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Department of Environmental Affairs, Natural Resource Management Landusers Incentives Programme

Lima Rural Development Foundation Umzimvubu Catchment Restoration Project

Matatiele, Eastern Cape

STORIES OF CHANGE Case study 3: Landscape change

Picture above: landscape change as a result of clearing thick wattle plantation at Ntenetyana

1. Background

The Department of Environmental Affairs’ (DEA) Natural Resources Management Land User Incentives (NRM

LUI) programme was implemented in the upper Umzimvubu catchment of the Eastern Cape by Lima Rural

Development Foundation (Lima), with support from the Institute of Natural Resources (INR), for financial years

2013/14, 2014/15 and 2015/16.

The areas of implementation included Mafube (near Matatiele) and Ntenetyana (near Mt Frere). The

communities in these areas are subjected to a number of difficulties which include extreme poverty,

unemployment, land degradation and lack of access to information. The implementation of the Lima NRM

project has been able to address some of these difficulties with good results and a positive outlook for the

future.

The project sites face a range of forms of land degradation. The most prevalent form of degradtion occurs

as invasion of rangelands by black / silver wattle and other woody alien species such as poplar and

eucalyptus. The extensive stands of wattle have resulted in loss of grazing land for livestock and have also

impacted on stream flow of the numerous wetlands and tributaries in the upper Umzimvubu catchment

region. Thus, the primary objective of the Lima NRM project was to clear wattle and restore grasslands.

Large scale soil erosion is another visable form of land degradation at both Mafube and Nteneyana sites.

Gullies often originate from cattle paths or from the concentration of water along roads during storm events.

The project team engaged in a range of activities to address land degradation.

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2. Alien plant clearing

Initial clearing of wattle was done primarily using

manual methods, with the use of herbicde for cut-

stump application and foliar spray follow-up. Large

alien trees were ringbarked and left in place, while

smaller trees were cut down. In sloping areas, cut plant

material was stacked in windrows along the contour to

slow down water flow.

Picture left: initial clearing

When deciding where to focus clearing efforts, the

project team consulted the local community. Areas

that were selected for clearing included those said to

be dangerous (i.e. harbouring criminals), those where

thieves hid stolen livestock, wattle-infested streams

and livestock grazing areas.

In some cases the local community requested that

stands of wattle be left intact to ensure that livestock

had areas to shelter during bad weather or to

provide a source of firewood. In these cases, the

project participants defined the edges of the

‘woodlots’ and removed trees that were starting to

creep into the adjacent grasslands.

Picture right: demarcation of woodlots

3. Controlling sheet erosion

A major challenge of clearing dense stands of alien

plants is that there is very little soil cover once the trees

are removed, leaving soil vulnerable to sheet erosion.

This is especially prevalent on moderate to steep

slopes.

Brush-packs made from cleared material were used to

slow down water flow, hold sediment and organic

matter and thus foster a suitable micro-environment for

grass seed re-establishment on cleared areas.

Picture alongside: small brush-packs on cleared slope

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4. Re-establishing vegetation cover

A number of different methods were used to re-establish grass cover in

bare, cleared areas.

Where local seed banks were intact, sheet erosion measures were

implemented with the assumption that in-situ grasses would naturally

recruit. However, in areas where wattle stands have been very dense for

many years, there is little chance of grasses naturally re-establishing. In

such areas, a combination of methods were used –

Direct re-seeding (broad-casting; planting in rows);

Use of cattle to break soil crusts;

Exclusion of livestock by erecting fences and wattle barriers;

Scattering wattle branches over seeded areas;

Planting of existing kikuyu stolons and sods from nearby areas;

Digging of zai pits and direct re-seeding; and

Establishment of seedbanks. Picture above: efficient sheet erosion control

Seedbanks were set up (fenced and directly seeded) to allow seed to spread naturally into the surrounding

areas. Seed can also be harvested and used for active reseeding.

Pictures above: Seed banks amidst barren cleared areas

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Pictures above: Direct seeding: broadcasting and planting in rows across cleared areas

Zai pits, shallow pits dug alternately over bare

areas, capture water which supports germination

and growth of seeded grass. It was found that this

method was more effective when branches were

placed over the pits to protect germinated grass

from being eaten by roaming livestock.

