LAND USE - GroWNC Use.pdf · Large timberland holdings have been common in the region. ... (NRCS)...

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Introduction During the last 30 years the landscape of Western North Carolina has changed from a largely rural,

agricultural area to a growing network of urban centers, suburban developments and small towns.

Individuals, families and employers continue to choose Western North Carolina for their homes,

vacation destinations and businesses.

The Great Recession—the term coined to define the current period of economic stagnation—resulted in

declining home values, foreclosures, limited consumption and unemployment. Locally, reduced

mobility and limited access to capital and credit significantly hurt the main streets of places like

Marshall, Waynesville and Asheville and stalled many residential and commercial developments.

The recession is waning and increased development pressure is certain to continue. Understanding the

land use trends that are driving development in the region will help to clarify what to expect in the

future. This section of the existing conditions report defines land use, describes historical and current

trends and summarizes land use planning issues in the region.

Definition of Land Use Land use is a term used to describe how people use a parcel or area of Land, including what types of

activities occur, the intensity of activity and the types of buildings and structures present1. Changes in

land use can have significant impacts on adjacent properties, transportation networks, other

infrastructure systems, and the environment. Land cover is a related term, which is generally used by

the natural sciences to describe the “quantity and type of surface vegetation.”2 Land use and land cover

are interrelated. For instance, when land transitions from an agricultural land use to a commercial land

use, land cover will change from cleared land, used for pasture or row crops, to developed land, with

associated reductions in vegetation and additions of impervious surface in the form of parking lots and

rooftops. For the purposes of this report the term land use will generally be used to describe the state of

the land and the types and intensities of activities which occur on it. Occasionally, when appropriate,

the term land cover will be used, for example when referring to satellite derived land cover data.

Historical Land Use in the GroWNC Study Area Over the years, land use has changed dramatically in Western North Carolina. The GroWNC Study area

which consists of Buncombe, Haywood, Henderson, Madison and Transylvania counties, has had a long

history of human settlement and resource extraction. Originally Native Americans, most notably, the

Mississipian culture and later, the Cherokee Indians, settled the valleys and mountains of the area.

1 Changes in Land Use and Land Cover: A Global Perspective, Meyer, William & Turner, B.L., 1994, p. 5

2 Same as previous citation

LAND USE

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Villages were small and surrounded by fields where maize, beans and squash was grown. Groves of

“semi-domesticated” fruit trees were also maintained3. The pre-European mountain landscape was

dominated by forest cover, however trees were regularly felled for the construction of buildings and

palisades4. There is also significant evidence that Native Americans used prescribed fire to maintain

clearings and canebrakes and to enrich agricultural soils5.

The first European to visit the region was Hernando De Soto, who, with a small contingent of soldiers,

arrived via the Swannanoa Gap in 15406. Contact with the Spanish and English resulted in change to the

Cherokee culture and the mountain landscape. To fuel the fur trade, buffalo and elk were hunted to

localized extinction. Deer, bear and beaver were also greatly reduced. Changes to natural systems

mirrored changes in the populations of native grazers. The introduction of cattle resulted in the

destruction of the vast “canebrakes” of the valley bottoms in the region7.

The first permanent settlers of European descent arrived during the late 17th century and early 18th

century in more remote areas8. Trappers and traders came first, giving way to cattlemen, subsistence

farms and merchants followed9.

Historically the river valleys adjacent to the French Broad, Mills, Little, and Davidson rivers experienced

the most agricultural development10. Farms were small. The Twelfth Census estimated the average farm

size in Transylvania County to be 112 acres11. Early crops included tobacco, corn, wheat, rye, grass,

potatoes, cattle, hogs, chicken, eggs, apples12. Vegetables were grown for market and home use. As

more settlers arrived, homesteads stretched further up marginal land into “hollers”, streamside flats

between mountain ridges13.

