Land class system for grazing · 2017-06-30 · netting, a single electric offset wire is often...

14. Property Management Planning

Adelaide &

Mount Lofty R

anges NR

M B

oard > Best practice land m

anagement guidelines for sm

all grazing properties14. P

roperty Managem

ent Planning

71Property management planning is a process supporting sustainable land management which considers the personal goals of landholders, environmental issues and economic returns. Good management can lift productivity and at the same time improve the condition of natural resources.

Developing a property management plan will assist landholders to:• identifycleargoals,• solveproblems,• budget,• allocatetime.

Most properties contain a range of soil types, topographical features, each with individual productive potential and management needs, so landholders will need to apply some formofclassificationwhenconductinganinitialassessmentofthecharacteristicsoftheproperty.Thisclassificationsystem is known as ‘land capability’

14.1 Land capability Land capability describes the ability of the land to accept a type and intensity of use with minimal risk of damage to the soil. Understanding land capability is at the core of responsible land management and land use. Land use decisions should only be made on the basis of adequate information about the land itself.

Land capability is based on the physical attributes of the land which is called ‘land quality’. A range of limitations (potential for land degradation) exist for different land qualities,whichwillinfluencelanduse.Theseinclude:• Watererosion–steepslopescreateahighpotential

for degradation if soil cover is not adequate.• Winderosion–deepsandysoilsinlowrainfallcropping

areas have the potential to erode, particularly with intense rainfall events.

• Soilacidity–highlyacidicsoilshavethepotential to reduce productivity.

• Waterabsorption–somelowlyingareasmaybecomewaterlogged in the wetter months and will reduce the amount of land available to stock. Others are highly water repellent and can affect the quality of pasture, crop and horticultural production.

• Rockiness–thedegreeofstoninesswillaffectthepurpose to which the land can be used, particularly where machinery is involved.

• Inherentfertility–somesoilsarepoorerinnutrientsthanothers.Whilenutrientscanbeaddedtosoil,itisimportantto decide whether the cost of fertilizer outweighs the value of the enterprise as a whole.

An assessment of all the attributes of the land will decide its limitations. These limitations can then be used to assign the land to particular ‘land classes’ (Table 22).

Figure 90. Slope pays an important part in how land is managed within its capability

Figure 91. Steep land cleared of native vegetation has resulted in severe gully erosion

Individualpropertiescanhavearangeoflandclasseswhichwill place limitations on how the land is managed.

Steepslopeshavethepotentialtocreateseverewatererosionifsufficientgroundcoverisnotmaintained.Croppinglandisparticularlyvulnerable.Inhighrainfallareas,extremeslopes which prohibit the use of machinery and are dangerous to livestock, should be reserved for native vegetation.

Rockiness reduces the ability to use machinery and can indicate a shallow soil depth rendering the land unsuitable for improved pasture or perennial horticulture (Figure 92). Rocky areas which have little agricultural value can be fenced off and revegetated.

Watercoursesarefragileecosystemswhichcanbeseverelydegradedbylivestock.Waterqualityandbiodiversityassetsdecline under these circumstances, so all watercourses (including dams) should be fenced off from livestock. Rehabilitation of degraded watercourses is an important process which contributes to the improvement of our natural resources.

Deep sand dunes are at risk of eroding if used for agricultural purposes. This land should be fenced off from stock and stabilised with appropriate native vegetation, or cereals such as cereal rye or triticale. Perennial veldt grass has the capacity to stabilise these dunes, however it can become invasive if not controlled.

Land class system for grazingUsingasimplifiedlandcapabilityapproachforparticularenterprises can be used as an alternative to the more complex eight-class system. For example, grazing can use a three class system (Table 23).

Ade

laid

e &

Mou

nt L

ofty

Ran

ges

NR

M B

oard

> B

est p

ract

ice

land

man

agem

ent g

uide

lines

for s

mal

l gra

zing

pro

perti

es14

. Pro

perty

Man

agem

ent P

lann

ing

72

Table 22. Generalised land class definitions

Table 23. Simplified land class system for grazing on small properties

Land class Description

1

2

345

6

7

8

Landwithlittleriskofdegradationandabletosupportawiderangeofuses.Suitableforalltypes of agricultural production on a permanent basis.Landwithsomeriskofdegradationbutstillabletosupportawiderangeofuses.Someconservation practices required if used for cropping e.g.: broad rotations and/or some special cultivation practices.Landwithmoderateriskofdegradation.Specialconservationpracticesrequiredifusedforcropping.Land with moderately severe risk of degradation. Regular cropping would constitute an unacceptable risk.Land with little risk of degradation but unsuitable for cropping because of soil, topography, wetness or salinity.Suitableforcultivationassociatedwithpasturedevelopment.Landwithsevereriskofdegradation.Suitableforgrazingbutgoodmanagementneededtopreserve vegetativecover.Specialisedequipmentisnecessaryforestablishmentofimprovedpasture.Landwithverysevereriskofdegradation.Suitableforcontrolledgrazing.Goodvegetativecover is essential for protection of the land.Land incapable of sustaining any form of agricultural production.

Land class Description

All Year Access AreasRestricted Access Areas

Prohibited Areas

Gentle to moderate slopes, well drained, loamy to clayey soils. All year access except when conditions become too wet or when vegetation cover becomes sparse (cover should be >70%)Winterwaterlogged,poorlydrained,steepslopes,highlyerosiveand/orpoorlystructuredsoils.Accessis restricted during the year when certain areas experience waterlogging or when vegetation cover is too sparse.Extreme slopes, area affected by or prone to landslips, gullying, tunnelling, salinity, areas of native vegetation or highly sensitive areas.

Figure 92. Rocks severely limit land capability

The‘prohibitedareas’classificationneedstobeconsideredwhen assessing stocking rates and the type of management required.Identifyingwhetheryourpropertyhasanylimitations(such as waterlogging, extreme slopes or rockiness) will

enable the property owner to achieve a more realistic assessment of the amount of grazing land available. Allowing stock to graze waterlogged land will damage soil and pasture.

Adelaide &

Mount Lofty R

anges NR

M B




roperty Managem

ent Planning

73

Figure 93. Grazing areas should be fenced off from different land classes such as native vegetation and waterlogged areas

Prohibited native vegetation site

All year grazing on well drained soil New fences

Restricted access due to waterlogging

in Winter

14.2 Mapping land classes

14.3 Four steps to develop a successful property plan Step 1 – Identify your goals and visions Having a clear vision for your property is important if you are to achieve your hopes and aspirations. You will need to consider goals for: • thepropertyanditsresources,• thebusiness,• yourfamily,• yourlifestyle.

For most small property owners’ lifestyle counts for a lot, however, particular enterprises can be a source of income ifmanagedeffectively.Whateveryourpriorities,appropriatemanagement is critical to maximise your land’s potential, or minimise any negative impacts on your resources.

Step 2 – Assess the natural resources of your property To write a property plan effectively, you will need to gather information about the property.

This includes:• naturalresources–soiltype,rainfall,nativevegetation,

water quality, water quantity,• physicalgeography–slope,rockyoutcrops,

drainage lines,• limitationsoftheproperty–waterlogging,weeds,

erosion, salinity,• financialandhumanresources–whatarethe

requirements of the enterprises to be run? Do these match the attributes of the property?

Itisimportanttounderstandthatthepropertyassessmentcannot be done in a short period of time. Landholders need to observe how the property reacts to weather events and seasons (dry, wet, prevailing winds, frost etc).

Ade

laid

e &

Mou

nt L

ofty

Ran

ges

NR

M B

oard

> B

est p

ract

ice

land

man

agem

ent g

uide

lines

for s

mal

l gra

zing

pro

perti

es14

. Pro

perty

Man

agem

ent P

lann

ing

74

Figure 94. Land class mapping

Obtaining an aerial photograph of the property (Figure 95) will help by providing an overview of the existing layout, topography, native vegetation and watercourses. Land classes and existing infrastructure can be drawn on a clear overlay.

Landholders can obtain an aerial photograph from a range of sources including: • Theinternet–GoogleEarthhttp://maps.google.com.au/ –Nearmap

https://www.nearmap.com/welcome-new#welcome• Privatebusinesses• DepartmentforEnvironmentandNaturalResources,Mapland.Level1,100PirieStreet,AdelaideSA

Step 3 – Develop the plan Using a series of clear overlays will enable a realistic plan to be drawn up (Figure 96).

Overlay 1 includes all the physical and permanent features of the property which will impact on its management. (i.e. saline sites, rocky areas, steep slopes, native vegetation and watercourses etc.)

Overlay 2 includes the existing layout of the property (including fences, stock troughs, raceways, etc.)

Overlay 3 is the realistic plan based upon ‘best practice’ land management principles and includes future plans such as new fence lines, revegetation areas or permanent structures.

The following should be considered when drawing up your realistic farm plan:• locationofthehouse,• locationofshedsandyards,• locationandtypesoffences,• waterresourcesincludingstockwateringpoints,• treesandvegetation,• surfacewatermanagement,• namesornumbersofpaddocks,• raceways,• numberandtypesofenterprises,• newfences,• livestockmovementplan.

Step 4 – Write a detailed ‘Action Plan’ The success of any property management plan will depend upon the amount of resources needed to implement the changes. Most landholders will be limited by time, money and technical knowledge, so a feasible action plan should be drawn up which includes appropriate management strategiestoaccomplishspecifictasks.Theactionplanwillneed to address the following: • prioritisingissues,• locationorarea,• desiredoutcomes,• managementstrategies,• costs,• practicalactions,• startandcompletiondates,• monitoringandevaluation.

Adelaide &

Mount Lofty R

anges NR

M B




roperty Managem

ent Planning

75

Figure 96. Overlays are used to draw up a realistic plan

Figure 95. An aerial photograph will provide an overview of your property

14.4 Other planning considerationsProperty management planning should lead to improvements in farm design which may result in a number of changes to infrastructure.

Fences Horse propertiesA permanent conventional fence of ringlock and 3 plain wires would be appropriate as a boundary fence to keep horses in and other animals out. Height should be approximately 1.4metres. The top wire can be a sighter wire. To reduce the impact of horses damaging their hooves in the netting, a single electric offset wire is often used (Figure 97).

Alternative horse fencing such as ‘post and rail’ is another possibility although for some people the cost is prohibitive. Painting them can also create time consuming maintenance issues. Barbed wire is likely to injure horses or damage horse rugs, and so should not be used.