Pictures LHS to RHS:

digging zai pits; zai pits are seeded, they collect water, germination is

promoted; brush cover protecting grass from roaming livestock

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5. Path and donga stabilisation

In order to develop local skills in methods of stabilising

dongas (erosion gullies), the project team facilitated

a field trip to a Landcare/DEA project at Okhombe in

KwaZulu-Natal, which has been managed by Dr Terry

Everson from the University of KwaZulu-Natal (UKZN)

for a number of years. In turn, a number of the

Okhombe project members visited Mafube to assist /

guide the restoration team with their efforts.

Later, the Lima NRM project participants passed on

their skills to workers on the Conservation South Africa

/ Environmental and Rural Solutions NRM team.

Picture alongside: Knowledge sharing at the field trip to Okhombe

The method adopted from Okhombe was the use of stone-packed lines that slow water flow and capture

sediment. These stone lines are placed above gullies to divert water from entering the channel and within the

donga to reduce velocity and prevent active soil wash.

Pictures above: Mafube site restoration March 2014 (LHS) and March 2016 (RHS)

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Pictures above: Before and After

6. Grazing management

The agricultural potential of Mafube and Ntenetyana areas is strong, yet there is a high level of poverty and

unemployment. Thus, there is an opportunity and need to improve the livelihoods of communities through

agriculture and associated activities.

Fundamentally, land users should adopt sustainable practices that can ensure the long-term sustainability of

natural resources. This was a focus of the Lima NRM project throughout implementation: land objectives

(water security, reduced erosion, grassland restoration) were coupled with strategies for sustainable

livelihoods.

Livestock is blamed for land degradation in rural, communal areas. However, these areas often have far lower

stocking rates than commercial beef farms. It is the poor management of the rangelands, not necessarily the

livestock, that results in land degradation. Traditionally, rangeland areas are degraded as a result of

continuous grazing pressure (no rest) albiet at low stocking rates, and too frequent burning.

Livestock management practices in communal areas are affected by a number of factors. Being along the

Lesotho border, a key factor that influences livestock owners’ decisions in Mafube, is the threat of stock theft.

Thus, most households bring their cattle home every evening. This leads to heavy pressure on areas adjacent

to settlements and much less pressure on more remote grazing camps.

Continuous re-grazing of grass plants diminishes root

reserves, which can lead to the plants becoming weak

and being easily pulled out when grazed. A full growing

season’s rest (spring – summer) once in four years is

understood to be an effective mechanism to replenish

root reserves and sustain grass cover.

Through a participatory process of consultation with

the livestock owners at Mafube, a grazing system was

developed and implemented by the project. Each

year, the communty identified grazing camps

(comprising some 25% of the available grazing area) to

be closed from October to May (first frost). A mounted

ecoranger team was established who ensured that

wandering livestock did not enter the closed camp.

Picture above: Mafube mounted ecorangers

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The rested camp is then available for grazing in winter. The feed value of the winter fodder can be enhanced

if livestock have access to protein supplements that allow them to utilise the high cellulose material.

See a detailed report of the Lima NRM rotational rest grazing system in Annexure A.

A complication raised by one of the ecorangers was that if the rested camp is lost to a fire, then there would

be severe feed shortages because all the “open areas” would have been grazed by the end of summer. This

led to efforts to build local capacity in burning fire breaks. Due to the specialist skills and tools, as well as the

safety risks involved, the Lima NRM project was discouraged from burning their own firebreaks. However,

being able to timeously burn breaks to protect the winter feed has proved a very challenging aspect of this

work. Partnerships have been established with the local municipality and Working on Fire teams – however,

further engagement and commitment is required from these parties in order for fire to be adeqautely

managed for rangelands and livestock production benefits in the Mafube area.

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Annexure A: Rotational rest grazing system, as implemented by Lima NRM

Brigid Letty1, Lumko Mboyi2 and Susan Carter-Brown2/3 1 Institute of Natural Resources 2 Lima Rural Development Trust

3 NatureStamp

1. Background

Lima Rural Development Foundation (Lima), with rangeland-related support from the Institute of Natural

Resources (INR), is implementing a project on behalf of the Department of Environmental Affairs Natural

Resource Management Directorate (DEA NRM). DEA NRM runs a Land User Incentives Programme, which

aims to find ways to incentivise land users towards sustainable natural resource management. Improved

livestock productivity is seen as a key incentive for improved management of rangelands. This is the basis for

the efforts of Lima and INR to co-develop a rangeland management system with the Mafube community

near Matatiele in the Eastern Cape.

