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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF GEOMATICS AND GEOSCIENCES

Volume 3, No 1, 2012

© Copyright by the authors - Licensee IPA- Under Creative Commons license 3.0

Research article ISSN 0976 – 4380

Submitted on May 2012 published on July 2012 111

Landform characterizations and water resource management –A case

study of Mohand in the foothills of Siwaliks Arti Singh

1, Savindra Singh

2

1- Society for Application research and Consultancy, New Delhi, India

2- Department of Geography, University of Allahabad (U.P)

[email protected]

ABSTRACT

The present study presents an understanding of landforms and its characteristics for water

resource management in the Foothills of siwaliks, study area forming a mountain ecosystem

of the lesser Himalayas represents a part of the Siwaliks extending between 30° 19’ N and

77° 35’ E from the Badshahibagh Rao and 30° 11’ N and 77° 55’ E the Mohand Rao rivers.

The study focuses on various landforms found in the study area and its relation with the water

resource. The fluvial landforms were the main source of potable water for the local

population, which has dried up at the upper levels. Thus, the study of classification of water

resource potential areas in the Siwaliks is of paramount significance. Water table information

is inferred from the various thematic layer like geomorphology, drainage patterns, vegetation

characteristics, land use patterns, linear and curvilinear features (geological importance), and

image tones and textures. The total areas covered for study was 970.47 km2. The piedmont

zone is found most suitable for the water resource management which covers an area of

544.74 km2, the lower piedmont covers an area of 167.67 km

2 and found most suitable with

almost flat on gentle sloping land with less drainage density, intensive agricultural and

composed of alluvial fan materials like gravels, sand, clay, silt, pebbles etc. as underlying

lithology acting as discharge zone with shallow to moderate water table. In piedmont regions,

vegetation characteristics indicate various groundwater depth and quality which can be

further used for the decision makers and policy issues.

Keywords: Siwaliks, Water Resource, Remote Sensing, Policy issues.

1. Introduction

The objectives of this study are to understand the characteristics of the landforms of the

siwaliks in the foot-hills (Badshahibagh rao river to Mohand rao river), in order to establish

the landform history and to clarify the crustal movements of the area and emergence of

landform. The southernmost zone of the outer Himalaya consists of about 9500m thick piles

of tertiary sedimentary rocks (conglomerate, sandstone, mudstone, phyllites, shale, limestone

ranging in age from paleocene to lower pleistocene (Thakur, 1998). The breakdown of the

rising central Himalaya has resulted in deposition of the siwalik group in the form of

Molasses deposits, overlain by late Pleistocene doon gravels (Parkash et. al, 1980).

Landforms are Critical in the identification of the areas potential slope instability (Howes

1987; Niemann and Howes 1992). Now, the rate of exploitation of groundwater for different

purposes like irrigation, drinking and industrial development has been accelerated while the

rate of recharge is decreasing due deforestation, urbanization, industrialization etc. and hence

the subsurface environment is deteriorating day by day. ‘The changes of subsurface

environment mostly include changes in subsurface materials e.g. expansion or contraction,

loosening or compaction, fracturing and displacement, upward or downward movement,

Landform characterizations and water resource management –A case study of Mohand in the foothills of

Siwaliks

Arti Singh, Savindra Singh

International Journal of Geomatics and Geosciences

Volume 3 Issue 1, 2012 112

decrease or increase of stresses, deformation of subsurface materials etc., (Singh Savindra,

1997). So, it is necessary to study the groundwater potential of a region because this is very

precious resource and its depletion may cause water scarcity. Some other notable workers

who have studied geomorphic features of the foothill zones of Himalaya are Baber 1972,

Nakata 1972, Mukerjee 1976.They identified fluvial landforms and associated the landform

either with tectonic movements or climatic fluctuations. The deforestation of the Himalayas,

mainly the Siwaliks, has resulted in the lowering of groundwater table and drying of water

springs at different levels and hence it becomes imperative to identify groundwater resource

in the foot hills of the Siwaliks.

Landform Characteristics of the study area speaks too much about the morphogenesis means

development of different fluvial landform due to tectonic activity in the region. These

morphogenesis features witness the past history of landform development in the region .A

number of terraces along the river valleys like the Mohand Rao, the Khanjnaur Rao, the

Shanjatianpur Rao, the Khaironwala Rao, the Kaluwala Rao, the Khaironwala Rao the

Bhurawala Rao, the Mascara Rao, the Sahansara Rao, the Shahkumbhari Rao, the

Khaironwala Rao, the Raipur Rao, the Gair Rao, the Chapri Rao, the Gejra Rao, the

Khaironwala Rao, the Bhurawala Rao, the Barkala Rao, the Sarbot Rao, the Rangli Rao, the

Kirkiti Rao,the Andheri Rao and the Yamuna represents the earlier surfaces of the valley.