Internalelectricfencesarelessexpensivethanpermanentconventionalfences,butareveryeffective.Fourorfivewireelectric with a top sighter wire is usually appropriate.

For temporary fences the use of electro-braid or tape is equally effective and can be correctly located in the paddock by using simple tread-ins.

There is a huge range of fences for horses so good research is recommended to decide on the most suitable fence for your property.

CattleMature cattle are large animals which require adequate fencesandyardstobemanagedappropriately.Ifthepropertywillonlyeverruncattle,fiveorsixstrandsofbarbed wire will be adequate to keep cattle in (Figure 98). However, dogs will often penetrate these and can be anuisancetoyoungcalves.Ifatanytimesheepareintroduced to the property these fences will be inadequate, especially for young lambs.

Wherebothsheepandcattlearebeingmanagedonthesame property, a conventional fence of ringlock and 3 barbed wires would be appropriate (Figure 99). As a rule electric fences are generally not used for boundary fences, but are ideal as an internal cattle fence (Figure 100).

Ade

laid

e &

Mou

nt L

ofty

Ran

ges

NR

M B

oard

> B

est p

ract

ice

land

man

agem

ent g

uide

lines

for s

mal

l gra

zing

pro

perti

es14

. Pro

perty

Man

agem

ent P

lann

ing

76

Figure 98. Six barbed wire boundary or internal fence

Figure 99. Conventional ringlock and barbed wire boundary or internal fence

Figure 100. Internal electric fence

Figure 97. A single offset electric wire can be used to keep horses well away from ringlock fencing

SheepA boundary fence of ringlock and 3 plain wires (or barbed) isgenerallyrequired.Itispossibletouseinternalelectricfencing but sheep are well insulated against electric shocks, and so should be introduced to this type of fencing after they are shorn. More strands of wire, usually 6 to 8 are required to effectively hold sheep and lambs compared with cattle. Internalfencesofringlockand3plainwiresaremorecommonly used as internal fences.

AlpacasProvided adequate paddock feed is available, alpacas will respect fences, and prefer to remain with the herd rather than jump fences. Fencing which is suitable for sheep will also be appropriate for alpacas. Ringlock with 3 plain wire strands, or 5 to 7 plain wire strands is generally adequate. Electric fencing can work, but is not always recommended sincetheanimalsfleecewillofteninsulatethemagainsttheshock. Barbed wire is not recommended since it can cause serious injuries.

Yards Placement of yards is an important consideration when re-designing a property. Yards need to be situated where large trucks can manoeuvre on solid ground (Figure 101). Aflat,welldrainedareawillavoidaquagmireduringthewettermonthsofwinter.Ifconstructinganewyarditiswellworth a few hours research to ensure that the facility meets your requirements and does not represent a danger to people or livestock.

Stock water Ideallydamsandwatercoursesshouldbefencedofffromlivestock which will no longer be able to access water directly from these sources. A reticulated watering system (Figure102)isgenerallyacceptedasthemostefficientwayto provide stock water. This system relies on water from dams (or bores) being pumped to a header tank which then allowswatertoflowthroughundergroundpolypipe,bytheforce of gravity, into stock troughs strategically placed in eachpaddock.Aseriesofpressurevalvesandballfloats will ensure that water troughs are always full. However, these should be checked regularly to avoid any problems. Watertroughshouldbeplacedonhigherwelldrainedground away from fences and ‘at risk’ areas of the paddock.

Wherepossiblethesetroughsshouldbeplacedcentrally in paddocks on higher drier ground, and adjacent to shade trees. They should not be placed through a fence, which tends to encourage bare areas susceptible to erosion.

There are many types and sizes of water troughs. Whetherlandholdersusetroughswhichareallpolyethyleneconstruction, or made of concrete, will depend largely oncircumstancesandpersonalpreference.Concretetroughs are solid and will resist damage from large animals, especiallyiftheballfloatisprotected,buttheycancrackintimeandaregenerallyheavyanddifficulttomovearound.

Polyethylene troughs are light and animals are less likely to injure themselves. They can also be shifted easily to provide a short term water supply when creating temporary paddocks.

Ineithercase,troughsshouldbedeepandlargeenough to supply the needs of all the animals in the paddock. Round troughs are quite popular for small horse properties since they allow good access by a number of horses at any one time.

Adelaide &

Mount Lofty R

anges NR

M B




roperty Managem

ent Planning

77

Figure 101. Well constructed cattle yards with road access

Figure 102. Example of a reticulated watering system

RacewaysRacewayscanbeanefficientwayofaccessingpaddocks.Planning and careful positioning of raceways contribute to safe and easy livestock movement, and moving machinery around the property is less time consuming since fewer gatesneedtobeopened.Intheeventoffire,livestock canbemovedquicklytosaferareas,andfireauthorities will have better access to deal with any threats caused bybushfires.

Shelterbelts LivestockrequireshelterfromintenseSummersunandsevere winter winds. New paddocks may not have adequate shelter,soItmaybenecessarytoerectanartificialshelterfrom plastic netting or wooden slatting, while newly planted shelterbeltsarebecomingestablished.Shelterbeltsare apotentialfirehazard,sowhenplanningtheirlocation,landholders need to assess the risk to property, livestock andfamily.Speciesselectioncanbeimportantinmanagingthis risk.

FireInplanningforfireprotection,considerthetotalproperty as well as buildings, and consider the situation in relation to known hazards. For example, the proximity of native vegetation.Assessthefirehazardwhenlocatingnewbuildings, hay sheds, water supply points, access tracks, yards, fence lines and livestock. Remember ambient heat fromanintensebushfirecankilllivestockheldinyards. Andalwaysprepareabushfiresurvivalplan.A

dela

ide

& M

ount

Lof

ty R

ange

s N

RM

Boa

rd >

Bes

t pra

ctic

e la

nd m

anag

emen

t gui

delin

es fo

r sm

all g

razi

ng p

rope

rties

14. P

rope

rty M

anag

emen

t Pla

nnin

g

78

Figure 107. Shelter belts provide good protection for livestock

Figure 103. Round concrete troughs are popular on small horse properties

Figure 105. A basic trough suitable for a small flock of up to 300 sheep

Figure 104. Round polyethylene troughs are light and easily moved

Figure 106. An ideal cattle trough with protection to prevent valve damage

15. Livestock Feed Requirements

Adelaide &

Mount Lofty R

anges NR

M B



all grazing properties15. Livestock Feed R

equirements

79

Usingregionalstockingratefigures(Chapter11)isahelpfulguide to matching livestock numbers with anticipated annual pasture production each year. However, a much more accurate approach is possible if the dry matter (DM) produced by a pasture can be estimated (or measured) at differenttimesoftheyear.Seasonalconditionswillhaveasignificantinfluenceondrymatterproduction.Forexample,an average dryland pasture in the Mt Lofty Ranges may produce 20kg DM/ha/day during June, but in October this can jump to 50kg DM/ha/day. Therefore, knowing how much feed is in a paddock will enable landholders to be more precise when determining how many animals can graze a particular paddock, and for how long.

This is referred to as ‘feed budgeting’. This approach not only allows livestock productivity to be maximised, but also helps to ensure enough cover is maintained in paddocks to prevent erosion. How much feed is available for livestock over a particular time period is referred to as ‘food on offer’ or ‘herbage mass’.

15.1 Pasture productivity Annual rainfall will impact strongly on pasture growth along with the quality of pastures. However, it is important for landholders to recognise that not all pasture growth is consumed by livestock, therefore pasture utilization is a better measure of actual productivity from a pasture (Table 24). For intensive strip, or cell grazing, where stocking rates are high, pasture utilisation is likely to be around60to70%.Wherestockingratesareaverage,and a four paddock rotational grazing system operates, this figureismorelikelytobe45to55%.Utilizationcandrop to 25% where set stocking is the only grazing strategy and stocking rates are below the district average.

Pasture growth will vary according to the seasons of the year with most growth of dryland pastures occurring during Spring,whileforirrigatedpasturesthisperiodofhighproductionextendsthroughtoSummerandearlyAutumn.

Table 24. Pasture utilization (tonnes DM/ha/year) on dairy farms in the Mt Lofty Ranges

Dryland pasture Irrigated pasture

PoorAverageGood

< 3.03.0 to 4.54.5 to 8.0

< 9.09.0 to 12.0

12.0 to 18.0

Figure 108. Typical dryland pasture growth in the Mt Lofty Ranges

15.2 Food on offer (herbage mass)Pasture availability in a paddock can be determined by:• Visuallyestimating• Measuringplantheight• Cutting,dryingandweighingsamplequadrants

The latter method is accurate but time consuming since a number of samples need to be taken from each paddock to beaccurate.Visuallyassessingthepaddockislessaccuratebut quicker, so where pasture heights can be measured the finalresultcanbemorereliable(Table25).Note:1,500kg of dry matter (DM) per hectare is regarded as the minimum pasture height to maintain good pastures and protect soil from erosion.

Estimatingpastureavailabilityreliesonindividualsrefiningtheir skills to the point where they can reliably predict herbagemass.Whereclovermakesupasignificantproportion of the pasture, herbage mass tends to be over estimated, when using height alone, while estimating pasture density can be problematic.

Prograze training courses which focus on developing these fieldtechniquesareofferedtolandholders.Enquiriescan be made with the Adelaide and Mt Lofty Ranges NRM Board or Meat and Livestock Australia.

Another useful technique is to use photographic benchmarks whenassessingherbagemass(foodonoffer)inthefield.The following photographs have taken into account pasture height, legume content and plant density and were sourced courtesyofPrimaryIndustriesandResourcesSAandtheAppila Bundaleer Pasture Group.

Ade

laid

e &

Mou

nt L

ofty

Ran

ges

NR

M B

oard

> B

est p

ract

ice

land

man

agem

ent g

uide

lines

for s

mal

l gra

zing

pro

perti

es15

. Liv

esto

ck F

eed

Req

uire

men

ts

80

Figure 109. Typical irrigated pasture growth in the Mt Lofty Ranges

Table 25. Generalised relationship between green pasture height and pasture availability

Average pasture height cms

Pasture availability kg DM/ha

123456

5008001100140017002000

Adelaide &

Mount Lofty R

anges NR

M B




equirements

81

Figure 110. Legume grass pasture showing 0.5 tonne/hectare of dry matter

Legume Grass Mix0.5 tonne/hectare DMBareground/residue 50%Legume 25%Grass 25%Grass height 2.0cm

Figure 112. Legume grass pasture showing 1.8 tonnes/hectare of dry matter


Figure 111. Legume grass pasture showing 1.0 tonne/hectare of dry matter




15.3 Feed budgeting Balancing livestock numbers with pasture availability to ensure the nutritional needs of animals are met and paddocks are not overgrazed is a fundamental responsibility of any landholder managing a grazing property.