Given that there is not a strong livestock association in the community, nor a tradition of managing cattle

collectively, it was thought most practical to introduce a rotational rest system which only requires that

livestock owners and herders agree to keep animals out of the “closed areas” while these areas are rested.

As suggested by Kirkman & Moore (1995b), grazing systems must be “cheap, easy to understand and

implement and must have the financial (or other benefits for farmers)”.

The long-term aims of the grazing management intervention at Mafube are as follows –

Restore the presence and vigour of palatable grasses;

Maintain / improve species composition;

Provide a fodder reserve of grass for winter use; and

Improve livestock productivity and rural livelihoods.

2. Review of the literature

Rotational Rest (RR) is a recommended practice for a number of different veld types – particularly sourveld

areas (Kirkman and Moore 1995b), but even savannah areas. Rest from grazing for a full growing season is

thought to be adequate in sourveld areas to allow for recovery of grass vigour and to contribute to increased

seed production (Kirkman & Moore 1995b). It also allows preferred species to compete more effectively with

less desirable species (Kirkman 2002a). Without proper management, sourveld deteriorates as preferred

species lose vigour and eventually die due to their inability to withstand continuous grazing (Kirkman & Moore

1995a).

RR is based on plant rather than livestock requirements. It must be distinguished from ‘recovery periods’ that

are part of a rotational grazing system. Rests in a rotational grazing system do not have the beneficial effect

of restoring vigour as it is difficult to closely control defoliation patterns (i.e. reduce selective grazing

behaviour). In a rotational grazing system, livestock is removed from a camp for a period of time to allow for

regrowth of grass. This is a “recovery period” rather than a “rotational rest” (du Toit 2002). Some authors use

the term “deferment” to refer to practices where areas are withheld from livestock until later in the season

(Wange et al. 2007, Howery et al. 2000). After a period of grazing, grasses make use of their root reserves to

initiate regrowth. Constant grazing without sufficient rest leads to depletion of the root reserves, which may

eventually kill the plant (du Plessis 2005). For preferred species (i.e. more palatable and productive grass

species), such rests are even more essential (Kirkman & Moore 1995b). Without any grazing management

interventions, veld degrades as preferred species are replaced due to overgrazing or selective grazing

(Kirkman & Moore 1995b).

ROTATIONAL REST: A PRACTICAL SOLUTION TO MAINTAIN / IMPROVE COMMUNAL RANGELANDS

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Kirkman & Moore (1995a) cite Tainton’s (1981) definition of vigour being the ability of grass to produce

reasonable quantities of viable seed and ability to supply nutrients to new and existing tillers so that it can

survive from one season to the next. Barnes (1989) proposed that vigour can be measured in terms of the

productivity of grass plants the season following defoliation (measured against comparable ungrazed plants).

A vigorous grass sward in spring can be achieved by ensuring that grass plants have sufficient root reserves –

this is achieved by imposing a rotational rest (du Plessis 2005). The timing of the rest is critical. For example,

systems that combine high intensity, short duration grazing have a long recovery period of 90-120 days, yet

this rest is not always long enough as it does not always occur at a favourable time (du Toit 2002).

RR for a full year, or at least for the growing season, ensures that the palatable grass plants are able to

maintain their vigour. This enables them to withstand subsequent grazing more effectively (du Toit 2002,

Kirkman & Moore 1995b). In sourveld areas, Kirkman & Moore (1995b) highlight that utilisation of the grass

during the winter dormant period is not expected to have any effect on veld condition. Thus grazing should

happen for the period from the first frost until spring growth commences.

Besides the obvious effect on livestock production and veld condition, the rotational rest also improves basal

groundcover contributing to improved infiltration rates and reduced runoff - which in turn reduces erosion

and could improve water quality (du Toit 2002).

Deferment of grazing until after flowering, as mentioned by Howery et al. (2000), does however cause the

grass plant to be less palatable and of lower grazing quality. The species composition of an area will

determine the extent to which this may be problem.