Subsistence farming was augmented by timber harvesting beginning in earnest during the late 19th

century. Large timberland holdings have been common in the region. The Vanderbilt estate once

included 30,000 acres of timberland in the western part of Henderson County14. Mr. G.W. Vanderbilt

also owned 64,345 acres in northern and northwestern parts of Transylvania County. Most of

3 Where There Are Mountains: An Environmental History of the Southern Appalachians. Davis, Donald, 2000, p. 13

4 Same as previous citation, p. 30




8“ The Southern Appalachians: A History of the Landscape.” Yarnell, Susan. United States Department of

Agriculture. Forest Service, 1998 / Soil Survey of Madison County, North Carolina. U.S. Department of Agriculture. 2008, p. 14 9 North Carolina: People and Environments, Gade, Rex, and Young, 2002, p. 528

10 Soil Survey of Transylvania County, North Carolina. U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1906, p. 300 / Soil Survey of

Henderson County, North Carolina. U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1907, p. 229-230 11

Soil Survey of Transylvania County, North Carolina. U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1906, p. 287 12

Soil Survey of Henderson County, North Carolina. U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1907, p. 230-231 / North Carolina: People and Environments, Gade, Rex, and Young, 2002, p. 528 13

North Carolina: People and Environments, Gade, Rex, and Young, 2002, p. 528 14

Soil Survey of Henderson County, North Carolina. U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1907, p. 231

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Vanderbilt’s estate is now part of Pisgah National Forest. The Laurel River Logging Company owned

significant portions of land in Madison County15. Timber harvesting was an important industry in the

region and led to the development of modern forestry techniques. Oak, chestnut, poplar, hemlock were

harvested16. The legacy of forestry in the region is marked today by the Cradle of Forestry site, a 6,500

acre historic site located in Pisgah National Forest north of Brevard. Almost all forests, except those on

the steepest and most remote ridges were logged at one time. The reduction in forest cover and the

chestnut blight caused a decline in the lumber industry17.

Waterfalls used to be seen as opportunities to develop water powered grist mills18. Today, numerous

mills still stand on the banks of rivers and streams in Western North Carolina. In the present day, the

waterfalls draw tourists and contribute to Transylvania County being known as the “Land of Waterfalls.”

Tourism has always played a role in the mountain economy. The study area has always been a place of

summer resorts19. Hot Springs has been a tourist destination since the 1800s20. During the early 1900s

the Toxaway Company owned 14,000 acres in the southwest part of Transylvania County. Lake

Toxaway, the first manmade lake in the Appalachian Mountains, was built and the area was home to a

resort area during the turn of the twentieth century. In the Asheville area, farmers used to plant

vegetables to sell to summer tourists. In the 1906 Soil Survey of Translyvania County it was noted that

“within the last few years a few northern people have bought homes here on account of the cheapness

of land and the healthfulness of this mountain section21.”

Railroads were first built in region during the late 19th century. Lands along the railroads developed into

towns and centers of commerce. Waynesville, Clyde, Canton, Asheville, Black Mountain, Marshall,

Hendersonville, and Brevard benefitted from their proximity to rail lines and later highways.

Population expansion in the study area was profound. When the City of Asheville was incorporated in

1798 it was a sleepy mountain hamlet of a couple of hundred residents, now is a city of over 83,000

people boasting a vibrant downtown with well preserved Art Deco and Victorian architecture22.

Hendersonville had a population of 2,500 people and Henderson County was home to 15,000 people in

190723. The North Carolina Office of State Budget and Management (OSBM) estimated the April 2010

population of Hendersonville to be 13,137 and Henderson County to be 106,740. Brevard had a

population of 800 and Transylvania County had a population of 8,000 in 190624. According to the OSBM

the 2010 population of Brevard was 7,609 and Transylvania County 33,090. Brevard, Hendersonville and

15

Soil Survey of Madison County, North Carolina. U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2008, p. 2 16



Soil Survey of Henderson County, North Carolina. U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1907, p. 229 19

Same as previous citation 20



North Carolina Office of State Budget and Management (OSBM) / North Carolina: People and

Environments, Gade, Rex, and Young, 2002, p. 528 23


Soil Survey of Transylvania County, North Carolina. U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1906, p. 283

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Asheville are now centers of commerce for the region and are encircled by growing suburban

communities.

In 1907 rough mountain lands would sell for $5 or $6 an acre and agricultural land from $10-25/acre.

