Land use change and the risk of selected zoonotic diseases ... · Land use change and the risk of...

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Land use change and the risk of selected zoonotic diseases: observations from a case study in an arid/semiarid area in Kenya Bernard Bett 1 , Said Mohammed 1 , Rosemary Sang 2 , Sally Bukachi 3 , Johanna Lindahl 1 , Salome Wanyoike 4 , Ian Njeru 5 , Delia Grace 1 1. International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi 2. Kenya Medical Research Institute, Mbagathi Way, Nairobi 3. Institute of Anthropology, Gender and African Studies, Nairobi 4. Department of Veterinary Services, Ministry of Agriculture, Nairobi 5. Division of Disease Surveillance and Response, Ministry of Public Health, Nairobi Oral presentation at the ESPA Annual Scientific Conference, 25 th to 26 th November 2015 at the Honourable Society of Gray’s Inn, London

Transcript of Land use change and the risk of selected zoonotic diseases ... · Land use change and the risk of...

Page 1: Land use change and the risk of selected zoonotic diseases ... · Land use change and the risk of selected zoonotic diseases: observations from a case study in an arid/semi ‐arid

Land use change and the risk of selected zoonotic diseases:  observations from a case study in an arid/semi‐arid area in Kenya

Bernard Bett1, Said Mohammed1, Rosemary Sang2, Sally Bukachi3, Johanna Lindahl1, Salome Wanyoike4, Ian Njeru5, Delia Grace1

1. International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi2. Kenya Medical Research Institute, Mbagathi Way, Nairobi3. Institute of Anthropology, Gender and African Studies, Nairobi4. Department of Veterinary Services, Ministry of Agriculture, Nairobi5. Division of Disease Surveillance and Response, Ministry of Public Health, Nairobi

Oral presentation at the ESPA Annual Scientific Conference, 25th to 26th November 2015 at the Honourable Society of Gray’s Inn, London 

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Introduction• Climate and demographic changes and food insecurity

• Irrigation – being used to boost food production in arid/semi‐arid areas

• Effects: major trade‐offs in ecosystem services 

More food produced (provisioning services) at the expense of biodiversity and regulatory services (disease, flooding, erosion)

Disease transmission contributed by:o Standing water masses associated with irrigationo Human settlements and peri‐urban developmento Livestock diversity – more small that large ruminants 

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• The effects of irrigation on:oEcosystem changes –diversity of hosts  

orisk of vector‐borne and other zoonotic diseases

Irrigated site with stagnant water in the drainage canals – source of water for the people but also breeding grounds for mosquitoes 

Objectives 

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• The study site:• Arid/semi‐arid region in northeastern Kenya

• Two irrigation schemes and pastoral areas around them

• Studies:o Ecological/GIS analyses –secondary data

o Entomological surveyso Sero‐epidemiological surveys in livestock and people

Methods

Study site in Kenya, GIS team, ILRI

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20 0 20 40 60 80 Kilometers

N

Open shrubs (65-40% crown cover)Very open shrubs (40-15% crown cover)

Closed herbaceous vegetation onpermanently flooded landOpen to closed herbaceous vegetationon temporarily floodedOpen to closed herbaceous vegetation

Irrigated land / Cropland

CloudsTana River-Waterbodies

Urban and Rural Settements

Open trees on temporarily flooded landTrees and shrubs savannahVery open trees (40-15% crown cover)Open trees (65-40% crown cover)Closed trees

Legenda) 1975 b) 2010

Ecological analyses: Land cover changes between 1975 and 2010

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Activities – Field sites

• Mosquito sampling• Livestock and human 

samplingo Sample size determinationo Serum samples analyzed 

using various ELISA kits

Pathogen Samples used

Rift Valley fever virus, Brucella spp., and Coxiella burnetti

Livestock and people

West Nile virus, denguefever virus, Leptospiraspp

People

Field surveys

Animal sampling, B.Bett, ILRI

CDC light trap for mosquitoes, B.Bett, ILRI

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• Ecosystem changes – GIS analysis to determine habitat rarity 

• Entomology and sero‐prevalence datao Treated as point‐referenced 

datao Analyzed using stochastic 

partial differential equation implemented in R INLA 

(Rue et al., 2009)o Significance of the spatial 

effect ‐‐ DIC

Data analysis 

Triangulation in R INLA to capture spatial effects 

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• Land cover changes 

Results

1975 2010 Area Change

(%) Land cover type Area (km2)

Area (%)

Area (km2)

Area (%)

Closed trees 63 1 0 0 -100Open trees 1,138 18 795 12 -30Open trees on temporarily flooded land 171 3 257 4 50Bushlands 765 12 493 8 -36Open shrubs 2,398 37 2,639 41 10Sparse Shrubs 0 0 685 11 11Open to closed herbaceous vegetation 206 3 0 0 -100Herbaceous vegetation on flooded land 881 14 1,301 20 48Cropland 14 0 223 3 1456Water bodies 64 1 47 1 -26Urban and associated rural settlements 0 0 9 0 100Cloud cover 750 12 0 0  

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• Trends in wildlife and livestock densities 