With a RR system that excludes grazing for the full year, stocking rates must be adapted to compensate for

the removal of a portion (usually 25%) of grazing land (Howery et al. 2000). Where the area is available to be

grazed during winter (i.e. in high altitude areas where the grass is dormant in winter), this is not the case.

3. Introducing rotational rest: experiences from Mafube

The key aspects of introducing the RR system are discussed below to provide an indication of the practicalities

of working in the communal grazing context.

3.1 Community buy-in

The concept of RR was presented to community members and the local traditional authority to obtain buy-

in. The concept was not unfamiliar to the Mafube community as they have local, traditional practices of

excluding livestock from certain areas – such as keeping cattle out of the crop lands until crops and thatch

grass has been harvested.

Figure 1: Meetings to decide on camps to rest in the first season.

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One of the main benefits of the RR system to date is that it has not called for collective management of

livestock. In Mafube, where there is a weak livestock association, this has been a key factor for the

implementation of the system.

3.2 Herding practices

Many households pay local herders to take their cattle out to graze, and therefore the practice of keeping

livestock out of demarcated areas was not difficult to introduce to the Mafube community. The DEA project

is able to pay for 6 Herder-Rangers who play a role monitoring the rested / closed camps to ensure that

animals are kept out. Sometimes it is necessary for animals to move through closed camps (e.g on their way

to be dipped), but Herder-Rangers are encouraged to move through quickly prevent grazing.

3.3 Demarcating camps using natural boundaries

The closed camps are not fenced but are demarcated by natural boundaries (e.g. river / ridge line) or by

using sticks to mark edges. Each year the community decides of which camps are to be closed and when

this will happen. Similarly there is discussion towards the end of summer regarding when the camps will be

opened again. Generally the camps are opened once there has been a good frost and the grass is assumed

to have become dormant.

Figure 2 A map of the grazing area showing camps rested in each of three years.

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In Mafube, an average of 25% of the grazing area is closed for resting in one year. The total is comprised of a

number of sub-portions to ensure that all livestock owners have access to land in close proximity. A key part

of the RR system is to allow the livestock task team to make the decisions about which camps to close and

this process is supported by the Lima management team. For example, the heavy grazing of camps adjacent

to settlements led to a recommendation from the community that some of these areas need be rested every

two years rather than every 4 years in an effort to maintain plant vigour.

4. Activities that complement the introduction of a RR grazing system

Apart from the grazing system intervention, the project has also introduced other activities that contribute to

improved rural livelihoods and environmental sustainability.

4.1 Winter supplementation

The use of protein (urea) supplements was explored through a trial with 12 households. The aim of the

supplementation trial was to demonstrate the possibility of effectively utilizing rested winter veld. While the

sample group was small and results varied, there was evidence that body condition can be improved through

the provision of licks. All households made the licks available for some or all of the time that the cattle spent

at home overnight.

Figure 3: Protein supplementation at a household level.

4.2 Farmer mobilisation

Efforts are being made to strengthen the Livestock Association by mobilising livestock owners around activities

- for example, a sale that was facilitated in April 2015. Lima, with support from Conservation South Africa in

the form of equipment and advice, facilitated interactions between a local buyer and livestock owners. A

decision was taken not to hold an auction as this arrangement can be more easily continued by the livestock

association in the longer-term, while auctions require external players to manage risk and finance. The herder

rangers assisted by listing all cattle for sale (all had to be branded correctly). Of 64 animals offered for sale, a

total of 26 were sold (41%). Other cattle were not sold because the owners wanted higher prices than the

buyer was offering. All prices offered were based on the liveweight of the animal (determined with an

electronic scale) and a standard pricing structure.

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Figure 4: Livestock sale at Mafube.

4.3 Clearing of alien invasive plants

Much of the rangeland in Mafube is thickly infested with black and silver wattle. These alien invasive plants

are being cleared through the same DEA-funded LUI project. Selection of areas to be cleared considers a

number of priorities for the local communities, such as i) removing wattle from areas where safety is a concern,

ii) removing wattle from riparian areas and iii) removing wattle that is encroaching into grazing land – with

particular focus on the designated demarcated grazing camps. After removal of dense stands of wattle,

efforts are made to facilitate vegetative cover in order to reduce the impacts of heavy rainfall events.