Observing pastures to ensure paddock feed levels do not fall beyond 1500 kg DM/ha (approximately 4 to 5 cms) during thegrowingseasonsisonewayofencouragingefficientpasture re-growth, and avoiding bare ground which can lead to soil erosion. This approach can be very successful provided the stocking rate for the property matches pasture productionandfodderisbeingconservedinSpring (hay making).

However, there are situations where simple feed budgeting can be helpful, such as deciding whether to increase livestock numbers or when it may be necessary to sell. The following is an example of a simple feed budget.

How long will a 5ha paddock last if stocked with 40 yearling steers (weighing 400kg and gaining 0.5kg per day), ensuring pasture is kept above a minimum level to meet livestock requirements?

Herbage mass currently in the paddock (use photographs above) 2800kg DM/ha

Minus required minimum pasture mass 1500kg DM/ha

Available pasture 1300kg DM/ha

Daily growth rate of pasture (Table 26) 25kg DM/ha

Stockingdensity(40steersdivided by 5 hectares) 8 steers/ha

Daily Livestock requirements (Table 28) (9.6kg dry matter/hd/day × 8 steers/ha + spoilage 15%) 88kg DM/ha

Net pasture loss (88kg DM/ha minus 25kg DM/ha) 63kg DM/ha

How long will the paddock last? (1300kg DM/ha divided by 63kg DM/ha) 21 days

Inthisexample,iflivestockareallowedtoremaininthepaddock for any substantial period after 21 days, paddock feed will fall below 1500kg/ha dry matter (i.e. approximately 4 to 5 cms in height). As a consequence, not only is the condition of animals likely to decline, but ground cover will become less, and the risk of soil erosion will increase.

Pasture growth rates will vary according to the composition of the pasture, the location and whether they are being irrigated. The following tables provide some generalised figuresfordailypasturegrowthintheMtLoftyRangesandFleurieu Peninsula. A

dela

ide

& M

ount

Lof

ty R

ange

s N

RM

Boa

rd >

Bes

t pra

ctic

e la

nd m

anag

emen

t gui

delin

es fo

r sm

all g

razi

ng p

rope

rties

15. L

ives

tock

Fee

d R

equi

rem

ents

82





15.4 Energy and protein content of various feeds Whilebenchmarkfiguresareavailableforhowmuch to feed particular classes of animals, knowing the energy andproteinvaluesofspecifictypesoffeedwillenablelandholders to calculate how much of a particular feed type is required to meet the all the nutritional requirements of different livestock classes. The cost of feed can then be considered and a more economic approach to supplementary feeding can be adopted.

Thequalityofhaycanvarysignificantly,dependingonthequality of the pasture and how the cutting and baling process was carried out, so for the inexperienced landholder what seems good feed may well be low in both protein and energy. One way of reducing the risk of purchasing poor quality feed is to conduct a visual assessment of the hay.

Good quality hay should:• begreenincolour–notyellow,• besweetsmelling,• havegoodlegumeleaf(avoidtoomuchstalkinlucerne),• befreeofweedsandweedseedheads,• bepliablebutnotbrittle,• havepasturegrassseedheadswhichareflowering,

and do not contain mature seed, • havetheseedsatthewateryripestageforcereal

oaten hay.

However, if an accurate nutritional value is required hay must be tested in a laboratory. As well as crude protein % and energy MJ/kg DM, dry matter digestibility (DMD) is also measured. Once digestibility (DMD) declines below 65% for lactating stock and 55% for dry stock, then, no matter how much pasture is available, these animals are likely to experience unsatisfactory performance levels, i.e. increasing weight loss.

Adelaide &

Mount Lofty R

anges NR

M B




equirements

83

Table 26. Estimated daily dryland pasture growth rate (mid month) kg DM/ha/day for specific pasture types

Pasture type J F M A M J J A S O N D

Perennial grass & sub. clover (Mt Lofty Ranges) Perennialgrass&sub.clover– good (Fleurieu Peninsula)Perennialgrass&sub.clover– average (Fleurieu Peninsula)Perennialgrass&sub.clover– poor (Fleurieu Peninsula)

0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0

10

30

10 0

30

25

20

15

15

25

20

15

15

25

20

15

30

35

30

25

60

55

45

35

65

60

50

40

20

35

30

25

10

10 5 0

Table 27. Metabolisable energy and crude protein contents of feeds

Feed Dry matter % Energy MJ /kg DM Crude protein % DM

Oaten hayWheatenhayPasture hay (mainly grass)Pasture hay (good quality)Pasture hay (average quality)Pasture hay (poor quality)Lucerne hayCloverhayOat/vetch haySilage(goodquality)Dry paddock pasture Barley grainOats grainLupin grainFaba beans grainField peas grainBarley straw/stubblePea straw/stubble

909090909090909090409090909090909090

9.08.08.59.89.07.89.09.09.5

10.05.0

13.012.512.512.513.06.57.0

6.06.08.0

18.012.08.0

15.0 to 25.013.0 to 16.0

13.018.0

5.0 to 8.011.010.530.025.025.05.07.0

15.5 Livestock nutritional requirements Most small farms rely on hay supplements when paddock feed is low, but there are a variety of feed types which can be given to livestock which will provide animals with the necessarydailyenergyandproteinlevels.Inordertodetermine how much to feed, the energy and protein requirements for different classes of animals need to be known. The following tables provide some of this information.

Alpacas consume 2% of their body weight in feed per dayandprefertograzeshorterpastures.Ideallythefibre or roughage component of their diets should not fall below 25%.

Ade

laid

e &

Mou

nt L

ofty

Ran

ges

NR

M B

oard

> B

est p

ract

ice

land

man

agem

ent g

uide

lines

for s

mal

l gra

zing

pro

perti

es15

. Liv

esto

ck F

eed

Req

uire

men

ts

84

Figure 116. Hay which is yellow in colour may have been cut too late or been bleached by the sun

Figure 117. Hay should be green in colour

Table 28. Energy and protein requirements – sheep and cattle

Class of Animal Energy Needed (MJ per day)

Protein % Maximum Daily Dry Matter Intake (% of liveweight)

Adult dry sheep (60kg)Adult dry sheep (40kg)Pregnant ewes (last 6 weeks)Lactating ewes (1st 2 months)Weanersheep(<35kg)

DryCowsLactating cows (1st 3 months)Lactating cows (4-7 months)WeanedcalvesSteer(300kggaining0.5kg/day)Steer(400kggaining0.5kg/day)

8.06.58.5

14.55.5

41.097.0

105.050.05771

8.08.0

13.014.015.0

8.014.014.015.0107.6

2.02.02.84.23.8

1.83.53.52.52.52.4

Table 29. Energy requirements for horses at various levels of work

WeightMaintenance energy requirements MJ/day Additional energy required per hour for:WalkingSlowtrotting,some cantering Fast trotting, cantering, some jumpingCantering,galloping, jumpingStrenuousactivity (polo, racing at full speed)

400 kg

58

0.84

8.4

21.0

38.5

65.3

500 kg

68

1.05

10.5

26.2

48.1

81.6

600 kg

79

1.26

12.6

31.4

57.8

97.9

The energy requirements for alpacas are generally 30% less thanthoseofsheep,becausefibreprovidesasignificantamount of additional energy. A dry hembra, or wether, weighing 65kg requires approximately 7 MJ of energy each day which can be supplied by 1.3kg of hay each day.

Protein requirements for alpacas are relatively low compared with other animals. The following protein levels are provided as a guide:• Maintenance8%to10%crudeprotein• Rapidgrowthfromweaning16%crudeprotein• Pregnancyandlactation12%to14.5%crudeprotein

Adelaide &

Mount Lofty R

anges NR

M B




equirements

85

Table 30. Daily energy and protein requirements for different categories of horses. (source: Feed Budgets for Horses, Victorian DPI Agnote 1273)

Class of Horse Mature weight (kg)

Liveweight gain (kg/day)

Energy MJ/day Crude protein (grams/day)

Weanling(4months)

Weanling(6months,moderategrowth)

Weanling(6months,rapidgrowth)

Yearling (12 months, moderate growth)

Yearling (12 months, rapid growth)

18 months

2years

Maintenance

Pregnant (9 months)

Pregnant (11 months)

Lactating (foaling to 3 months)

Lactating (3 months to weaning)

400 500 600400 500 600400 500 600400 500 600400 500 600400 500 600400 500 600400 500 600400 500 600400 500 600400 500 600400 500 600

0.85 0.85 1.000.55 0.65 0.750.70 0.85 0.950.40 0.50 0.650.50 0.65 0.800.25 0.35 0.450.15 0.20 0.30

56.5 60.2 69.054.0 62.8 71.160.7 72.0 80.365.3 71.9 95.071.5 89.1

105.066.5 82.8

100.0064.0 78.7 98.356.1 68.6 81.262.3 76.1 90.067.4 82.4 97.595.8 118.4 141.082.4

101.7 120.9

675 720 825643 750 850725 860 960700 851

1023770 956 1127716 893

1077650 800 998563 656 766654 801 947708 866

10241141 1427 1711839

1048 1258

15.6 Livestock feed consumption A dryland pasture comprised of grasses and legumes will usually provide a balanced diet for livestock while paddock feed is available. However, during the dry seasons of SummerandearlyAutumnlandholderswillusuallyhave to consider supplementary feeding with hays or grains.

Whenfeedinggrain,animalhealthproblemscanbeencountered if grain is not introduced gradually after livestockhavebeengrazingonpasture.Iffeedinggrain to sheep, start with only 50 grams per head per day, increasing to 430 grams per head per day by the 14th day. Further information can be found at www.mla.com.au/Livestock-production/Feeding

The following tables provide a guide to understanding how much feed (kg) animals require each day.

How much feed (kg) to provide for livestock can be calculated for any feed type as long as the energy and protein requirements of different classes of animals are known(Tables28,29&30).Considerthefollowingexample.

How much hay would a landholder have to feed out to 10 yearling steers (300kg each) gaining 0.5kg/day, if no paddock feed is available?

