ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY

2009

Language Standardization

A summary

By Elizabeth D., Chimdi W. and Beniyam J.

S U B M I T T E D T O Z E L E A L E M L E Y E W ( P H D )

Summary on Language Standardization

By

Elizabeth Demissie

Beniyam Jembere

Chimdi Wakuma

To

Zelealem Leyew (PhD)

Addis Ababa University

Institute of Language Studies

Department of African Languages and Applied Linguistics

Language Planning and Standardization Course (ALAL 601)

Addis Ababa

December, 2009

Contents

1. What is Language Standardization?

2. Approaches to Language Standardization

2.1. Discriminatory Approach

2.2. ‘Pan dialectal’ Approach

3. The Aims of Language Standardization

4. Strategies in Standardizing a Language

4.1. Orthography

4.2. Lexical enrichment

5. Phases of Language Standardization

5.1. Determination

5.2. Codification

5.3. Elaboration

5.4. Implementation

5.5. Cultivation

5.6. Harmonization

6. Stages in Standardizing unwritten Language

7. Criteria for Standard Dialect Selection

8. Who can standardize a language?

Bibliography

1. What is Language Standardization?

The definition of language standardization according to Kamwangamalu

(2001:194) based on Crystal (1985), is stated as “standardization is a natural

development of a standard language in a speech community or an attempt

by a community to impose one dialect as standard.” He explains the activity

of standardization as direct and deliberate intervention by society to create a

standard language in a situation where non standard varieties are used, by

referring Hudson (1980).

Similarly, Ekkehard Wolff (2000:332) said

Language standardization is a means in ‘language development,’ selection and promotion of variants with in a language. It is one of the major concerns of language planning, especially in Africa. It usually involves development of language related activities like grammars, spelling books, and dictionaries, and literature. It is also changing some spoken form of a particular language to be written down in an official manner with the intention of making this particular variety the preferred variety.

When one deals with language standardization, as Wolff (ibid) elaborates, it

targeted to turning linguistic varieties into standard languages in two senses.

First in a sense of approved and accepted norm above all vernacular,

colloquial and dialectal varieties for general and normative usage in certain

domains such as literature, science, education, the media, the churches and

all public sectors. In the second sense, it is a regular and codified normative

system of reference supported by a standard orthography, standard

reference grammars and standard dictionaries.

Fully fledged standard language will enjoy recognition as such by the whole

speech community (for instance, as a prestigious high variety in a diglossia

situation), and reflect linguistic (Possibly national or even ethnic) identity,

and moreover gain or develop a rich writing tradition and be potentially

equipped to encode all necessary modernization in its lexicon. It is used

effectively as high variety, predominantly for written communication in

matters of official concerns on regional, national or international level (Wolff

2000: 340, Kamwangamalu 2001:43).

Generally speaking, in such senses discussed previously, only a small

number of African’s languages and even the worlds’ languages acquired the

title of being standard. However, many scholars agreed that standardization

is a necessary and vital process in any language.

2. Approaches to Language Standardization

There are two common approaches to standardize a language. Based on the

explanation of Mismang (2001:166), the approaches are the following.

2.1 Discriminatory approach selects one or two prestige dialects and

elevates it/them to standard language level. In this approach, the

dialect(s) which have not been elevated are then excluded from the

standard and relegated to an inferior position. This discriminatory form

of standardization seems to be popular because it is believed that it

leads to more uniformity.

2.2 ‘Pandialectal’ approach standardizes by adopting a dialect

democracy approach in which all dialects may be elevated to the

standard level, which Wolff (2000:333) refers to it as ‘pandialectal’. In

this way various dialects are unified, their variants refined and

neutralized until they merge into common standard language. This

approach is very akin to harmonization (Mismang, 2001:166)).

3. The Aims of Language Standardization

The aims of standardizing a language are manifold and some of them are discussed

as follows thinking that they are frequently pointed out, Oyetade (2001:20).

To contribute in the development of a nation

The role of language in development of a nation cannot be over-stressed. As

wider and more satisfactory conception of national development advocate

development should be seen as total human development. The perspective

emphasizes a full realization of human potential and a maximum utilization

of the nation‘s resources for the benefit of all to take development as

development. Thus, language as resource will be standardized to be utilized

properly. Oyetade (ibid) makes it clear that every developmental discourse

has taken note of language’s pragmatic and expressive values. Based on its

pragmatic value, language is the vehicle for the transmission of scientific

and technical education. And it is also the vehicle and manifestation of

culture (i.e. the expressive value).