Figure 5: Encroached grazing area being cleared of wattle.

4.4 Stabilisation of cattle paths

Routine movement of cattle across the communal landscape – with the resultant formation of cattle paths -

is common. Cattle paths, however, often become conduits for surface run-off, resulting in erosion and soil loss.

A visit to another DEA-funded in Okhombe, KwaZulu-Natal, taught the team new ideas about how to slow

down water flow and increase infiltration using dry stone walls. This practice has been implemented at

Mafube to address some of the areas most affected by soil erosion and incision of gullies.

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Figure 6: Stabilising cattle paths with dry stone packs

4.5 Protecting fodder reserves from fire

An issue raised by livestock owners during informal discussions around the RR system was the concern that the

fodder reserve may be burnt out during winter. This highlighted the need to address the issue of uncontrolled,

out-of-season burns. Efforts were made to train and equip the Herder-Ranger team so that they could actively

participate in fire break burning with support from the Working on Fire (WoF) team at Ongeluksnek and the

local Municipality’s fire fighter team. During the recent season, a more comprehensive installation of fire

breaks was achieved with support from a WoF team recently established at Matatiele. The herder-rangers

were assisted with implementing tracers using herbicide; and they then assisted the WoF team to burn the

tracers. This intervention is seen as an effective way not only to build the capacity of the local community but

also to facilitate the development of effective linkages between different stakeholder groups.

Figure 7: Burning tracers for fire-breaks.

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5. Other factors implementing on grazing management practises

The social, institutional and economic context also needs to be considered when co-developing grazing

management systems with local communities. Some such factors are discussed here.

5.1 Stock theft

Grazing management in Mafube is affected by the challenge of stock theft, which discourages people from

making use of more remote grazing areas and forces people to kraal their animals at night. The South African

Police Services has an anti-stock theft unit based in the area and the community has mobilised itself to react

to cases of theft, but the situation is still not under control and impacts on any efforts to introduce an improved

grazing management system. The local community also highlighted that part of the problem is that within

their area there are many access points into Lesotho which makes it more difficult to effectively police.

5.2 Variable grazing intensity

With the implementation of the RR system, it has become clear that it is in fact still necessary to find ways to

lighten the grazing intensity of areas close to settlements and make more use of remoter grazing areas. This is

characteristic of communal areas, especially where livestock are brought home each night.

5.3 Fire management

Literature shows that sourveld grasslands should only be burnt every 3 years – however in communal

landscapes they are burnt annually. Furthermore, out-of-season burns not only remove the fodder reserve,

but also impact on veld condition, reducing basal cover and leaving the soil surface more prone to erosion.

Controlling fire will need a change in people’s behaviour as people do not always understand the negative

impacts of annual burning. Furthermore, for people who do not generally invest in supplements during winter,

burning may seem a useful tool to generate a flush of nutritious grass for their livestock. Fire management

requires buy-in of the entire community as it is often not livestock owners who actually set the fires.

Figure 8: Poor basal cover possibly due to a history of annual burns (left ) and evidence of a mid-summer burn of a camp rested the

previous season (right).

5.4 Risk management

Given the high risk of stock theft in the area, how does one manage risk so that people can justify any

investment in their livestock? Community members cite many stories of owners losing their whole herds from

the kraals at their homesteads. Without minimising risk, it will not be wise for owners to spend money on and

supplements

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5.5 Evidence of impact

Figure 9: How do we show that this accumulation of biomass is due to the full season’s rest the previous growing season?

The introduction of a grazing management system has to show short-term evidence of benefits for livestock

owners if they are going to continue with implementation. This is even more so the case if implementation

requires that livestock owners pay Herder-Rangers to keep animals out of rested camps. Traditional veld

condition assessments which track changes in basal cover and species composition are unlikely to show

dramatic effects as these changes take place over long periods. Measures that reflect improved grass vigour

as a result of resting are more likely to be convincing. Current plans are to use exclosure cages to demonstrate

the effects on plant vigour experienced during the season following rest. It is anticipated that when compared

with unrested veld, the increased biomass production will provide useful evidence of impact. This monitoring

should be undertaken in a participatory manner where local community members maintain and monitor the

cages.