Assume the hay is average quality pasture hay with 90% dry matter, 9.0 MJ/kg DM and 12.0% crude protein (Table 27)

Energy needs are 57.0 MJ of energy/animal/day (Table 28)

Calculation57.0 MJ ÷ 9.0MJ/kg = 6.3kgTo allow for only 90% dry matter in the hay6.3kg × 100 ÷ 90 = 7.0kg/animal/day

Total feed for all animals = 7.0 × 10 steers = 70.0kg

Given that a small square bale of hay weighs approximately 23.0kg, supplying 3 square bales each day would meet the animals requirements.

Ade

laid

e &

Mou

nt L

ofty

Ran

ges

NR

M B

oard

> B

est p

ract

ice

land

man

agem

ent g

uide

lines

for s

mal

l gra

zing

pro

perti

es15

. Liv

esto

ck F

eed

Req

uire

men

ts

86

Table 31. Weekly maintenance hay rations for sheep with no pasture available (source: “Drought Feeding and Management of Sheep” PIRSA

Table 32. Daily feed requirements for cattle with no pasture available

Class of Livestock Grass/clover Hay Requirements (kg/head/week)

Comment

Adult dry sheep (or ewes in early pregnancy)Pregnant ewes (last 4 weeks before lambing)Eweswithlambatfoot(firstmonth)Ewes with lamb at foot (second month)Early weaned lambs (up to 20 kg wt. gaining 0.7 kg each week)

4.5

7.5

12.511.0

Ad lib

Adjust for cold weather, larger breeds and rams.

Feed as much as they want (usually 3 to 5 kg/week).

Class of Livestock Grass/clover Hay Requirements (kg/head/week)

Comment

Cow450kg(withcalfupto3months)

Cow450kg(latepregnancy)Weaners250kg(gainingweight)Yearlings 350kg (maintenance)Steer(maintenance)

12.0

9.05.55.58.0

Feed slightly more if quality of hay is below average.

----

16. Weed and Pest Control

Adelaide &

Mount Lofty R

anges NR

M B



all grazing properties16.W

eedandPestC

ontrol

87

16.1 Weed management Good land management remains the key to controlling most weeds in pastures. There are a number of pasture management techniques which will help to keep weeds from becoming a serious problem. These include:• soiltesting&addingappropriatefertilizers• limingacidsoils• rotationalgrazing• keepinggoodgroundcover• over-sowingwithperennialgrass&clover• hardgrazinginSpringtoreduceseedsetofannual

grasses• rotatinghaypaddockstoavoidabuildupofannual

grasses • usinglowtoxicityherbicides,ifnecessary• integratingbiologicalcontrolmeasureswherepossible

Annual broadleaf pasture weeds (e.g. capeweed, geranium and salvation jane)Most landholders think of using herbicides when confronted withpaddocksfullofCapeweed(Arctotheca calendula), Storksbill(Erodium spp)orSalvationJane(Echium plantagineum).Whilstherbicideuseisanimportanttoolforcontrolling these plants, it is only one of the management options available.

Ifpaddocksbecomesbare,weedseedspresentinthesoilarelikelytogerminate–especiallyinAutumn.Establishingand maintaining a perennial pasture in high rainfall areas will help to combat this problem. Perennial pastures consisting of cocksfoot, phalaris, ryegrass and clover will allow grazing, and provide competition for germinating broad leaf weeds, as well as reduce the reliance on herbicide use.

Ifusingherbicidestocontrolannualbroadleafweeds,spraying should occur early in the season when plants are small and lower rates can be applied. Early spraying encourages more desirable plants to grow without competitionfromaggressiveweeds.Selectiveherbicides are available to help control these weeds.

A technique known as ‘spray-grazing’ can be effective in reducingweeds.ThisinvolvesapplyingMCPAor24Damineandthengrazingsheepandcattleatfourtofivetimesthenormal stocking rate. This is not recommended for horses because it can be detrimental to the health of these animals.

Metsulfuron-methylcanbeusedtocontrolfloweringSalvationJaneinearlySpring.

*Warning: Do not use products with MCPA (or similar volatile chemicals) before mid May or after end of August within 1km of vineyards or horticultural crops etc., since damage to these crop can occur.

Biological control can be used as part of an integrated weed managementprogram.InthecaseofSalvationJanethereare four main insects that are the focus of biological control. The crown weevil larvae attack the growing crown of the plant, whilst the root weevil larvae feed on the taproot, effectively “ring-barking” the root. The flea beetle larvae also attack the primary and secondary roots. The impact of the pollen beetle is to reduce the amount of seed set.

Ifherbicidesneedtobeusedtocontrolparticularweeds, it is important that landholders investigate the impact of thesechemicalsonusefulinsects.Insomecircumstances it may be necessary to leave untreated strips so the biological control agents are not wiped out.

Biological control agents are available from your local Natural Resources Management Board.

Capeweed Storksbill

Figure 118. Common annual broadleaf pasture weeds

SalvationJane

Perennial broadleaf pasture weeds (e.g. catsear and dock) Perennialbroadleafweedscanbedifficulttocontrol.Theyoften have well established roots systems and very effective seeddispersalmechanisms.ThelightseedsofCatsear(Hypochoeris radicata), which are distributed by wind, make this a very common weed in high rainfall areas. Dock plants (Rumex spp.) generally have a very deep tap root which seeks out sub soil moisture at depth, while the variegated thistle (Silybum marianum) is unlikely to be eaten by stock and so freely sets seed. Good pasture management and improved soil fertility will help to keep these weeds under control,butifherbicidesarerequired,Dicamba/MCPAandMetsulfuron-methyl are effective if sprayed when plants are activelygrowing.Itisimportanttoseekprofessionaladvicebefore selecting and using chemicals, and to ensure label directions are followed.

Bulbous weeds (e.g. guildford grass, cape tulip and watsonia) DespiteitsnameGuildfordgrassisnotagrass.ItbelongstothefamilyIridaceaeandisabulb.Guildfordgrass(Romulea rosea), sometimes referred to as ‘Onion Grass’, has long,

tough leaves up to 12.5 cms and thrives in low fertility soils found throughout the high rainfall areas of the Mount Lofty Ranges. Landholders may also discover Lesser Guildford grass (Romulea minutiflora) which has a similar distribution.

Ithasbeenknowntocreateproblemsforlivestock(especiallyhorsesandcattle)whenitformsatoughfibrousball,blockingtheanimalsdigestivetract.Insomecasesthiscan be fatal.

Poor pasture management, coupled with low fertility soils, encourages the spread of this ‘allelopathic’ weed, and as aresult,pasturegrowthissuppressed.StudiesinVictoriahaveshownthatadding10–15kg/haofphosphorus,depending on soil type, can prevent it from invading perennial grass/subterranean clover pastures.

Herbicide applications may be necessary where this weed has become dominant. Metsulfuron-methyl applied at 15 g/ha is effective in controlling Guildford grass, provided itisappliedinlateJuly.Itmaybenecessarytore-seedpastures in Autumn if applying this chemical because it will kill subterranean clover and can damage or kill perennial ryegrass. Professional advice should be sought for particular situations.

Ade

laid

e &

Mou

nt L

ofty

Ran

ges

NR

M B

oard

> B

est p

ract

ice

land

man

agem

ent g

uide

lines

for s

mal

l gra

zing

pro

perti

es16.W

eedandPestC

ontrol

88

Seeds Bulb

Figure 120. Guildford grass (Romulea rosea)

Flower (pale to bright pink)

Dock Catsear

Figure 119. Common perennial broadleaf pasture weeds

OtherbulbweedsincludeWatsoniaandCapetulipwhichcan become quite invasive. Digging out the bulbs before theyhavetimetoflowercanbeeffectiveforsmallpatches,however, if landholders need to rely on chemical control, metsulfuron methyl is effective against both weeds. GlyphosateisalsoeffectiveagainstWatsoniabutisnonselective and may bare out ground encouraging the establishment of further weeds.

Annual grass weeds (e.g barley grass, silver grass and wild oats)These types of weeds can be a problem in pastures which have been overgrazed, so it is important not to graze pastures below 5cms while they are growing, and 3cms over Summer.Inhighrainfallareas,adensepermanentpasturewith a good percentage of perennial grasses will make it hard for annual grasses to become established. However, onceestablished,theseweedsaredifficulttoeradicateandlandholders will need to employ a range of tactics in order to control them. The following section on ‘barley grass control’ includes a range of management options which can be employed.

Barley grass controlSomebarleygrassseedcanremainviablefor2or3years,so landholders should be watchful during this period when dealing with badly infested pastures. However, usually over 90% germination occurs during the Autumn break, so after atwoyearperiodsignificantcontrolshouldbeobserved.Ifthis weed is a problem across the whole of the property it may be prudent not to target all paddocks in one year since a lot of paddock feed will be lost and reduced livestock carrying capacity will need to be addressed. A staged program over 2 or 3 years may be preferable.

Using post emergent herbicides Post emergent herbicides are available which will control barley grass if sprayed 4 to 6 weeks after the opening rains in Autumn. Landholders should seek professional advice when using these herbicides since damage to perennial grasses can occur in some situations.

Patch sprayingInpaddockswherethebarleygrassispatchy,theseareascan be sprayed out with glyphosate in spring before seeds have formed. New pasture can then be re-sown in Autumn provided livestock can be excluded from the site while the pasture becomes established.

Deferred grazing Whengrazingisdeferredforaperiodof20daysafter the autumn break, and the paddock heavily stocked continuously throughout the rest of the growing season, manyplantswillbeeradicatedbeforesettingseed.Ifdeferred grazing occurs earlier, or later, than the 20 day period, selective grazing of livestock may reduce the effectiveness of this type of control.

Adelaide &

Mount Lofty R

anges NR

M B




eedandPestC

ontrol

89

Figure 121. Cape tulip (Homeris spp.)

Figure 123. Use a range of techniques to control barley grass in permanent pastures

Figure 122. Watsonia (Watsonis bulbilifera)

Legend Optimum Suitable SeekAdvice NotSuitable

Spray topping This process involves spraying the barley grass with a low rate of Glyphosate or Gramoxone after seed head emergence. The plant is not killed, but a small amount of the herbicide isabsorbedbytheseedwhichdies.Ifembarkingonthisapproach, it is important to heavily graze pastures during earlySpring(September)toensureanevencropofbarleygrass seed heads. Livestock should be removed 2 to 3 weeks before target weed has set seed, but seed heads haveemerged.Sprayingshouldbedelayeduntilthelastseed heads at the bottom of the plant have emerged and initialsignsofyellowingappear.IfsprayingwithGlyphosate450 the rate is 240ml to 360ml per hectare.