Around Hendersonville prices ranged from $20-75 per acre25. In Henderson County today, according to

tax parcel records, the average value per acre for residential parcels between 1 and 2 acres is

approximately $55,000.

Recent Land Use Trends

Throughout the United States land use change is occurring at an astonishing rate. The Natural

Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) estimates that an average of 1.6 million acres of farm and forest

land is lost to development each year26. Between 1982 and 2007 it is estimated that there has been a 56

% increase in developed land. It is also estimated that 14 million acres of prime farmland were lost to

development between 1982 and 2007.

The story of recent land use change in the GroWNC study area is a complicated one. Forests are still the

dominate land cover in the region, but urban and suburban development has had a significant impact on

the landscape. In some cases land use has intensified, forest once converted to row crops or pasture

has been converted to commercial centers or single family homes. In other areas once cleared and

planted lands have reverted to forest.

Overall, within the GroWNC study area the pace of land conversion from agricultural or forest land to

developed land has exceeded national trends. Between 1976 and 2006 developed land has increased by

490%, from 16,000 acres to 82,000 acres. Although development has slowed, due to the recession, the

slowdown comes on the heels of a period of unprecedented increases in population, land conversion

rates and development. The Renaissance Computing Institute at UNC Charlotte (RENCI) completed a

mapping and population forecast study illustrating historical and future land consumption patterns in

Western North Carolina prior to the economic downturn. The following table summarizes the rate of

development and the increasing consumption of land per person over time for the five GroWNC

counties.

25


Natural Resources Inventory 2007, Natural Resources Conservation Service, p. 7.

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Table 1: Historical and Forecasted Development 1976-200627

% INCREASE IN DEVELOPMENT

FORECASTED % INCREASE IN

DEVELOPMENT HUMAN FOOTPRINT

(ACRES/PERSON)

County 1976 - 2006 2006 - 2030 1976 2006 2030

Buncombe 350% 62% .06 .18 .23

Haywood 467% 36% .07 .30 .37

Henderson 730% 61% .07 .31 .35

Madison 1130% 109% .03 .27 .45

Transylvania 600% 40% .04 .22 .26

As illustrated, number of developed acres in Western North Carolina grew at alarming rates from 1976

to 2006. This growth is expected to continue, spurred by increases in population and second home

development. If growth trends hold steady, the “human footprint,” or acres of developed land per

person, will continue to increase.

Suburban growth, an influx in retirees and summer homes, as well as environmental constraints have

influenced the economy, land use and the built environment in the GroWNC study area. The majority of

developed areas are concentrated around major urban areas, near small towns and along major

transportation corridors (I-40, US-25, I-26, US-276). However, contrary to typical urban areas,

development in the region is not always located near existing municipalities and services. There are

areas of significant resort and second home development in rural areas, away from towns and

infrastructure. Some ex-urban resort areas include the Wolf Ridge Ski Resort in Northeastern Madison

County, the Lake Toxaway area and the Connestee Falls development in Southern Transylvania County.

Although the peak of agriculture in the Southern Appalachians occurred in the early to mid 1900s,

agriculture and forestry still contribute significantly to the economy of the region28. Working

agricultural lands (Present Use Value (PUV) parcels) make up 21% of the study area (324,368 acres).

Major products include burley tobacco, hay, sheep, and beef cattle, prevalent specialty crops are

vegetables, fruits, berries, apples and trout. Christmas trees are also grown on elevations above 3,000

feet. The region has seen a renewed interest in local food and produce which has lead to an increase in

organic farming and farmers markets29.

Interestingly, in tandem with increasing development and changes in the amount of land used for

agriculture, a large amount of land has been permanently protected during the last 100 years. Currently

27

Mapping historical development patterns and forecasting urban growth in Western North Carolina: 1976- 2030, Renaissance Computing Institute at UNC Charlotte (RENCI), 2010. 28


Same as previous citation

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conservation lands comprise 28% (427,347 acres) of the 5 county GroWNC study area. Notable

assemblages of land include the Great Smoky Mountains National Park, Pisgah National Forest, Shining

Rock Wilderness, DuPont State Forest and Gorges State Park. Pisgah National Forest, with parts located

in all of the study area counties, was established in 1916 and one of the first purchases authorized under

the Weeks Act of 1911. The Great Smoky Mountains National Park was created in 1926. DuPont State

Forest was purchased from the DuPont Corporation in 1996. Other protected areas have been acquired

by land trusts including the Carolina Mountain Land Conservancy and the Southern Appalachian

Highlands Conservancy.