Results

Species PE 1970s

SE 1970s

PE 2000s

SE 2000s d P value

Cattle 46,919 9,862 40,820 9,354 -0.45 0.326355Camel 1,621 789 4,391 1,082 2.07 0.019226Donkey 926 386 779 314 -0.30 0.488033Shoats 45,348 10,357 71,435 9,614 1.85 0.032157Buffalo 384 235 0 0 -1.64 0.050503Elephant 41 40 0 0 -1.02 0.153864Grant's gazelle 1,341 384 145 77 -3.05 0.001144Gerenuk 618 157 643 144 0.12 0.452242Giraffe 833 230 114 62 -3.02 0.001264Hunter's hartebeest 97 84 83 64 -0.13 0.448283Impala 247 239 0 0 -1.03 0.151505Lesser kudu 209 110 177 59 -0.26 0.397431Oryx 697 209 84 47 -2.86 0.002118Ostrich 629 195 123 47 -2.53 0.005703Warthog 2,567 468 103 43 -5.25 0.000000Burchell's zebra 5,178 1,558 0 0 -3.32 0.000450 

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Land use change and disease transmission 

1

10

100

1000

10000

Aedes spp Anophelesspp

Culex spp Mansoniaspp

irrigated area

non‐irrigated area

Villages

Mosquito species

Log nu

mbe

rof m

osqu

itoes

1

10

100

1000

10000

Aedes spp Anophelesspp

Culex spp Mansoniaspp

irrigated area

non‐irrigated area

Farms

Mosquito species 

Log nu

mbe

rof m

osqu

itoes

1

10

100

1000

10000

Aedes spp Anophelesspp

Culex spp Mansonia spp

irrigated area

non‐irrigated area

Villages

Mosquito species 

Log nu

mbe

rof m

osqu

itoes

1

10

100

1000

10000

Aedes spp Anophelesspp

Culex spp Mansoniaspp

irrigated area

non‐irrigated area

Farms

Mosquito species 

Log nu

mbe

rof m

osqu

itoes

I

Fallow period 

Irrigation season

 Results: Apparent densities of mosquitoes trapped  

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Variable Levels All mosquitoes trapped Primary RVF vectorsMean SD Credible interval Mean SD Credible interval

2.50% 97.50% 2.50% 97.50%Land use  Irrigation 1.23 0.38 0.46 1.94 1.47 0.19 1.10 1.85

Other  0.00 0.00Rain  0.03 0.00 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.00 0.02 0.03Hyper‐parameters  Theta 1 ‐3.03 1.97 ‐6.79 0.95 ‐3.53 3.16 ‐9.75 2.68Theta 2 1.87 1.53 ‐1.23 4.75 2.26 3.16 ‐3.95 8.46DIC 1099.57 641.39

Outputs of a regression model used to analyse the effects of rainfall and irrigation on mosquito densities 

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Posterior distributions of irrigation and rainfall parameters from the mosquito regression model  

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Sero‐prevalences of target pathogens in livestock

Pathogen Sero‐prevalence (95% CI)Irrigated areas Non‐irrigated areas

Rift Valley fever  22.2 (20.1 – 24.4) 36.0 (31.7 – 40.5)Coxiella burnetti 14.5 (13.1 – 16.0) 9.5 (7.2 – 12.2)Brucella spp 2.8 (2.0 – 3.7) 5.3 (3.4 – 7.7)

Posterior distribution of the land use parameter

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Odd ratios from a regression model used to analyse sero‐prevalences of the zoonotic pathogens in people

‐ Odds of being exposed in an irrigated area compared to pastoral

1.27 1.27

1.13

0.38

0.21

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1.2

1.4Odd

s ratio

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Febrile cases reported in people: Data from hospitals verses cross‐sectional surveys

A total of 1,323 samples collected in cross‐sectional surveys, 481 already screened

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

WNV Dengue RVF Q fever

Non‐irrigated area

Irrigated area

Pathogen

Sero‐prevalence

Malaria Typhoid

Cases from Bura health centre

Cases from Hola health centre

Malaria Typhoid Brucellosis

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Discussion• Irrigation – increased food production at the expense of 

habitat fragmentation, biodiversity conservation

• Used multiple pathogens to generate generic lessons 

• Irrigation and primary vectors of RVF 

• Biodiversity and disease regulation/dilution effect  ‐‐‐inconsistent findings o Results from livestock – no significant patterns – movement 

across areaso Results from people – higher risk of vector‐borne diseases in 

irrigated area and directly transmitted zoonoses in pastoral area

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Way forward • Communicate findings:

• Health impacts of land use change/irrigation, biodiversity 

• Shifts in suitability of ecologies for multiple pathogens• Health seeking behavior among the poor  

• Provision of health services• capacity to diagnose diseases 

• Land use and water management•

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Acknowledgements 

This work is from the project ‘Dynamic Drivers of Disease in Africa: Ecosystems, livestock/wildlife, health and wellbeing: REF:NE/J001422/1”  partly funded with support from the Ecosystem Services for Poverty Alleviation Programme (ESPA). The ESPA program is funded by the Department for International Development (DFID), the Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC) and the Natural Environment Research Council (NERC). Other funding was provided by CGIAR Research Program Agriculture for Nutrition and Health