Using herbicides Iftheuseofchemicalsisnecessary,theapplicationofappropriate herbicides at the correct time of the year will be better for the environment, be more effective and help to reduce costs.

Effective control of weeds will avoid the necessity to apply more chemicals at a later stage to eradicate larger plants. The following chart outlines the most appropriate times to control weeds.

Whenusingherbicideslandholdersshouldalwaysreadthelabel carefully to ensure that chemicals are being applied as directed. Application of chemicals must comply with the registereduseasspecifiedonthelabelortheMaterialSafetyDataSheet(MSDS).

TheMSDSdescribesthepropertiesofamaterialandprovides advice on safe handling and use of the material. InAustraliachemicalmanufacturersandimportersmustproduceanMSDSforanychemicalthatisahazardoussubstance and make it freely available to workers handling thesubstance.TheMSDSforeachchemicalproductisgenerally available at the point of sale. The manufacturer of the product can be contacted if these are not available.

Inaddition,equipmentshouldbecalibratedsothattherateof application matches the manufacturers recommendations. IfassistanceisrequiredcontacttheAdelaideandMtLoftyRanges NRM Board or your local land management consultant who will be able to explain the process.

Ade

laid

e &

Mou

nt L

ofty

Ran

ges

NR

M B

oard

> B

est p

ract

ice

land

man

agem

ent g

uide

lines

for s

mal

l gra

zing

pro

perti

es16.W

eedandPestC

ontrol

90

Table 33. Calendar of chemical control of weeds

Weeds \ Months Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Blackberry, Broom

Gorse

Boneseed

Hawthorn

Olive (wild)

SalvationJaneandThistles

BroadleafPastureWeeds

CapeTulip

BridalCreeper

Watsonia

WaterDropwort

Declared weeds Declared plants are those that are regulated under the Natural Resources Management Act 2004. They have been assessedassignificantweedthreatstoSouthAustralia’sprimary production industries, natural environments and publicsafety.EverylandownerinSouthAustraliahas a legal responsibility to manage declared plants.

Plant species can be declared under various sections of the NRM Act, relating to:

Movement–Somedeclaredplantsmustnotbemovedon a public road (e.g. as a cutting, seed or potted specimen). Inadvertentmovementoftheplantonanimals,soil,vehicles,machinery or produce may also be illegal.

Sale–Manydeclaredplantsmustnotbesoldatanyoutletincludingnurseries,petshopsandmarketstalls.Saleofitems contaminated with the plant may also be illegal.

Notification–Thepresenceandlocationsofsomedeclaredplants on your own land must be reported to the regional NRM board.

Control–Landholdersarerequiredtotakeactiontodestroyor control many declared plant species which are growing on their property, regardless of whether it is used as a business, residence or for other purposes. The AMLR NRM Board (along with all other Boards) will also control certain declaredplantsfoundonroadreserves.Costscanberecovered from the adjoining landowners.

Someofthemorecommonpastureweedsfoundintheregion are listed in Table 34.

For more information on declared weeds contact the AMLR NRM Board or go to www.amlrnrm.sa.gov.au

16.2 Pasture pests Highly productive and persistent pastures can be severely damaged by pests and diseases unless land managers are able to recognise the symptoms and deal with them before theybecomeaproblem.Carryingcapacitycanbereducedwhen pastures lose vigour, creating a risk of overgrazing and soil erosion.

Pests The most common pasture pests include red legged earth mite,lucernefleaandblackheadedpasturecockchafer.Severedamagecanresultfromlargeinfestations.

Redlegged Earth Mite (RLEM)The redlegged earth mite (Halotydeus destructor) is a major pest of pastures, especially subterranean clover, annual medicsandlucerne.ItthrivesintheAdelaideandMtLoftyRanges region which experiences cool wet winters and hot dry summers. The use of pesticides is a common method of control, however, alternative non chemical options are being embraced as evidence emerges that mites are exhibiting resistance to chemical sprays. Typical damage from these mites is seen as ‘silvering’ or ‘whitening’ of leaves (Figure 124).Itisimportanttokilladultmitesbeforetheyareable tolayeggsinSpringwhichultimatelyhatchinAutumn.TheoptimumdatescanbepredictedbyaccessingtheTIMERITEwebsite program (www.wool.com/Grow_Timerite.htm). Systemicpesticidescanbeappliedtotheseedcoatwhensowing a new pasture, however, it is still necessary to check young pastures to determine the extent of any infestations as these mites have the capacity to destroy the legume component of any pasture. Biological control can play a part in reducing RLEM numbers. There are a number of predators of RLEM, in particular a predatory mite (Anystis wallacei), however, the dispersal rate for this mite is slow. Controllingweeds,suchasthistlesandcapeweed,which act as host plants for RLEM, will reduce breeding sites.

Adelaide &

Mount Lofty R

anges NR

M B




eedandPestC

ontrol

91

Table 34. Common declared pasture weeds of the region

Common Name Scientific Name

Blackberry BulbilWatsoniaCaltropHorehoundNutgrassSalvationjaneSoursobSpearthistleWildartichoke

Rubus fruticosus sp. Agg.Watsonia meriana var. bulbilliferaTribulus terrestrisMarrubium vulgareCyperus rotundisEchium plantagineum Oxalis pes-capraeCirsium vulgareCynara cardunculus

Figure 124. Redlegged Earth Mite damage

Lucerne Flea Adultlucernefleas(Sminthurus viridis) are approximately 3mm long, wingless (Figure 125) and lay eggs which remain dormant over summer and hatch during March and April. Theycaninflictconsiderabledamagetoclovers,lucerneandcapeweed. They tend to be a problem on loam/clay soils, but generally not on sandy soils. Monitoring the development and spread of these pests is important so that chemical applicationscanbetimedtoactonyoungfleaswhichhavenothadachancetobreed.Systemicsprayscanbeusedwhendamageisfirstdetected.Thereareknownpredatorsof this pest, but these are unlikely to be an effective control measure on their own. A good grazing regime coupled with sound weed control of host plants should be adopted to avoid total reliance on chemicals.

Blackheaded Pasture CockchaferThe larval stage of this insect pest (Aphodius tasmaniae) isresponsiblefordamagingpasture.Cloversandryegrassare particularly susceptible. Larvae can reach 15 to 20mm in length (Figure 126) while the adult beetles are generally

10 to 11mm. Eggs are laid in soil and when larvae emerge they feed on pasture plants resulting in bare patches and exposed soil. Eggs hatch in early November with larvae doing considerable damage during April to early August. MayandJuneistheoptimumfeedingtimeoflarvae.Insevere cases insecticides can be used since these insects are surface feeders. The best time to spray is just before rain or when heavy dew is expected. Avoid spraying after Julyaslarvaewillbedifficulttoeradicate.Toconfirmthatbare patches are the result of the pasture cockchafer, holes need to be dug to a depth of 150mm to identify the insect larvae and determine the density of the infestation.

Diseases There are a number of diseases of pasture plants including rust, leaf spot, blight and a range of viruses. Young seedlings can also suffer from ‘damping off’ which occurs when a fungus attacks the stems of newly emerged seedlings.Soilconditionscontributesignificantlytothisproblem.Itisimportanttousecleancertifiedseedwhensowing new pastures and to ensure that pastures are selected for their resistance to known diseases of the area. Appropriate management of soils and pastures will help to reduce the likelihood of disease becoming a problem. Ifdiseaseissuspected,seekprofessionaladvice.

16.3 Feral animal control Rabbits European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) are a declared pest under the Natural Resources Management Act 2004, and are regarded as a serious invasive pest throughout the state. They cause millions of dollars in damage to crops and pastures annually, and are detrimental to the natural environment.

There are a number of methods that can be used to control rabbits. To achieve good results it is best to use a range of ongoing approaches. For example:• Baiting.• Warrendestructionbyripping.• Fumigation.

Biological controls in the form of Myxomatosis and Rabbit Hemorrhagic Disease are present in Australia, but their effectiveness varies considerably from year to year since they are dependant upon a range of environmental factors.

Trapping is generally not regarded as an effective way to reduce high numbers of rabbits quickly, since it requires a significantamountoftimeandeffort.However,somelocalcouncils hire out cage traps to residents for the trapping of pest animals.

Itisbesttoadoptarangeofstrategiesforeffectivecontrol.Technical support and advice is available from the AMLR NRM Board. A

dela

ide

& M

ount

Lof

ty R

ange

s N

RM

Boa

rd >

Bes

t pra

ctic

e la

nd m

anag

emen

t gui

delin

es fo

r sm

all g

razi

ng p

rope

rties

16.W

eedandPestC

ontrol

92

Figure 125. Adult Lucerne Flea (photograph courtesy: Victorian DPI, Agnote 0415)

Figure 126. Black Headed Pasture Cockchafer

Foxes The fox (Vulpes vulpes) is a declared animal under the Natural Resources Management Act 2004, and is one of the most successful predators in the world. They are a major threat to livestock and small native mammals, birds and reptiles.Itistheresponsibilityofpropertyownerstocontrolthem.Itisalsoillegaltokeepfoxesaspets.

Fox management and control options include:• Destroyingfoxshelters.• Fumigationusingcarbonmonoxidegascartridges.• Trapping.• Poisoning.

Traps are available from your local Natural Resources Management Board.

Sodiumfluoroacetate,commonlycalled1080(ten-eighty), istheonlypoisonregisteredforfoxcontrolinSouthAustralia.Foxes are extremely susceptible to this poison. However, due to the risk of poisoning other animals, such as dogs, its use is highly regulated. Landholders can only access 1080 through local Natural Resources Management Boards.

Deer Farmed deer (Family: Cervidae) which are kept for commercial or non-commercial use, should be permanently identifiedandconfinedbehinddeerfencingincompliancewith the Natural Resource Management Regulations 2005. These herds need to be registered under the Livestock Regulations 1998.

Deerthatlackidentification,arenotconfinedbyappropriatefencing, and are on land without the consent of the owner, are regarded as feral deer.

Landholders are responsible for the satisfactory control of the feral deer on their properties. The AMLR NRM Board requires landholders to eradicate new populations of feral deer that have established as the result of recent escapes or recent migrations. The control of established feral herds on private and public lands is the responsibility of the landholder. The AMLR NRM Board is responsible for determining the level of control that will manage the impact of feral deer within the board area.

Itisanoffencetowilfullyornegligentlyreleasedeerinto the wild.