Current Land Use Inventory For the GroWNC study a land use inventory was produced in conjunction with the Land-of-Sky Regional

Council. The inventory was derived by classifying tax assessment data and making corrections based on

additional datasets. The following table describes the land use classifications used.

Table 2: Land Use Classifications

LU Code

Description Explanation

COM COMMERCIAL Retail, service and office uses, including convenience stores, gas stations, grocery stores, shopping centers, malls, offices, banks, hotels

IND INDUSTRIAL Light and heavy industrial uses, including manufacturing plants, processing facilities, warehouses, distribution centers

INST CIVIC, CAMPUS, AND SPECIAL

Civic and educations uses, including schools, universities, government buildings, non-profit organizations and other entities

FARM FARM

Parcels that had a Land-of-Sky land use code of FARM or receive a Present Use Value tax break and otherwise classified as VACANT or COM. These parcels do not have residential dwellings.

HS HOMESTEAD Large parcels (greater than 25 acres), with a residential density of less than 0.04 units per acre. May include working agricultural lands.

RR RURAL RESIDENTIAL Residential parcels with a dwelling unit density of 0.04-0.1 dwelling units per acre. (1DU PER 10-25 ACRES)

VL VERY LOW Residential parcels with a dwelling unit density of 0.1-0.25 dwelling units per acre (1DU PER 4-10 ACRES)

L LOW Residential parcels with a dwelling unit density of 0.25-0.5 dwelling units per acre (1DU PER 2-4 ACRES)

ML MEDIUM LOW Residential parcels with a dwelling unit density of 0.5-1 dwelling units per acre

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M MEDIUM Residential parcels with a dwelling unit density of 1-2 dwelling units per acre

MH MEDIUM HIGH Residential parcels with a dwelling unit density of 2-5 dwelling units per acre

H HIGH Residential parcels with a dwelling unit density of 5-10 dwelling units per acre

VH VERY HIGH Residential parcels with a dwelling unit density greater than 10 dwelling units per acre

MU MIXED USE Parcels that could be considered a mix of uses, including residential and non-residential uses (i.e. commercial)

PARK PARK Protected land including federal, state, and locally owned park land and land in conservation easements

ROW ROAD/ROW/UTILITY Right of way for roads or utilities

VACANT

VACANT Vacant land derived from Land-of-Sky land use dataset

WATER WATER Surface water

The following table shows the number of parcels and the amount of land area that is in each of the land

use categories.

Table 3: GroWNC Region Land Use Inventory

LU Code Description Parcels Acres % of Study Area

COM Commercial 6,667 20,364 1.36%

IND Industrial 1,189 8,850 0.59%

INST Institutional 3,319 31,706 2.12%

FARM Farm 6,206 191,515 12.83%

HS Homestead 6,297 214,119 14.34%

RR Rural Residential 4,939 88,139 5.90%

VL Very Low 9,469 68,902 4.61%

L Low 13,937 43,716 2.93%

ML Medium Low 27,600 45,402 3.04%

M Medium 43,791 34,777 2.33%

MH Medium High 51,263 20,623 1.38%

H High 14,611 3,968 0.27%

VH Very High 7,617 1,042 0.07%

MU Mixed Use 797 518 0.03%

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PARK Park 4,485 433,821 29.06%

ROW Road/Utility ROW 936 4,348 0.29%

VACANT Vacant 78,666 280,150 18.76%

WATER Water 65 1,062 0.07%

Total 281,854 1,493,022 100%

The following chart shows the distribution of land uses in the GroWNC region.

Figure 1: Current Land Use in the GroWNC Region

By looking at the quantity of acreage in each land use and the location of these land uses, it is possible

to better understand the land use trends in the region. Some of these trends are the result of recent

phenomenon; others are legacies of historical development patterns. As previously noted, a significant

portion of the 5 county GroWNC region is classified as parkland. This protected land includes over

433,000 acres in the study area.