6. The complications of designing a RR system

6.1 The effect of livestock type

It is suggested by Kirkman (2002a) that the intervals at which a piece of grassland should be rested (i.e. once

in 3 years or once in 4 years) is determined by the combinations of livestock being grazed. For example, where

the ratio of sheep:cattle is high, a rest every three years is recommended. This is because sheep graze lower

to the ground and are more selective and therefore have a greater impact on the vigour of preferred species

than do cattle (Kirkman & Moore, 1995b). It should be noted that grazing with sheep alone generally leads to

an increase in unpalatable species (e.g. Aristida recta) due to their selective grazing habits and introduction

of a rest does not effectively ameliorate the impacts of grazing (Kirkman 2002b).

In order to design an appropriate system it is important to understand the composition of the livestock herd

and the possible separation of livestock types.

6.2 Concerns that resting may favour the unpalatable species

There has been concern raised that a season’s rest may give unpalatable grasses even more opportunity to

colonise the grass sward. A preliminary investigation showed however that in areas that are open to grazing,

Aristida tufts were often the only grasses with inflorescences and thus they would be likely to have some

competition from palatable grasses that have an opportunity to flower when rested. While not conclusive, it

would seem that the rotational rest does not give it a greater advantage.

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Figure 10 A.junciformis was the dominant grass flowering vigorously in the open camp (left) and a vigorously flowering A. junciformis tuft

in an open camp (right).

7. Conclusion

This paper provides a summary of the reasons why a rotational resting system was introduced at Mafube, the

practicalities of implementing it effectively and some of the complications that have emerged during

implementation.

8. References

Barnes D.L. 1989. Reaction of three veld grasses to different schedules of grazing and resting. 2. Residual

effects on vigour. South African Journal of Plant and Soil 6:8-13.

Du Toit P.C.V. 2002. Yearlong rest in grazing management systems. National Department of Agriculture.

Grootfontein Agricultural Development Institute.

http://gadi.agric.za/articles/duToit_PCV/pierredutoit-vol4-2002-rest.php

(Downloaded 10/07/2015)

Du Plessis I. 2005. Key aspects of managing extensive beef production systems in arid regions of southern

Africa. SA-ANIM SCI vol 6: http://www.sasas.co.za/Popular/Popular.html 68

Howery L.D., Sprinkle J.E. and Bowns J.E. 2000. A Summary of Livestock Grazing Systems Used on Rangelands

in the Western United States and Canada. The University of Arizona Cooperative Extension.

http://extension.arizona.edu/sites/extension.arizona.edu/files/pubs/az1184.pdf

(Downloaded 10/07/2015)

Kirkman K.P. and Moore A. 1995a. Research note: Quantification of the effects of defoliation on grass vigour,

African Journal of Range & Forage Science, 12:2, 89-91

Kirkman K.P. and Moore A. 1995b. Perspective: Towards improved grazing management recommendations

for sourveld, African Journal of Range & Forage Science, 12:3, 135-144

Kirkman K.P. 2002a. The influence of various types and frequencies of rest on the production and condition of

sourveld grazed by sheep or cattle. 1. Proportional species composition. African Journal of Range & Forage

Science 2002, 19: 55–62

Kirkman K.P. 2002b. The influence of various types and frequencies of rest on the production and condition of

sourveld grazed by sheep or cattle. 2. Vigour. African Journal of Range & Forage Science 2002, 19: 93–105

Raats J.G. Undated. Feeding behaviour of free range goats. Department of Livestock and Pasture Science,

University of Fort Hare.

http://www.ais.up.ac.za/vet/goat/documents/sec31.pdf (Downloaded 10/07/15)

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Tainton NM 1981. The effect of defoliation on plant communities - some general considerations. In: Tainton

NM (ed.). Veld and pasture management in South Africa. Shuter & Shooter, Pietermaritzburg, pp. 263-274.

(Cited by Kirkman & Moore 1995a)

Wang G., Sedivec K., Nyren P. and Nyren A. 2007. 2007. The Effects of Grazing Management on Plant

Community Composition and Structure, Soil Hydrology, and Root Morphology and Decomposition in the

Missouri Coteau Region. Central Grassland Research Extension Center. North Dakota State University.

http://www.ag.ndsu.edu/archive/streeter/2007report/root_morphology.htm

(Downloaded 10/07/2015).