For further information on feral animal control contact the Adelaide and Mt Lofty Ranges NRM Board.

Adelaide &

Mount Lofty R

anges NR

M B




eedandPestC

ontrol

93

Ade

laid

e &

Mou

nt L

ofty

Ran

ges

NR

M B

oard

> B

est p

ract

ice

land

man

agem

ent g

uide

lines

for s

mal

l gra

zing

pro

perti

es16.W

eedandPestC

ontrol

94

17.1 Horse management ‘Horse Keeping’ Under the Natural Resources Management Act 2004, owners and managers of land have a duty of care to protect natural resources and to ensure that land is not degraded. Intensivehorsekeeping,alongwithotherintensivelivestocksystems, have the potential to damage natural resources (i.e. soil, water, air and vegetation) so it is important that appropriate management systems are in place to protect the environment.

Theterm‘horsekeeping’isdefinedintheregulationspertaining to the Development Act 1993 and refers to situations where landholders keep more than 1 horse for every 3 hectares (7.4 acres) of land, or where hand feeding ofhorsesisinvolved.InthesesituationsapprovalmayberequiredfromCouncil.

Ifyouintendtokeep2horseson3hectaresoflandyouareundertaking ‘horse keeping’.

Local councils have their own zoning regulations, so check with your council before embarking on a ‘horse keeping’ venture or intensive horse management system, regarding your rights and obligations managing horses.

Horse management systems Many thousands of land owners in this region have purchased properties to manage horses for recreational purposes.Whilesomelandholdershaveafewhectaresforequestrian sports or for family members to ride horses and ponies, others operate a more intensive management system where larger numbers of horses are kept for agistment purposes.

Deciding on the best management system will depend on the number of horses to be kept, as well as how they will be fed and cared for, since managing horses can be quite time consuming compared with raising other livestock.

As a general rule, three management systems are recognised as suitable for managing horses, all of which will ensure that no environmental damage occurs, provided landholders follow a few simple rules with respect to grazing strategies, manure management and hygiene. These systems include:• Lowinput(grazing,noyards).• Mediuminput(controlledgrazing,somehandfeeding).• Highinput(limitedgrazing,mainlystabled).

Low input (grazing, no yards) Inthissituationhorsesarenothandfed.Allfeedrequirements are provided by pasture. Therefore stocking rates should be in line with district averages and grazing strategies adopted which maximize pasture productivity (Chapter11&12).

No stables or yards are necessary, so shelter belts become the primary source of protection in the paddock. Good pasture management should be practiced at all times.

Medium input system (controlled grazing, some hand feeding) Paddock feed alone will not match the nutritional requirements of all the horses on the property in these circumstances.Consequentlystablesoryardsmustbeusedto control how long paddocks are grazed. This approach allows pastures to be rested, ensuring good ground cover and avoiding bare ground with the potential for erosion anddustproblems.Somehandfeedingwillberequired.

17. Enterprise Management – Specific Issues

Adelaide &

Mount Lofty R

anges NR

M B



all grazing properties17.E

nterpriseManagem

ent–SpecificIssues

95

Figure 127. A well designed ‘low input’ horse management system

Figure 128. A well designed day yards to control grazing on a ‘medium input’ horse management system

High input system (limited grazing, mainly stabled) Hand feeding is the primary means of providing the nutritional requirements of horses. Grazing is limited to only a few hours each day whilst horses spend the majority of their time in stables or yards.

Cleanlinessandhygieneofyardsbecomeimportantconsiderations with this system.

Manure managementLandholders have an obligation to ensure that manure is not a source of off-site pollution. Manure left in paddocks not only poses a risk of environmental pollution, but can result in pastures not being fully utilised, since stock will avoid grazing near manure.

Numbers of harmful intestinal worms can also build up in paddocks and re-infect individuals.

Manure should be removed daily from stables, yards and exercise areas and stored where rain and surface run-off will not leach pollutants into watercourses. On small properties manure can be picked up from paddocks, bagged and used by home gardeners.

Spreadingmanureusingapieceofweldmeshorlightharrows is an effective way of recycling nutrients in larger paddocks.

17.2 National Livestock Identification System (NLIS) NLISisanationaldatabasesystemforidentifyingandtracking cattle, sheep and goats, and which improves cattle identificationandtraceability.

TheNLISensuresthatlivestockcanbetrackedelectronically from their property of birth to their place of slaughter. This tracking is important for food safety, disease control and market access. Animals can be traced quickly in the event of a disease outbreak which will minimise possible impacts on the industry.

FurtherinformationonNLIScanbefoundattheMeatandLivestock Australia website http://www.mla.com.au/Home

17.3 Livestock health issues Poor land management can often contribute to poor animal health. Problems can range from poor condition to severe illness and in some cases fatalities.

A detailed description of these health issues is beyond the scope of this manual, but landholder are advised to become familiar with ways to avoid some of the more common problems.

Horses can be susceptible to:• annualryegrasstoxicity(ARGT)–causedbyabacterial

toxin and can be fatal,• grassstaggers–causedbyanendophytefungiin

perennial ryegrass,• sandcolic–oftenassociatedwithingestingsandwhen

fed on bare ground, • greasyheel–aninfectionofhoovesandlegswhen

horses are kept in mud, • founder–inflammationofhorsesfeetcausedbyfeeding

on lush pasture,• toxicplantpoisoning–forexample,salvationjanewhich

produces a liver toxin.

Further information can be found at www.horseslandwater.com/

Cattleareperhapslesspronetodiseasesandinfectionscompared with horses, but a number of common health issues are worthy of note:• perennialryegrassstaggersandannualryegrasstoxicity

can also affect cattle, • bloat–causedbygrazinglushgrassorlucerne,• clostridialdiseases–forexample,tetanus,• grasstetany–causedbyalackofmagnesium

in feed often due to low levels in the soil, • internalparasites–forexample,thebrown

stomach worm,• lice–requirechemicaltreatment.

On the whole, sheep are quite hardy animals, but they do require some basic animal husbandry to ensure they remain healthy. Landholders should be aware of:• clostridialdiseases-forexample,pulpykidney

(Enterotoxaemia) which can be fatal and often results from sudden changes in nutrition, such as grain feeding or improved lush paddock feed.

• flystrike–causedbyflieslayingeggsinwool• lameness–duetofootabscess• phalarisstaggers–causedbyplanttoxins,andcan

be fatal • internalparasites–worms

Further information on cattle and sheep health can be found at http://www.mla.com.au/Home

Alpacas are hardy animals, low maintenance, and do not requirecrutching,taildockingormulesingsinceflystrikeisrare. They are resistant to internal parasites, and their soft pads help to prevent outbreaks of foot infections. However, they are susceptible to:• perennialryegrassstaggers• clostridialdiseases• internalparasiticwormsinyoungeranimalssuchascrias

and weaners.

Informationonalpacahealthissuescanbefoundat http://www.alpaca.asn.au/A

dela

ide

& M

ount

Lof

ty R

ange

s N

RM

Boa

rd >

Bes

t pra

ctic

e la

nd m

anag

emen

t gui

delin

es fo

r sm

all g

razi

ng p

rope

rties

17.E

nterpriseManagem

ent–SpecificIssues

96

18. Case studies

Adelaide &

Mount Lofty R

anges NR

M B



all grazing properties18.C

asestudies

97

18.1 Jacqueline and Bob Raphael

Property location: Kudla, Northern Adelaide Plains

Current enterprises: Horses (recreational)

Average annual rainfall: 480mm (approx.)

Soil type: Red clay loam

Features: This idyllic property stands out as one of the best examples of an intensive horse keeping property in a low rainfall area of the Adelaide Plains. Day yards, shelter belts and native pastures are abundant.

Jacqueline and Bob have dedicated much of their time during the last 10 years turning a wasteland of salvation jane (Echium plantagineum) and capeweed (Arctotheca calendula), without a single tree to be seen, into one of the most well managed horse properties in the region.

Carefulplanning,researchandagenuineaffinityforsustainable land management has been the foundation for their achievements.

After purchasing their 2 hectares of land in 2001, Jacqueline and Bob embarked on a search for information and guidance to help them develop the property using sustainable land management practices. Jacqueline enrolled in the Adelaide and Mt Lofty Ranges Natural Resources Management Board’sRuralLandManagementCourse,andattendednumerousfielddaysandworkshopstounderstandtheimportance of good pasture management, rotational grazing, using day yards and incorporating shelter belts to provide shade and protection. Drawing up a property management plan to incorporate sound environmental principles has been a vital part of their success.

ThepropertyishometofivehorsesandtwoShetlandponies.Internalelectricfencinghasbeenusedtodividetheproperty into 9 small paddocks, and the strategic use of day yards, allows individual paddocks to be rested once pasture levels become low. This often means that horses only graze for a few hours when paddock feed levels are falling. The useofasmallsacrificepaddockiscarefullymanagedsothathorsescanexerciseandbehandfed.Consequentlyground cover overall is nearly 100% all year round. Despite its size, Jacqueline has incorporated a round yard, arena and exercise yard all strategically positioned with native shelter belts.

Efficientraincapturefromallroofareasprovideswaterforhorses and newly planted shelter belts. The property is quite exposedtocoldwindsduringWinterandextremesuninSummersotheplantingofshelterbeltshasbecomeanintegral part of the whole design. Researching the appropriate local native trees and shrubs has lead to a series of shelter belts being planted to provide shade and shelter, and create a haven for native birds. Larger trees include river red gums (Eucalyptus camaldulensis) and sheoaks (Allocasuarina spp.)

Figure 129. Small horse paddocks can be grazed and still have excellent cover

Figure 130. The use of day yards enables pastures to be rested so overgrazing is avoided

One of the biggest challenges confronting Jacqueline and Bobwhenthepropertywasfirstpurchasedwasthecontrolof salvation jane and capeweed. A combination of low toxicity herbicide applications and re-seeding has seen densepasturesestablishthemselves.Veryfewbroadleafweeds are now found on the property but if they are, Jacqueline and Bob are quick to grub them out before they seed, or spot spray with a selective herbicide to retain, and encourage the good grasses.

Native grasses form a substantial component of most paddocks.Wallabygrasses(Austrodanthonia spp.), brush-wire grass (Aristida behriana) and windmill grass (Chloris truncata)areabundant.Self-seedingofnativegrasses is encouraged by removing horses from paddocks whengrassesareseeding.Slashingthenfollowstohelp to spread mature seed.

