgin as their first When children start learning a pidgin as their first language and it becomes the mother tongue of a language and it becomes the mother tongue of a community, it is called a creolecommunity, it is called a creole

Like a pidgin, a creole is a distinct language which Like a pidgin, a creole is a distinct language which has taken most of its vocabulary from another has taken most of its vocabulary from another language, the lexifier, but has its own unique language, the lexifier, but has its own unique grammatical rulesgrammatical rules

•Arends, Muysken & Smith (1995) suggest that four different processes are involved in creating Foreigner Talk:•Accommodation •Imitation •Telegraphic condensation •Conventions •Presumably, between six ad twelve Smillion peole still using pidgin languages and between ten and seventeen using descendents from pidgins•Unlike a pidgin, however, a creole is not restricted in use, and is like any other language in its full range of functions•creoles have certain grammatical similarities to each other and, arguably, not languages that they are derived from •Creoles exhibit more internal variability than other languages •Creoles are simpler than other languages

creole languages have generally been creole languages have generally been regarded as regarded as degeneratedegenerate, or at best as , or at best as rudimentary rudimentary dialectsdialects of one of their parent of one of their parent languageslanguages

"creole" has come to be used in opposition "creole" has come to be used in opposition to "language" rather than a qualifier for itto "language" rather than a qualifier for it

Ex: Gullah, Jamaican Creole and Hawai`i Ex: Gullah, Jamaican Creole and Hawai`i Creole English.Creole English.

'pidgin' and 'creole' are technical terms used 'pidgin' and 'creole' are technical terms used by linguists, and not necessarily by speakers by linguists, and not necessarily by speakers of the language. For example, speakers of of the language. For example, speakers of Jamaican Creole call their language 'Patwa' Jamaican Creole call their language 'Patwa' (from patois) and speakers of Hawai`I (from patois) and speakers of Hawai`I

Creole English call theirs 'PidginCreole English call theirs 'Pidgin''

Theories to describe creole phenomenonTheories to describe creole phenomenon

1. The monogenetic theory of pidgins and 1. The monogenetic theory of pidgins and creolescreoles

a single origin for these languages, deriving them a single origin for these languages, deriving them

through through relexificationrelexification from a West African Pidgin from a West African Pidgin Portuguese of the 17th century and ultimately Portuguese of the 17th century and ultimately from the from the Lingua franca of the MediterraneanLingua franca of the Mediterranean

originally formulated by originally formulated by Hugo SchuchardtHugo Schuchardt in the in the late 19th century and popularized in the late late 19th century and popularized in the late 1950s and early 1960s by Douglas Taylor as well 1950s and early 1960s by Douglas Taylor as well as in as in Whinnom (1956Whinnom (1956), ), Thompson (1961Thompson (1961) and ) and Stewart (1962Stewart (1962))

• 2-European dialect origin hypotheses The French creoles are the foremost candidates to being the outcome of "normal" linguistic change creoleness to be sociohistoric in nature and relative to their colonial origin though

3. The Domestic Origin Hypothesis3. The Domestic Origin Hypothesis Proposed by Hancock (1985) for the development of a local Proposed by Hancock (1985) for the development of a local

form of English in West Africaform of English in West Africa towards the end of the 16th century, English-speaking towards the end of the 16th century, English-speaking

traders began to settle in the Gambia and Sierra Leone traders began to settle in the Gambia and Sierra Leone rivers as well as in neighboring areas such as the Bullom rivers as well as in neighboring areas such as the Bullom and Sherbro coastsand Sherbro coasts

These settlers intermarried with the local population These settlers intermarried with the local population leading to mixed populations and as a result of this leading to mixed populations and as a result of this intermarriage, an English pidgin was created, which in intermarriage, an English pidgin was created, which in turn was learned by slaves in slave depots, who later on turn was learned by slaves in slave depots, who later on took it to the West Indies and formed one component of took it to the West Indies and formed one component of the emerging English creolesthe emerging English creoles

4. Foreigner talk or baby talk4. Foreigner talk or baby talk a pidgin or creole language forms when native speakers a pidgin or creole language forms when native speakers

attempt to simplify their language in order to address attempt to simplify their language in order to address speakers who do not know their language at allspeakers who do not know their language at all

Because of the similarities found in this type of speech and Because of the similarities found in this type of speech and the speech which is usually directed at childrenthe speech which is usually directed at children

Gradualist and developmental hypothesesGradualist and developmental hypotheses

One class of creoles might start as One class of creoles might start as pidginspidgins, , rudimentary second languages improvised for rudimentary second languages improvised for use between speakers of two or more non-use between speakers of two or more non-intelligible native languagesintelligible native languages

Keith Whinnom (in Keith Whinnom (in Hymes (1971Hymes (1971)) suggests that )) suggests that pidgins need three languages to form, with one pidgins need three languages to form, with one (the superstrate) being clearly dominant over the (the superstrate) being clearly dominant over the othersothers