To facilitate communication

Standardization is believed to increase the communication valency of a

language for literacy by simplifying the communication process. When there

exists an enormous and magnificent difference between dialects,

communication will be blocked. Certain standard rules must be followed so

that people can communicate effectively with one another, Kamawangamalu

(2001:194).

To be used as a model

When a language is standardized, it allows the language to be used as a

model for everyone in the community.

To Enhance unification

As a result of standardizing a language, the community will be entitled to

have and use a common, mutually comprehensible language which is

believed to unify the speakers.

To Simplify teaching

The other aim of standardizing a language is to make the language easier to

teach in schools. In the linguistic community whereby the majorities happen

to use a different dialect or language, it would be illogical to maintain local

dialects as a medium of instruction when it comes to a higher education.

To serve a political purpose

Some political reasons like claiming autonomy from domestic or foreign rule

can be the aim for standardizing a language.

Such aims, which are listed above, are viewed positively. Nevertheless

language standardization has its own negative consequences for its creation

of a sense of superiority in speakers of one language and a feeling of

inferiority on the others. Choosing one vernacular as a norm means favoring

those who speak that variety and diminishing all the other varieties and

possible competing norms, and those who use those varieties.

4. Strategies in Standardizing a Language

Language modernization or standardization is viewed as a complex and

multidimensional attempt whose sole aim is the empowerment of any

language for literacy and numeracy of all purposes in formal and informal

education. To achieve this aim properly the work of standardization will be

done based on two strategies. According to Emenanjo (2001:48) these

guidelines are:

4.1. Orthography- in this area the selection of accurate and consistent

script will be carried out. As strategy it endorses doing the following

activities.

Choice of directions of writing

choices in the design of a script

choice in the expansion of script between new letters, diacritics

and new values

choice in a writing code between ideograms, syllabary and

alphabet

The choice in the type of spelling between phonemic, morpho-

phonemic and paraphonemic systems etc

4.2. Lexical enrichment- with regard to lexical enrichment the

following activities are going to be done.

Borrowing words from other languages for scientific and

technological concepts

Intra dialectal borrowings

New coinages

Adaption

Elevation of slang and colloquialism

Specialization of dialect words

Furthermore it would be important to keep in mind that successful language

standardization is achieved when first the particular solution suggested for

the problem is checked so as to know if it brings a fair chance of success and

second when there is a situation of allowing several alternative solutions so

as to see their merits and demerits and by imperceptible steps push one

ahead of the others.

5. Phases of Language Standardization

According to Wolff (2000:333) language standardization involves the

following phases:

5.1. Determination

In terms of status planning, determination refers to language policy and

involves choice of which of the countries languages should be selected to

perform particular function in regional, national and international

communication. But in terms of language standardization, it is the norm

which is chosen to serve as the standard frame of reference for any chosen

language.

Determination of language and norm may become a question of power which

will favor those who already use the chosen variety and disfavor those who

don’t. Selecting one particular lect to become a standard form of a given

language means that speakers of other varieties feel that their speech forms

are now being discriminated.

In order to avoid social and political unrest based on determination of a

standard, an idealized norm can be created, that is ‘pandialectal’ variant

which is ‘nobody’s dialect’.

Otherwise, when choosing a dialect, various criteria could be used and must

be considered against each other because existing language variants will

differ in the extent to which they confirm the criteria.

5.2. Codification

The work of codification includes graphicisation, which is the creation or

unification of a standard orthography. Based on some general principles and

the needs of any given language, the existing writing systems such as the

Roman, Greece, Arabic or Ethiopic set of characters can be adapted to be

used.

Generally, graphicisation admits an orthographic system that has to perform

political, socio-cultural, psychological and pedagogical functions. The

adequacy of a given orthography system developed to serve this purpose

can be evaluated by the following criteria, as outlined by Jack Berry (in

Ouane, 1991):

maximum motivation of the learners

maximum representation of the spoken language

maximum facility for learning

maximum transfer and

maximum reproduction.

5.3. Elaboration

Wolff (ibid) explains that, in elaboration, lexical innovation is a constant and

unplanned spontaneous and ad hoc process in any language. That is, as

communication needs change and expands speakers develop strategies for

creating or borrowing new terms which their language did not have until

then. Such terms like ‘elaboration’, ‘modernization’ and language

development are used to indicate planned lexical innovation which imply, in

a very derogatory sense, that the languages are somewhat ‘un modern’,

‘primitive’, ’un developed’. Elaboration, therefore, is a constant need for

enrichment of vocabulary by creating and expanding the appropriate

terminology for commercial, professional and scientific domains as

knowledge and technology progress. It is part of corpus planning and is

usually the task of language academies.