The careful use of low toxicity sprays, and low fertilizer rates has also contributed to the spread of these native grasses. Horse manure and an organic fertilizer are applied each year, while every few years a soil test is conducted to monitor soil nutrients.

Introducedpasturespeciesincludecocksfoot(Dactylis glomerata), phalaris (Phalaris aquatica), kikuyu (Pennisetum clandestinum) and couch (Cynodon dactylon). Any bare areas, which occasionally appear, are quickly over-sown with a mixture of annual ryegrass, cocksfoot, phalaris and snailmedics,orplantedtokikuyurunners.Carefulmanagement of these pastures is a key priority for Jacqueline and Bob.

Horse manure is collected weekly from paddocks, and daily from yards, with some being bagged and distributed through the community, while the rest is composted or used as a mulch around native trees and shrubs.

Jacqueline and Bob are proud of what they have achieved and yet they continue to look at ways to improve the property. Jacqueline believes that you are always learning andbyattendingfielddaysandworkshops,aswellassearching for information from other sources, further improvements can be made to the property.

The key principles of sustainable land management which Jacqueline and Bob have followed closely include:• Developing a property management plan• Avoiding overgrazing of pastures • Controlling weeds to allow pastures to thrive• Revegetating with native trees and shrubs • Avoiding contamination of the environment through

manure and dust• Managing the land to its capability.

Ade

laid

e &

Mou

nt L

ofty

Ran

ges

NR

M B

oard

> B

est p

ract

ice

land

man

agem

ent g

uide

lines

for s

mal

l gra

zing

pro

perti

es18.C

asestudies

98

Figure 131. Revegetation to create shelter belts provides shade, protection and a haven for birds

Figure 132. Dense native wallaby grass is a major component of most pastures

Balancing family life and work can sometimes be a challenge, but when you add managing the family farm of 48 hectares, there has to be commitment and enthusiasm. Fortunately Marc has plenty of both. The farm was established in the early 1900’s and like most farms the land waspushedtoitslimits.WhenMarctookovermanagingthefarm some 10 years ago he wanted to improve the whole property to the point where it was environmentally and economically sustainable. He brought a fresh approach to land management which recognised the land classes, protected vulnerable areas and increased production off the better land.

In2004MarcenrolledintheAdelaideandMtLoftyRangesNatural Resources Management Board’s Rural Land ManagementCourse,andattendednumerousfielddaysand workshops. The result was the development of a property management plan based upon sustainable land management principles. Putting the plan into action has been the result of hard work with some support from the Natural Resources Management Board.

Improvingpastures,reducinglivestocknumbers,andintroducingabettergrazingstrategyhavebeensignificantchanges. The property now runs 27 breeding cows comfortably, with yearlings sold in early Autumn. This enables good ground cover to be maintained throughout the year.

Irrigationislimitedtoonlyafewpaddockswhicharesown to perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne), white clover (Trifolium repens) and red clover (Trifolium pratense). Selectingappropriatepasturespeciestomatchsoiltype and rainfall is a key strategy and Marc places a high value on using perennial grasses such as perennial ryegrass, cocksfoot (Dactylis glomerata) and phalaris (Phalaris aquatica), especially on steep slopes where the potential for soil erosion is high (Figure 134).

Understanding how pastures respond to rainfall and soil typeisimportanttoavoidovergrazing.Somedrylandpasture paddocks struggle to hold adequate soil moisture overSummerandAutumn,andsostockareremovedearlyto rest paddocks and encourage the perennial grasses to persist. The farm is divided into 13 paddocks which supports rotational grazing and allows some paddocks to be cut for hay each year.

Soiltestingisaregularactivitywithonepaddockbeingtested annually. As a result 20 hectares were limed in 2010 at a rate of 3 tonnes per hectare to counter soil acidity.

Carefulplanninghasunderpinnedaseriesofpositivechanges over time. The main watercourse has been fenced off for a number of years now, allowing additional trees and shrubs to be planted where original plantings have struggled tosurvive.Steepgulliesshowingsignsoferosionhavealsobeen fenced off and revegetated.

Adelaide &

Mount Lofty R

anges NR

M B




asestudies

99

Figure 133. Fencing to land class is an important land management practice

Figure 134. Establishing perennial grass pastures on steeper slopes helps soil conservation

18.2 Marc and Alyssa Fox

Property location: Lobethal,CentralAdelaideHills

Current enterprises: Beef cattle


Soil type: Acidicsandyloamoverbrownorredclaywithdeepersandyloamsnearcreekflats

Features: Significantpastureimprovement,fencingtolandclass,plentyofrevegetationandreducedstock numbers are all the result of a carefully produced property management plan.

Someareasofthepropertywereinfestedwithwoodyweedssuch as blackberry (Rubus fruticosus) and broome (Genista monspessulana) and while stock used to graze these areas, therewaslittlefeedvalue.Consequentlyawoodyweedcontrol program was implemented which involved fencing the sites off, using appropriate herbicides and revegetating with local native species (Figure 135).

Marc is convinced that the starting point to transform the farm into a low maintenance and easily managed property was drawing up a property management plan based upon fencing to land class.

Even further improvements are imminent, since Alyssa is intheprocessofestablishingasmallflockofDorpersheep,whichshewillmanage,andwhichreflectstheirviewthattheproperty is a family farm, now and into the future.

The key principles of sustainable land management which Marc and Alyssa have followed closely include:• Developing a property management plan, based upon

fencing to land class • Avoiding overgrazing of pastures • Matching livestock numbers with pasture feed production• Controlling weeds to allow pastures to thrive• Revegetating with native trees and shrubs • Soil conservation.

Ade

laid

e &

Mou

nt L

ofty

Ran

ges

NR

M B

oard

> B

est p

ract

ice

land

man

agem

ent g

uide

lines

for s

mal

l gra

zing

pro

perti

es18.C

asestudies

100

Figure 135. Revegetation is an integral part of good land management

InSeptember2010HughandYvonnemovedontothis 32 hectare property with a view to enjoying the lifestyle, improving the land and seeing whether the property could provide some extra income. Having purchased the land a few years earlier there was time to consider a sustainable approach to land management and understand the delicate nature of some areas of the property.

The land classes are distinctly variable. A small watercourse runs through the property which has a large dam, gently rollinghillsandsomesteeperslopes.Lowerflatlandoffers a number of challenges since it is often waterlogged during winter and is mildly saline.

WhenHughandYvonnetookoverthepropertyitwasquitedegraded, pastures were void of perennial grasses due to overgrazing, stocking rates were high and paddock feed low. Delicate areas of the property were not protected from livestock and the dam was unfenced.

Having embraced the concept of sustainable land management, they set about re-designing the property. Someboundaryfencesneededupgradingasapriority, and revegetation was seen as a must in some areas. The damandwatercourseisnowfencedoffwithsignificantrevegetation established to help stabilise the wet areas

below the dam. This has increased the level of rotational grazing which has helped with weed control and pasture improvement.

Shelterbeltshavebeenestablishedwithlocalindigenousspecies carefully selected to promote biodiversity, provide shade and protection for livestock, and encourage native birds.

Property planning underpins most of what Hugh and Yvonne decide with respect to infrastructure. Hugh’s strong belief in good animal husbandry is in keeping with the property being aregisteredstud.Carefulthoughtiscurrentlybeinggiventodividing the main paddock to enable more rotational grazing, and deciding on the most appropriate location for yards and small paddocks. Ease of vehicle and stock access are key considerations.

The quality of pasture varies, with fog grass (Holcus lanatus) and subterranean clover (Trifolium subterraneum) isolated to steeper slopes, and phalaris (Phalaris aquatica) established on low lying wetter areas. Large areas are in need of pasture improvement and Hugh sees this as an important task before stock numbers can increase.

Soiltestingisconductedregularlyandasaresulttheneedtoapplylimehasbeenidentified.

Adelaide &

Mount Lofty R

anges NR

M B




asestudies

101

18.3 Hugh and Yvonne Bygott

Property location: Kersbrook, Northern Adelaide Hills

Current enterprises: Dorper sheep stud


Soil type: Acidic sandy loam over brown or red clay

Features: SituatedamongstthegentlyrollinghillsofKesbrooknexttotheSouthParaReservoir,this idealgrazingpropertyisundergoingatransformation.Shelter-beltsarebeingestablishedand paddocksubdivisioniswellunderwaytoenableefficientrotationalgrazing.Fencingtoland class underpins a sustainable approach to land management.

Figure 136. Fencing of the dam was a top priority Figure 137. Fencing off the watercourse and establishing native vegetation has helped to protect water quality.

Hugh and Yvonne have a good understanding of the capability of the land and have been quick to stock numbers inlinewithpastureproduction.Currently50breedingeweswith lambs, plus rams are managed on the property. Being careful not to overstock, many of the young rams are sold before January when paddock feed begins to decline.

Future activities will include establishing more shelter belts, liming, paddock division and pasture improvement.

Hugh and Yvonne believe they have a responsibility to ensure that their land management practices do not harm theenvironment,orpollutewaterdrainingintotheSouthParaReservoir.Consequentlychemicaluseiskeptto a minimum.

Carefulplanning,research,attendingworkshopsand fielddays,andagenuineaffinityforsustainablelandmanagement has been the foundation for their achievements to date.

Hugh and Yvonne have a strong community focus having workedcloselywiththeSouthParaBiodiversityGroup.HughiscurrentlyPresidentoftheDorperSheepSociety ofAustralia–CentralRegion.

Improvingtheirpropertyisaworkinprogress,butwhat theyhaveachievedtodateishighlysignificantandwith their eagerness to learn more, this property is set to become exemplary.

The key principles of sustainable land management which Hugh and Yvonne have followed closely include:• Strategic planning • Avoiding overgrazing of pastures • Controlling weeds to allow pastures to thrive• Revegetating with native trees and shrubs • Avoiding contamination of the environment by minimum

chemical use• Fencing to land class • Positioning of yards and raceways.

Ade

laid

e &

Mou

nt L

ofty

Ran

ges

NR

M B

oard

> B

est p

ract

ice

land

man

agem

ent g

uide

lines

for s

mal

l gra

zing

pro

perti

es18.C

asestudies

102

Figure 138. Strategic placement of fences and shelter-belts are key improvements

Michele and Robert’s alpaca farm could be described as the ideal lifestyle property, and for the most part this is true, however, running alpacas on a small acreage throws up challenges which can be frustrating as well as rewarding.