2. Locating the study area

The study area forming a mountain ecosystem of the lower Himalayas represents a part of the

Siwaliks extending from NE to SW between the Badshahibagh Rao and the Mohand Rao

Rivers (Flanked by Yamuna in west part of the study area and on the other side Ganga River).

Figure 1: Location of the Study area (Mohand rao in the foothills of Siwaliks)


Siwaliks




The region bordered by the Yamuna river in the west and the Mohand and the Barkala Rao

rivers in the east and is confined between two metalled roads e.g. (i) Saharanpur - Chakrata

and (ii) Saharanpur, Dehradun which cut the Siwaliks precisely at Badshahibag, (30° 19’ N

and 77° 35’ E), Timili (30° 22’ N and 77° 59’ E) in the north-west and Mohand (30° 11’ N

and 77° 55’ E), Asarohi (30° 15’ N and 77° 59’ E) in the north-east. The Mohand rao area is

influenced by the climatic conditions of Doon valley because of its proximity. The Mohand

falls under the sub-tropical to temperate climate due to variations in the topographic

elevations. The meteorological data (from the two stations operating in the region, FRI and

CSWCRTI) of the last 75 years showed that the average maximum temperature for the Doon

valley was 27.65◦C and the average minimum temperature was 13.8◦C, with average

maximum in June (40.00◦C) and average minimum in the month of January (1.80◦C). The

area receives an average annual rainfall of 2025.43 mm. The region receives most of the

annual rainfall during June to September, the maximum rainfall occurring in July and August.

The soil moisture is usually udic with a thermic to a hyperthermic soil temperature regime

according to the Soil Survey Staff (1998).

2. Materials and method

The analytical method has been followed in the present study wherein a multiple hypotheses

have been deduced in the beginning for testing after detailed discussion and analysis on the

basis of primary and secondary data from different sources. Before embarking on field,

literature was extensively reviewed. The following steps have been followed.

2.1 Data collection

The data that served as medium for the study was in the form of Survey of India Toposheets.

The Survey of India toposheets were. 53 F/11, 53 F/12, 53 F/15, 53 F/16 on scale 1:50,000

was used for the base map preparation, Drainage map preparation and Contour digitization

for preparation of Digital Elevation Mode and for the field study Aerial Photographs were

used .Total Aerial Photographs used were 72 in number. The strip numbers were 25(photos

30-47),26 (Photos 26-43),29(Photos 20-37),30 (Photos 26-43). Landsat Thematic Mapper

data was also used for other layer enhancement techniques and thematic mapping. During the

first phase, i.e. the pre-field phase a detailed study of the aerial photographs together with the

Survey of India, toposheets were carried out. The toposheets were studied for the derivation

of information related to geomorphological and cultural details, and a cultural-cum base map

was prepared. The photographs were studied stereoscopically, pair by pair for photo-

geological and photo- morphological details. Lithological units, structure, bedding traces,

lineaments, faults etc. were identified, and the details were transferred on to Mylar sheets.

The details were then mosaic and compiled to form a semi controlled pre-field map. Areas of

geological interest were demarcated and field traverses were selected accordingly.

2.2 Field investigation

The second phase of the study included data acquisition from field. The various traverses

selected, were taken and the pre-field data were modified, corrected and incorporated. The

traverses were chosen along wide, accessible rivers and nearly as far as possible all the major

rivers were covered. In almost all the cases these were along the dip direction, which

facilitated covering most of the units in a single traverse. Any changes and modifications

encountered or deviations from the pre-field mapped data were incorporated. The scale of the

aerial photographs being 1:25,000 was of a great help in this work.


Siwaliks




2.3. Data analysis

The third and the final phase of the study involved post field interpretation of the compiled

data and a re-look into the entire data gathered and satellite imageries were also included

during this phase of the study. The data interpretation and analysis were performed by using

the software’s of Remote Sensing and GIS mainly ARCGIS 2010, ERDAS 9.1 and Arc View.

4. Results

A conceptual model for Landform characteristics and water resource management in the

foothills of Siwaliks is given in Figure 2. In this model Landforms are schematically arranged

and further were classified based on their water recharge capacity.

Figure 2: Conceptual Diagram of the Landforms and their role for water Management in the

study area

4.1 Fluvial landforms

The landform characteristics of the study area are closely associated with groundwater

condition of that region; it is evident from the depositional materials in the study area. The

Barkala alluvial fan is approximately covering an area of 36 km2

(Calculated from satellite

image in ARCGIS environment and validated from field).It acts as a sudden entrance zone

for the water as well as the debris material flowing along the streams during the monsoon.