5.4. Implementation

Once the standard is established, usually with the cooperation of linguists,

educators, leaders of speech community, putting decision into practice is left

for the policy makers. This is most effectively realized through feeding the

new standard norm into the educational system.

A good example of highly effective implementation was the introduction of

Somali language as official language of the country with new standard

orthography in 1973.

The implementation scheme consisted of various simultaneous and follow-up

activities. As wolff (ibid) explains by referring the experience of Somalia, the

activities that can be done include announcing and propagating the decision

by the mass media, engaging large scale literacy campaign, information

pamphlets distribution and the like.

5.5. Cultivation

After initial implementation of standardizing, a language needs continuous

support from language promotion agencies. The advisory bodies are

expected to:

create guidelines as to matters of style and acceptable variants

mainly in literary production

ensure that printed materials conform to the standard norms

ensure that lexical innovation is continuously subjected to

standardization in order to avoid uncontrolled competition of terms

with similar yet different meanings

Radio programs, newspaper columns and award-winning competition in oral

as well as written skill in the standard variety will play an important role in

creating positive attitudes. In language standardization, the most successful

instance of language cultivation is that of Afrikaans. It rose from an

‘underdeveloped’ and marginalized Creole which had been heavily

discriminated by colonial legacy’s language speakers.

5.6. Harmonization

It is a challenging phase because of some sociolinguistic factors. Conflict of

interest is the main factor. As Wolff (ibid) discusses people who don’t belong

to the standard variety speech community tend to hesitate to accept the

standard. In harmonization; national harmonization of orthographies,

international harmonization and language harmonization are

included.

National harmonization of orthographies aims at using similar graphic

symbols in multilingual country for its various languages to facilitate reading

and writing.

International harmonization is concerned with cross boarder languages

unification, where speakers of the same language are divided by national

boarder.

Language harmonization is usually used synonymously with unification to

refer construction of a common language for a dialect-group by employing

forms that are common to all variants in the group as much as possible. And

when this is not possible usage as common form to the predominant majority

or in previously attained literary forms.

Generally, the aim of harmonization is to produce one common language.

Therefore in the process variant forms between dialects are neutralized or

harmonized in the common language. It is done on orthography, the

languages themselves and also to develop common technical terminology.

6. Stages in Standardizing unwritten Language

According to Haugen (1966) (in Oyetade 2001) there are four stages that are

followed to standardize yet unwritten languages. These stages have

similarity with the general standardization process, but still with slight

difference.

Selection of the norm

At this stage the main work is dialectal choice. The criteria of selection

can be one of such factors as: historical, resolution of some bodies of

experts, by legislation, demographic and others.

Codification of the norm

After the selection of a dialect, what follows is codification of the norm

and its core work is harmonization. What’s more, the proposal for

orthography development is done at this stage.

Elaboration of function

This is a stage at which the selected dialect (norm) and the codified

form are used at different domains like education, media, literature

and other domains.

Acceptability

When the orthographic reform is welcomed by the people, it means

that this stage is reached. Bamgbose (1985) (in ibid) suggests that it is

better to have few changes as much as possible in order to maximize

the acceptability of the reform. Otherwise, if the change made is big,

there might not be acceptability by the language users.

7. Criteria for Standard Dialect Selection

To decide on one dialect as standard over other variants there are criteria

used widely. Wolff (2000:335) acknowledges that these criteria are usually

sociolinguistic and sometimes pure linguistic. The social, cultural,

psychological and political factors which are related to language and used as

criteria are the following:

1. Numerical muscles in terms of number of mother tongue speakers and

the degree of de facto use in vehicular function by none mother

tongue speakers

2. Degree of standardization and quantity of post literary materials

already available

3. Historical and cultural prestige among a non native speakers and

linguistic ‘purity’ of the chosen variant in the eyes of mother tongue

speakers

4. Historical, cultural and religious prestige of the mother tongue

speakers themselves

5. Political and economic dominance of its mother tongue or non mother

tongue speakers

6. Mutual intelligibility of dialects of a language or language clusters

(Nyombe, 2001:134)

7. Scholars like Nyombe (2001:134) include acceptability of the

dialect by the users, as more important criteria.

8. Who can standardize a language?

In the process of standardization may involve many people depending on the

situation. As we understand from different countries experience of

standardization, the following are active participants in the whole process.

Governmental and nongovernmental organizations

Language engineers (linguists)

Politicians

Religious institutions

Media and the media people

Educators

Universities

Rulers

Individuals (like writers, literary persons…)

Speakers of the language

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