Commercial, 1.36% Industrial, 0.59% Institutional, 2.12%

Farm, 12.83%

Homestead, 14.34%

Rural Residential,

5.90%

Very Low, 4.61%

Low, 2.93%

Medium Low, 3.04%

Medium, 2.33%

Medium High, 1.38% High , 0.27%

Very High, 0.07%

Mixed Use, 0.03%

Park, 29.06%

Road/Utility ROW, 0.29%

Vacant, 18.76%

Water, 0.07% Commercial

Industrial

Institutional

Farm

Homestead

Rural Residential

Very Low

Low

Medium Low

Medium

Medium High

High

Very High

Mixed Use

Park

Road/Utility ROW

Vacant

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Farms and “Homesteads” added together make up over 27% of the study area (note that parcels

classified as Farms include only working farms without residential units). Some residential parcels could

be considered working lands due to the fact that they may receive a Present Use Value (PUV)

assessment. As mentioned in the Natural Resources section of this report, in North Carolina working

agricultural and forestry lands are given a special tax designation called “Present Use Valuation” (PUV)

which changes the way tax assessment is done in order to mitigate potential impact of a market value of

a tract of land on valuation. An inventory of these lands was provided by Land-of-Sky. This inventory is

identical to the dataset used for the Linking Lands project. In total PUV parcels cover 324,368 acres in

the study area. Working lands covered by agricultural conservation easements will be included with

estimates of agricultural lands, but for the purposes of the land use inventory, farms with residential

units are classified according to residential density.

Agricultural areas occur on the fringes of more urbanized areas. Investigation of aerial photography and

the National Land Cover Database (NLCD) shows that there is significant variation of land cover within

agricultural parcels. Following traditional practices, the majority of cultivated land and pasture land on

mountain farms is located on land with reasonable grades near streams and rivers. The steeper slopes

and ridges of farms are kept forested, used for timber and in some cases pasture. Residential

development is dispersed along roads which follow the same stream courses traditionally used for

agriculture. Residential densities vary considerably with larger lots prevalent in the more remote

hinterlands and higher density residential lots located within municipal boundaries and where water and

sewer is available.

Vacant lands comprise the largest number of parcels and 18% of the land area (280,000 acres). Some of

these vacant lands may be difficult to develop based on topography or other environmental features,

but a portion will accommodate additional development in the future. The majority of residential

parcels (68%) are classified as ML, M, and MH. This indicates that the majority of residents live on a

parcel of land that is between 1/10 of an acre to 2 acres in size (with dwelling unit densities between 0.5

and 5 dwelling units per acre). Average residential density in each municipality varies. Asheville has the

highest residential densities. The downtown area exceeds 10 dwelling units per acre for residential

parcels.

Commercial and industrial areas are generally located near existing infrastructure. For instance, 97%

(6,471 out of 6,667) of commercial parcels are located within 1 mile of major roads (interstate, US, and

NC routes). There are also concentrations of commercial areas around intersections and interchanges

and in downtown areas. Close to 70% of all industrial parcels (826 of 1189) are located within 1 mile of

existing railroads. 95% of industrial parcels are located within 1 mile of major roads (interstates, US and

NC routes). Institutional uses are located in close proximity to commercial uses and in towns.

Highlights from Land Use Inventory

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Protected land comprises almost half of all land area in Transylvania and Haywood counties

Vacant land makes up a significant portion of the land area in all counties, 280,000 acres in total (18% of land area)

Homesteads (residential parcels > 25 acres) combined with farms make up over 20% of the land area in Buncombe, Haywood, Henderson and Madison counties

Madison has the lowest percentage of land used for commercial purposes, Haywood has the second lowest

Industrial and commercial uses are most prevalent in Buncombe County, which is home to 14,000 of the 28,000 acres of commercial and industrial land in the study area

Planned Land Use A variety of zoning and comprehensive plans have been compiled by local governments throughout the

study area. In some cases zoning or future land use maps seek to guide the types and intensities of

growth. In other localities comprehensive plans are less detailed and consist of goals and objectives for

future development. State and Federal agencies also influence land use planning in the region. The

North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural Resources’ Division of Water Quality places

restrictions on the types and intensity of development allowed in certain watersheds. This is done in

order to protect high quality water sources and reduce water treatment costs as well as to preserve

recreational opportunities. The U.S. Forest Service, part of the U.S. Department of Department of

Agriculture, manages the national forests in the region for recreation and timber production. All

planning efforts share an attempt to balance competing interests by allowing a variety of uses on most

lands while also identifying some environmentally sensitive lands where uses and densities should be

limited.