The debris collection is high in heavy rains due to gully erosion in major rivers. Usually,

buried pediment sections of foot-hills under thick cover of detritus provide ideal conditions

for the existence of aquifers and rich reserve of groundwater. Fluvial landforms includes the

consideration of fluvial geomorphic surfaces, alluvial fans, flood plains; river terraces,

piedmonts, denudational hills, denudo-structure hills, drainage slope, hydro-morphological

characteristics etc which are the prominent features for the water resource management in the

study area, because major water resource management capacities can be developed along the

fluvial landforms and other associated features. The majority part of the study area comes

under piedmont zone which is a very good recharge zone when water flows through the lower

part of the structural hills and enters in the flat surface.


Siwaliks




Figure 3: The profile and field picture of Barkala Rao alluvial fan (the main geomorphic

feature) showing the fluvial landforms of the river while entering into piedmont Zone.

4.2 Topographical genesis

The topographic surface principally consist of alluvial deposits and are formed as alluvial

fans (fluvial geomorphic features), river terraces, and sand bars in the foothills of the

Himalayas. There are two types of fluvial landform which was identified in the study area

they are either depositional or erosional. The lateral erosion of the streams is more prominent

than the deposition in the area except at the place where the rivers come down directly from

the steep slopes of the lower Himalayas and at the confluence of the branch stream from

upper siwalik boulder conglomerate zone. In this way, mode of development of the fluvial the

contrary, the Foot-hills are mainly the place of fluvial deposition. This is especially true

where the mountain front forms distinct boundary of elevation by the tectonically originated

steep slopes, as in the Himalayan Foot-hill zone. Deposition at the foot-hill are distressed by

unwrap movements raising old depositional surfaces to the higher elevation. In the area

where depositional and erosional fluvial surface co-exist forming compound topography,

special attention must be paid in distinguishing these surfaces.

Figure 4: The topographic elevation along the FFT the major river entering into piedmont

Zone

Down-cutting of the main rivers like the Mohand Rao, the Chapri Rao, the Barkala Rao and

the Shahkumbhari Rao kept pace with the uplift of the ranges and formed antecedent river

courses through the highest ranges in many places in the hilly terrain. The main thrust planes

and the subordinate structural lines related to the main thrusts, have also experienced renewed

movements deforming the then constructed landform surfaces.


Siwaliks




Name of the

Geomorphological Unit

Area

covered

km2

Denudo structural Hill and

Denudational hills

298.14

Rivers 95.44

Barren Land 32.25

Upper Piedmont 177.04

Middle Piedmont 200.03

Lower Piedmont 167.67

Figuer 5: Pie-chart showing the major geomorphological units in the Study area( Table 1:

Shows the areas covered by each geomorphological units calculated from satellite data in

ARCGIS environment)

4.3 Piedmont geomorphology

The Piedmont type foothills are narrow and steep, and consist of the northward dipping

Siwaliks, which usually lack their upper formations, or in some places disappears completely.

The rivers, which dissect the steep slopes of the higher ranges and mountain fronts, tend to

accumulate their loads in front of the hills forming extensive alluvial fans. Dun is a flat-

bottomed longitudinal structural valley in the Siwaliks formations, separating the Siwaliks

Hills from the Himalayan ranges. At the foot of the Siwaliks hills, development of the

geomorphic surfaces is very poor, as the main rivers like the Chillawala Rao, the Sukh Rao,

the Mohand Rao, the Lalukhala river, the Khanjnaur Rao, the Shanjahanpur Rao, the

Bhangori Rao, the Kaluwala Rao, the Khothari Rao, the Chamaria Rao, the Maskara Rao, the

Sahansara Rao, the Shahkumbhari Rao, the Khaironwala Rao, the Narwa Rao, the Nawagaon

river, the Raipur Rao, the Gair Rao, the Chapri Rao, the Gejra Rao, the Kharaundiwala Rao,

the Bhurawala Rao, the Baulal Rao, the Barkala Rao, the Sarbot Rao, the Rangli Rao, the

Kirkiti Rao,the Andheri Rao, the Basani Rao and Major River Yamuna from the mountain

ranges emerge into the plain after considerable aggradations in the siwaliks. The relief

difference is small though there is a clear boundary between the Siwalik ranges and plains.

Besides these, the continuous subsidence of the plain allows the continuous slow

sedimentation forming the younger surfaces over the older surfaces. Streams initiated on the

Siwalik slopes carry down fine deposits resulting in poor development of the distinct

geomorphic surfaces.


Siwaliks




Table 2: Major landform features and associated characteristics

Image

units

Landform Units Characteristics Groundwater

prospects

1. Lower Piedmont Almost Flat on gentle Sloping land with less

drainage density, intensive agricultural and

composed of alluvial fan materials like

gravels, sand, clay, silt, pebbles etc. as

underlying lithology. Acting as discharge

zone with shallow to moderate water table.