The lexicon of a pidgin is usually small and The lexicon of a pidgin is usually small and drawn from the vocabularies of its speakers, in drawn from the vocabularies of its speakers, in varying proportions. Morphological details like varying proportions. Morphological details like word word inflectionsinflections, which usually take years to , which usually take years to learn, are omitted; the syntax is kept very learn, are omitted; the syntax is kept very simple, usually based on strict word ordersimple, usually based on strict word order

In this initial stage, all aspects of the speech — In this initial stage, all aspects of the speech — syntax, lexicon, and pronunciation —tend to be syntax, lexicon, and pronunciation —tend to be quite variable, especially with regard to the quite variable, especially with regard to the speaker's backgroundspeaker's background

If a pidgin manages to be learned by the If a pidgin manages to be learned by the children of a community as a native language, it children of a community as a native language, it may become fixed and acquire a more complex may become fixed and acquire a more complex grammar, with fixed phonology, syntax, grammar, with fixed phonology, syntax, morphology, and syntactic embeddingmorphology, and syntactic embedding

Pidgins can become full languages in only a Pidgins can become full languages in only a single generationsingle generation

"Creolization" is this second stage where the "Creolization" is this second stage where the pidgin language develops into a fully developed pidgin language develops into a fully developed native languagenative language

The vocabulary, too, will contain more and The vocabulary, too, will contain more and more words according to a rational and stable more words according to a rational and stable systemsystem

Universalist approachesUniversalist approaches UniversalistUniversalist models stress the intervention of specific models stress the intervention of specific

general processes during the transmission of general processes during the transmission of language from generation to generation and from language from generation to generation and from speaker to speakerspeaker to speaker

The process invoked varies: a general tendency The process invoked varies: a general tendency towards towards semanticsemantic transparencytransparency, first , first language learninglanguage learning driven by universal process, or driven by universal process, or general process of general process of discoursediscourse organizationorganization

creoles are inventions of the children growing up on creoles are inventions of the children growing up on newly founded newly founded plantationsplantations

Around them, they only heard pidgins spoken, Around them, they only heard pidgins spoken, without enough structure to function as without enough structure to function as natural languagesnatural languages

the children used their own the children used their own innateinnate linguistic linguistic capacities to transform the pidgin input into a full-capacities to transform the pidgin input into a full-fledged languagefledged language

JargonJargon JargonJargon is is terminologyterminology that relates to a specific that relates to a specific

activity, profession or groupactivity, profession or group develops as a kind of shorthand, to quickly express develops as a kind of shorthand, to quickly express

ideas that are frequently discussed between members ideas that are frequently discussed between members of a groupof a group

more precise or specialized usage among more precise or specialized usage among practitioners of a fieldpractitioners of a field

"guild" or "insider" jargon"guild" or "insider" jargon divorced from meaning to outsidersdivorced from meaning to outsiders Used in various fields:Used in various fields: sports broadcastsports broadcast to refer to concepts within the belief systems of to refer to concepts within the belief systems of

organized religionorganized religion medical professionals medical professionals Information TechnologyInformation Technology and the and the InternetInternet Nautical TermsNautical Terms to refer to political strategies and tacticsto refer to political strategies and tactics

SlangSlang SlangSlang is the use of informal is the use of informal wordswords and and

expressions to describe an object or conditionexpressions to describe an object or condition vocabularyvocabulary that is meant to be interpreted quickly that is meant to be interpreted quickly

but not necessarily literallybut not necessarily literally slang words or terms are often a slang words or terms are often a metaphormetaphor or an or an

allegoryallegory sometimes regional in that it is used only in a sometimes regional in that it is used only in a

particular particular territoryterritory particular to a certain particular to a certain subculturesubculture, such as , such as

musiciansmusicians, and members of , and members of minority groupsminority groups usage of slang expressions can spread outside usage of slang expressions can spread outside

their original arenas to become commonly usedtheir original arenas to become commonly used some words eventually lose their status as slang, some words eventually lose their status as slang,

others continue to be considered as such by most others continue to be considered as such by most speakersspeakers

the process tends to lead the original users to replace the the process tends to lead the original users to replace the words with other, less-recognized terms to maintain words with other, less-recognized terms to maintain group identitygroup identity

slang is the complete opposite of slang is the complete opposite of jargonjargon Criteria for true slangCriteria for true slang proposed by Dumas & Lighter proposed by Dumas & Lighter lowers, temporarily, the dignity of formal or serious lowers, temporarily, the dignity of formal or serious

speech or writing or glaring misuse of speech or writing or glaring misuse of registerregister Its use implies that the user is familiar with whatever is Its use implies that the user is familiar with whatever is

referred to, or with a group of people that referred to, or with a group of people that areare familiar familiar with it and use the term.with it and use the term.

a taboo term in ordinary discourse with people of a a taboo term in ordinary discourse with people of a higher social status or greater responsibilityhigher social status or greater responsibility

replaces a well known conventional synonym, to avoid replaces a well known conventional synonym, to avoid the discomfort caused by the conventional item or to the discomfort caused by the conventional item or to elaborate it elaborate it

Slang terms are often known only within a clique or Slang terms are often known only within a clique or

ingroupingroup