LANGUAGE HISTORYLANGUAGE HISTORY

CAROLINA GOGOYCAROLINA GOGOY

1.1. Sanskrit is the ancient language of the Indian Law. Sanskrit is the ancient language of the Indian Law.

2.2. It is said about Sanskrit that it has a more perfect It is said about Sanskrit that it has a more perfect structure than the Greek, ampler than Latin and that it structure than the Greek, ampler than Latin and that it is more elegant and elaborated than both of them. In is more elegant and elaborated than both of them. In spite of that, it is strongly influenced by both spite of that, it is strongly influenced by both languages; Greek and Latin since its root of verbs languages; Greek and Latin since its root of verbs and its grammar structure share some common and its grammar structure share some common characteristics.characteristics.

3.3. The implication of these differences and similarities The implication of these differences and similarities among Sanskrit, Greek and Latin is that some among Sanskrit, Greek and Latin is that some languages, which still belonging from very separated languages, which still belonging from very separated geographic areas, have some common characteristics geographic areas, have some common characteristics because they must belong from a common root.because they must belong from a common root.Although some languages are very different they Although some languages are very different they belong from the same family of languages.belong from the same family of languages.

4.4. The meaning of the concept The meaning of the concept PROTO-INDO-PROTO-INDO-EUROPEANEUROPEAN is: is: PROTOPROTO, from the original form of the , from the original form of the language.language. INDO INDO, from the modern language in the , from the modern language in the Indian sub-continent which uses the original forms Indian sub-continent which uses the original forms (proto) as a source within its language. (proto) as a source within its language. EUROPEANEUROPEAN, , from the geographical place in which it took place, from the geographical place in which it took place, Europe.Europe.

5.5. The processes by which we can know if a set of words belong The processes by which we can know if a set of words belong from the same family are called from the same family are called COGNATESCOGNATES and and COMPARATIVE RECONSTRUCTIONCOMPARATIVE RECONSTRUCTION. They are carried out by . They are carried out by looking at older register of both languages. looking at older register of both languages.

6.6. Cognates processCognates process refers to the comparison of a set of words of refers to the comparison of a set of words of one language with another set of words from another language in one language with another set of words from another language in terms of word formation and word meaning. As a result of this terms of word formation and word meaning. As a result of this process we can notice that old and modern languages are related process we can notice that old and modern languages are related and belong from the same family.and belong from the same family.

Comparative reconstructionComparative reconstruction, which follows the cognates , which follows the cognates process, restores what must have be the root or original form of process, restores what must have be the root or original form of the language (proto). The process follows two principles: majority the language (proto). The process follows two principles: majority principle and most natural development principle.principle and most natural development principle.

7.7. The Majority PrincipleThe Majority Principle is very direct. This principle is very direct. This principle establishes that if in a set of words, three of them have establishes that if in a set of words, three of them have the same initial sound /p/ and one of them has the the same initial sound /p/ and one of them has the initial sound /b/ they have kept the original sound /p/ initial sound /b/ they have kept the original sound /p/ although the minority has changed through the time.although the minority has changed through the time.The Most Natural Development PrincipleThe Most Natural Development Principle states that states that some sound-changes are likely to appear in spite o the some sound-changes are likely to appear in spite o the time, although some other sound-changes are very time, although some other sound-changes are very improvable to happen.improvable to happen.

8.8. The difference between both principle is that the first The difference between both principle is that the first

one is very wide and make a prior research. On the one is very wide and make a prior research. On the opposite, the second principle acknowledge the opposite, the second principle acknowledge the existence of some established changes and some existence of some established changes and some changes that are not possible.changes that are not possible.

9.9. The English Language History identify three different The English Language History identify three different periods: periods: The Old English period, the Middle English The Old English period, the Middle English period and the Modern English period.period and the Modern English period.

10.10. The Old English periodThe Old English period started when three tribes started when three tribes from northern Europe invaded the British isles in the from northern Europe invaded the British isles in the fifth century AD. The last invasion was done by the fifth century AD. The last invasion was done by the Vikings which entered the new Old Norse language.Vikings which entered the new Old Norse language.The Middle English periodThe Middle English period started when the started when the Normans invaded England. During this period French Normans invaded England. During this period French was the Aristocracy’s language while English was was the Aristocracy’s language while English was changing drastically among worked people.changing drastically among worked people.The modern English periodThe modern English period started from 1500 at our started from 1500 at our days and is mainly characterized by the narrowing days and is mainly characterized by the narrowing process.process.