Very Good

2. Middle Piedmont Moderately sloping land with moderate

drainage density and agriculture land. This

unit is also composed of alluvial fan material

as underlying lithology. Lower part is

discharge zone whereas upper part of this

unit is acting as infiltration zone .Deep water

table condition is found here.

Moderate to

Good

3. Upper Piedmont Moderate to steeply sloping land .It is a fan

area with boulders cobbles and pebbles

acting as an infiltration zone. Very deep

water table condition is found here.

Poor

4. Denudational Hills Hill ranges with no pronounced structural

trends, which have steep slopes, composed

of sandstone and mudstone, which are highly

dissected .This area acts as a high runoff

zone.

Very Poor to

Nil

5. Denudo Structural

Hills

Composed of sandstone, high vegetation and

acts as high runoff zone.

Nil

Hydromorophology deals with association of geomorphological characteristics and arid

surface and subsurface water of any region. Different geomorphic units determine

groundwater potential differently. It is evident from table 2 that water resources potential

varies significantly in five major geomorphic units (e.g. lower piedmont zone, middle

piedmont zone, upper piedmont zone, denudational hill zone and denude structural hills zone).

It may be pointed out that piedmont zone slopes southward away from the foot-hills and

hence there is subsurface movement of infiltrated runoff down the slope i.e. from upper

piedmont zone through middle piedmont zone to lower piedmont zone. This is why

groundwater reserve increases down the slope of piedmont zone and it becomes more in the

lower piedmont zone. Thus, there is well- marked gradation of zone (poor) through middle

piedmont zone (moderate to good) to lower piedmont zone (very good condition). The other

two geomorphic units viz. hill zone are devoid of prospect of groundwater because these

features encourage maximum surface runoff during rainstorms and hence there is absolutely

no infiltration of rainwater because of slope factor and bare surface.

The result of the study is further expected to contribute fundamental data for water resource

management in the Mohand. Remote sensing satellites have been used to monitor such

changes. Therefore, the widespread and effective use of satellite data is waiting for a group of

inquisitive and innovative geomorphologists, to creatively solve the scientific problem and

prepare accurate database for the further geomorphological studies. It may be concluded that

the Siwaliks foothills confined to the district of Saharanpur of Uttar Pradesh and some part in

Dehradun district of Uttarankhand symbolize marked progression of reliefs from north to

south. Infact, the major portion of the study area is characterized by piedmont zone, which


Siwaliks




has been dissected by numerous tributaries river streams of the Yamuna and the Ganga. The

landform mosaics of the region are comprised of alluvial fans and cones, narrow belts of

flood plains on either side of the major streams, erosional and aggradational terraces,

Denudational residual hills, denude structural hills characterized by hogbacks, braided

channels having sand bars, riffles and pools etc. The aquifers and groundwater potential are

closely associated with geomorphic features e.g. lower piedmont zone has very good prospect

of groundwater while upper piedmont zone has poor prospect. The hill zone is devoid of

groundwater potential.

Figure 6: Major landform features and water resource prospects in the study area

5. Conclusion

The outcome established after the study conducted shows that the piedmont plane position on

pre-tertiary blocks in the principal fan of the hills and the upper fan plane is variably eroded

and dissected and has good groundwater potential. The middle and lower piedmont zone

forms a more or less homogeneous unit. The streams coming from hills enter the thick

alluvium of highly porous and permeable zone of alluvial fans. The streams in this unit lose

their surface moisture holding capacity hence arid become dry. The gentle slope of middle

piedmont indicates good water potential, while in the lower piedmont water reaches due to

recharge. The upper part of this piedmont zone acts as an infiltration zone.This infiltrated

water can be tapped in the lower parts of piedmont slopes where deep main aquifer is


Siwaliks




expected to occur in the north facing piedmont slope, the groundwater condition is quite

different. In the fan areas, the groundwater is very deep. Its depth would depend on the

thickness of the fan materials or the depth to the underlying impervious upper Siwaliks beds.

The upper Siwaliks formations consist of boulders, conglomerate and pebbles. They show

high dissection and head ward erosion by the streams. This whole unit acts as a runoff zone;

groundwater potential is poor in this unit. This unit consists of jointed sandstones, mudstones

and boulders which are resistant to fluvial erosion. Most of the litho units are very compact.

Soil profile is shallow and poorly developed. Topography is rugged. The drainage density is

medium and runoff coefficient is high. This area shows poor groundwater potential zone.

Acknowledgement

This research work was conducted for the award of Doctorate Degree from University of

Allahabad. The author wishes to thanks Dr.P.S.Roy(Dean ,IIRS) for giving her opportunity to

work in Remote Sensing Laboratory of IIRS ,Dehradun, for this research . Thanks are due

for Guruji (Savindra Sir), Papa(Late Sri D.N.Singh), Aaryyamaa and Aarna Pratap Singh (my

daughters).

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