Issues and Opportunities The following provides a summary of the general issues common to the communities and jurisdictions

within the GroWNC region:

Balancing Limited Developable Land with Development of Environmentally Sensitive Areas - Due to

topographic constraints, much of the developed land lies within the river valleys in the region. However,

the demand for land over the last few decade has increased pressure for development in

environmentally sensitive areas, which negatively affects elements that support the region's large

tourist economy, the aesthetics of critical view sheds (when development occurs at higher elevations

and on ridgelines), the integrity of wildlife corridors, and water quality due to loss of vegetation and soil

erosion with development on steep slopes.

Loss of Prime Agricultural Lands - All five counties have lost significant amounts of prime agricultural

lands. The USDA’s National Agricultural Statistics Service indicates that from 1987 to 2002, "farmland in

Haywood County diminished by 18.9 percent, while Henderson, Madison and Buncombe counties

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followed at 17.9 percent, 17.1 percent and 8.6 percent, respectively."30 The loss of agricultural lands has

had a significant impact on the economic, cultural and historic integrity of Western North Carolina.

Industrial and other Employment Locations – Defining and preserving areas suitable for industrial

development and other types of employment generating land uses are key to economic diversification

and job production, particularly the creation of higher “living wage” jobs. The success Western North

Carolina has had in recent years in attracting industries associated with the clean energy sector as well

as the natural products industries is affecting the demand for land.

Preservation of Community Character and Identity- The preservation and enhancement of community

character amid growth and change will continue to be a challenge for the highly desirable and rapidly

growing communities in the GroWNC region. The preservation of small businesses, pedestrian scale

downtowns, old neighborhoods and rural areas will need to be a consideration as development pressure

increases and population growth is accommodated.

Redevelopment and Focused Growth – Many lands inside or near municipalities are underutilized. One

of the challenges in coming years will be to determine how future development and growth can be

focused in redevelopment areas and those areas cost effectively served by existing municipal services.

Preserving Private Property Rights – Local governments in the GroWNC study area have differing

approaches toward land use regulation. Many areas do not have zoning or future land use plans, others

use zoning and future land use plans to encourage a specifically desired mix of uses in order to achieve

vibrant communities. Regardless of the approach, balancing a need to preserve private property rights

and the need to preserve and enhance the natural environment will be a challenge as local elected

officials, planners, and citizens seek to build strong, resilient communities in the coming years.

Housing Choices – The availability and affordability of homes for permanent residents is affected by the

robust second home market in the five-county region. Studies suggest that a lack of housing choices,

particularly near employment centers, causes a "driving to affordability" effect in the GroWNC region.

Supporting Transportation Options - Alternative transportation options such as public transit, biking

and walking are more feasible in areas with a mixture of uses and densities. Higher residential densities

and an integration of retail, service and other commercial uses improve transit ridership as well as

increase the “walkability” and “bikeability” of an area. Connectivity of sidewalks, bicycle facilities and

greenways improve transportation options while increasing opportunities for recreation. Cultivating

transportation choice by integrating transportation planning for all modes and land use planning has the

30

“Farmland Values Project Measures Economic Importance of Rural Land”, Kish, Stacy, USDA’s Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service (CSREES), 2008, http://www.csrees.usda.gov/newsroom/impact/2008/nri/03102_farmland_value.html

http://www.csrees.usda.gov/newsroom/impact/2008/nri/03102_farmland_value.html

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added benefits of offsetting the housing + transportation cost burden and reducing environmental

impacts.

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Figure 2: Existing Land Use 2012

Figure 3: National Land Cover Dataset 2006

LAND USE - GroWNC Use.pdf · Large timberland holdings have been common in the region. ... (NRCS)...

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