11.11. The year 1066The year 1066 is very important in the English History is very important in the English History because the Normans conquered Britain, French was because the Normans conquered Britain, French was the aristocracy language while English added new the aristocracy language while English added new vocabulary.vocabulary.

12.12. When comparing Old and Modern English there are When comparing Old and Modern English there are five different phonetic changes: five different phonetic changes: Quality of vowel Quality of vowel sounds, sounds disappearance, metathesis, sounds, sounds disappearance, metathesis, epenthesis, prothesis.epenthesis, prothesis.

13.13. Quality of vowels:Quality of vowels: refer to the disuse of long vowels. refer to the disuse of long vowels. In the Old English we can notice the presence of many In the Old English we can notice the presence of many long vowel sounds in words such as house, wife, long vowel sounds in words such as house, wife, home, etc. meanwhile in Modern English they were home, etc. meanwhile in Modern English they were changed by diphthongs or the ‘yod’ sound.changed by diphthongs or the ‘yod’ sound.Sounds disappearance:Sounds disappearance: It refers to the /x/ sound It refers to the /x/ sound used during the Old English which disappeared in the used during the Old English which disappeared in the Modern English and was changed by a /k/ sound.Modern English and was changed by a /k/ sound.Metathesis:Metathesis: it is to turn around two adjoining sounds. it is to turn around two adjoining sounds.Epenthesis:Epenthesis: it refers to the addition of a sound in the it refers to the addition of a sound in the middle of a word.middle of a word.Prothesis:Prothesis: It is the addition of a sound at the It is the addition of a sound at the beginning of a word.beginning of a word.

14.14. Two syntactic changes between Old and Modern Two syntactic changes between Old and Modern EnglishEnglish are the word ordering such as subject-verb- are the word ordering such as subject-verb-object, which during the Old English period was more object, which during the Old English period was more variable. Another important change was the inflexional variable. Another important change was the inflexional affixes and suffixes which are not commonly found in affixes and suffixes which are not commonly found in Modern English. Modern English.

15.15. Word order:Word order: Subject-verb-object is a common Subject-verb-object is a common structure in Modern English, meanwhile in Old English structure in Modern English, meanwhile in Old English such ordering verb-subject or object-verb were such ordering verb-subject or object-verb were possible. The double negative form was also a possible. The double negative form was also a difference resulting from the French influence.difference resulting from the French influence.Inflectional suffixes:Inflectional suffixes: nouns, adjectives and pronouns nouns, adjectives and pronouns have different forms according to their grammatical have different forms according to their grammatical function.function.

16.16. When comparing Old and Modern English there are When comparing Old and Modern English there are three very important three very important lexical changes:lexical changes: borrowed borrowed words, broadening and narrowing of meaning.words, broadening and narrowing of meaning.

17.17. Borrowed words:Borrowed words: Since the Old English period Since the Old English period started some Latin and Greek words were added into started some Latin and Greek words were added into the language.the language.Broadening of meaning:Broadening of meaning: It refers to the change of It refers to the change of words which were used in Old English to talk about a words which were used in Old English to talk about a specific subject for example; the words holy day refer specific subject for example; the words holy day refer to a religious feast and then the change of that word to to a religious feast and then the change of that word to a Modern use as in holiday used to refer to any kind of a Modern use as in holiday used to refer to any kind of feast.feast.Narrowing of meaning:Narrowing of meaning: It refers to the use of words It refers to the use of words which originally refer to particular and singular subjects which originally refer to particular and singular subjects to a more general meaning. to a more general meaning.

18.18. The English language was study, in the article, The English language was study, in the article, diachronically and synchronically.diachronically and synchronically.

Diachronically:Diachronically: It is the study if a language from a It is the study if a language from a historical point of view.historical point of view.

Synchronically:Synchronically: It is the study of a language in terms It is the study of a language in terms of differences within a language in different places at of differences within a language in different places at the same time.the same time.