Before purchasing their Millbrook property Michele and Robert embarked on a process of careful research into managing land and attended various courses, to gather informationonrurallandmanagement.Oneofthefirstthings they did on purchasing their property, three years ago, was to enrol in the Adelaide and Mt Lofty Ranges Natural Resources Management Board’s Rural Land ManagementCourse.Thisgavethemagoodfoundation to manage the land sustainably and avoid making decisions which would cost them dearly in the long run.

As a consequence of attending this course, a soil test was carried out to determine fertilizer and liming needs. No lime was required but the paddocks were low in phosphorus promptingthemtoapplyfertilizerinthefirstyear.

Michele was keen not to overstock initially and so information on the potential stocking rate for the property was sought. They now run 34 alpacas and a handful of sheep and goats, which closely matches pasture production.

As new landholders, the initial challenges related to getting a better understanding of livestock husbandry and ensuring

the health and welfare of their alpacas, which require annual injectionsforvitaminD,foottrimmingandshearing.With this now well in hand Michele and Robert are revisiting their initial property management plan with a view to improving theproperty.Someoftheirchallengesrelatetorevegetation,pasture management, weed control and improved grazing.

IsolatedEucalyptshavesufferedfromtherecentdroughtand mistletoe has now invaded with dire consequences for sometrees.Whilstsometreeshavebeenfencedofffromlivestock, in the hope they will recover, others will need to be replaced, and so a program of revegetation is underway.

The pasture is essentially unimproved with the main grasses being fog grass (Holcus lanatus) and isolated perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne), along with a range of annual grasses. Patches of wallaby grass (Austrodanthonia spp.) arealsopresent.Subterraneanclover(Trifolium subterraneum) is widespread in places. The grazing nature of alpacas has created patches of capeweed (Arctotheca calendula) and storksbill geranium (Erodium spp.) both of which will be the subject of some effective weed control in the near future.

Whilstsomesprayingmaybenecessarytokeepweedsunder control, Michele and Robert acknowledge the need to change from set stocking to rotational grazing so that paddocks can be rested to help improve pastures.

Adelaide &

Mount Lofty R

anges NR

M B




asestudies

103

18.4 Michele and Robert Wilson

Property location: Millbrook,CentralAdelaideHills

Current enterprises: Alpacas


Soil type: Shallowstonysandyloamoverbrownclayandrock

Features: This small eight hectare property with its steep rolling hills, isolated Eucalypts and two dams is representative of many lifestyle properties in this location. Managing alpacas has been relatively problem free to date, but subdividing paddocks for better weed control and grazing is now a key element of a recently developed property management plan.

Figure 139. Alpacas are generally hardy and low maintenance Figure 140. Isolated Eucalypts have suffered from the recent drought and mistletoe has invaded

This has raised questions about placement of internal fencing to create more paddocks and how to deal with very steep slopes on the southern side of the property. Considerationisalsobeinggiventoareticulatedwateringsystem as paddock numbers increase. All of this will require careful planning.

Michele and Robert have achieved a great deal in a short space of time, but they have now reached a stage where they want to re-evaluate their initial property management plan so that improvements can be made to their land management practices.

They acknowledge the need for sensible planning with realistic time-lines since at the moment both of them work andfindingtimeisamajorhurdle.

The key principles of sustainable land management which Michele and Robert have followed closely include:• Developing a property management plan• Avoiding overgrazing of pastures • Controlling capeweed to allow pastures to thrive• Revegetating with native trees and shrubs • Soil testing and improving soil fertility• Managing the land to its capability.

Ade

laid

e &

Mou

nt L

ofty

Ran

ges

NR

M B

oard

> B

est p

ract

ice

land

man

agem

ent g

uide

lines

for s

mal

l gra

zing

pro

perti

es18.C

asestudies

104

Figure 141. Plans to divide this paddock will assist a change from set stocking to rotational grazing

Figure 142. Steep slopes will make fencing and pasture improvements challenging

19. Helpful Tools

Adelaide &

Mount Lofty R

anges NR

M B



all grazing properties19. H

elpful Tools

105

A range of tools and calculators are available to assist landholders make informed decisions regarding pasture managementandstockingrates.Somecanbepurchasedas individual software programs, others can be used on-line, while trial programs can be located at particular websites.

19.1 Meat and Livestock Australia (MLA) Feed budget template http://www.makingmorefromsheep.com.au/turn-pasture-into-product/tool_8.4.htm

This program enables landholders to calculate simple feed budgets manually, without using a computer. To complete the budget template you will need to:• Measurethepasturemass(kggreenDM/ha)inthe

paddock you have allocated to the stock to get your starting point.

• Estimatepasturequality• Determinetheestimatedintakeoflivestock.• Lookuptypicalpasturegrowthratesforyourpasturetype

and soil fertility.• Definetheminimumtargetpasturemass(kggreenDM/

ha) for the class of stock. • ConvertpasturemasstoFeedonOffer(FOO),byadding

300kg DM/ha.

Stocking rate calculator http://www.mla.com.au/publications-tools-and-events/tools-and-calculators/stocking-rate-calculator

This calculator is designed to determine the number of cattle or sheep landholders should put into a paddock based on its carrying capacity.

Feed demand calculator http://www.mla.com.au/Publications-tools-and-events/Tools-and-calculators/Feed-demand-calculator

The feed demand calculator allows producers to gain an appreciation of the pattern of feed supply and demand over a twelve-month period, the location of “feed gaps” and the ways in which modifying the livestock enterprise might help to close these gaps. The calculator can be used to assist red meat producers in the planning process of their enterprise.

Rainfall to pasture growth outlook toolhttp://www.mla.com.au/Publications-tools-and-events/Tools-and-calculators/Rainfall-to-pasture-growth-outlook-tool

This outlook tool presents the actual rainfall and indices of soil moisture and pasture growth for the past nine months and an outlook for the next three months for over 3,300 locations across southern Australia.

Itenablesproducerstofactorthisinformationintoenterpriseplanning. The tool covers a diverse range of soil and pasture types across southern Australia, and provides an index of potential pasture growth.

The pasture growth index should be interpreted in light of local knowledge as to species, soil type, fertiliser history and aspect.

Daily pasture growth estimates http://www.makingmorefromsheep.com.au/turn-pasture-into-product/tool_8.2.htm

This tool allows landholders to determine the average pasture supply, and likely variability, based on long-term weather records. The mid-monthly estimates of pasture growth rates (kg DM/ha/day) below are for average seasonal conditions for a range of localities and regions across the highrainfallandwheat–sheepzonesofAustralia.Althoughthere is a large variation in rainfall pattern and feed supply within any year, when put together these monthly values reflectpasturegrowthina‘typical’yearforthelocalityorregion without reference to growth in the previous month. These estimates provide a basis to assist with the calculations for short to medium term decision making. They are intended as a guide and will assist with the calculations in feed budgets.

Pasture pickerhttp://www.pasturepicker.com.au/Help.htm

Pasture picker will enable landholders to select pasture speciessuitableforlocalconditions.Itisacomprehensiveguide to pasture species and will help users: • identifypasturespeciessuitableforlocalclimate,soils,

production system and management, • accessuptodateinformationonpasturespeciesand

currently available cultivars, • viewplantimages.

19.2 Evergraze tools and calculators Feed budget and rotational plannerhttp://www.evergraze.com.au/tools.htm

This program will help landholders to plan rotational grazing systems, determine appropriate stocking rates, calculate pasture growth rates, determine how long paddock feed will last and calculate the most economical ration for stock.

Pasture improvement calculatorhttp://www.evergraze.com.au/tools.htm

Thiscalculatorhelpsworkoutthecostsandbenefits ofre-sowingpastures.Itallowsinputsof:• costsofre-sowing.• thebenefitsofthere-sownpasturestolivestock• soilsandtheenvironmentatanygivenfinancialvalues.

The tool uses Microsoft Excel and allows a comparison of two different re-sowing options compared with current practice.

19.3 Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO)CSIROPlantIndustryhasdevelopedthefollowingsuccessfuldecision support tools, based on computer modelling of farming systems and validated by research to promote more profitablefarmmanagement.

GrassGrohttp://www.hzn.com.au/grassgro.php

GrassGroisadecisionsupporttooldevelopedbyCSIROPlantIndustrytoexaminevariabilityinpastureandanimalproduction and assist decision making in sheep and beef enterprises.Itcanbeappliedtothefollowingrangeofissues:• Assessmentoflandcapabilityandproduction

benchmarking. • Realtimereviewofmanagementtacticsduringthe

current season. • Testinglongtermdecisionsaboutherdorflock

management. • Resourcesustainability(groundcover,waterbalance,nutrientdeficiency).

• Droughtmanagementandclimatevariabilityscenarios.• Locationtesting(pasturetypes,animalbloodlines,

enterprise analysis). • Financialtesting–tacticalandstrategic(stockingrate,

calving and lambing dates, supplementary feed policy, marketspecificationforlivestock).

• Supplychainanalysis.

Grazfeedhttp://www.hzn.com.au/grazfeed.php

GrazFeed is an easy to use computer program which calculates the energy and protein requirements of sheep and cattle grazing a particular pasture or even being lot fed.

Feed requirements are based on the Australian Feeding Standards.Ittakesintoaccountthetypeofanimal,theavailability and quality of pasture, selective grazing and

interaction with supplementary feeds (for example the substitution of supplement for pasture).

MetAccess http://www.hzn.com.au/metaccess.php

Thisprogramanalyseshistoricalweatherdatainaflexibleway to quantify variability and assess the likelihood of weather events as it impacts on business, research and every day life.

AusFarm http://www.hzn.com.au/ausfarm.php

AusFarm optimises management strategies for livestock, grassland and cropping operations on a mixed farm or across a variable landscape. The model allows problems to be analysed simulating the physical and biological systems. The software contains powerful facilities for analysing risk over both short and long term.

19.4 Commonwealth Department of Agriculture Fisheries and Forestry Lime comparison calculator http://www.soilquality.org.au/calculators/lime_comparison

The lime cost calculator allows you to compare the total cost (lime, freight and spreading) per hectare for the equivalent of100%neutralisingvalue(NV)oflime.Usingpublishedvalues,itdiscountstheNVtoaccountforthereducedeffectof larger particle sizes which reduce the short term capacity of the lime to change the soil pH.

19.5 Australian Wool Innovation Ltd Timerite http://www.wool.com/Grow_Timerite.htm

Redlegged Earth Mites (RLEM) is an introduced pasture and croppestinsouthernAustralia.ItisestimatedthatRLEMinfest 20 million ha of pasture, causing $200 million damage to the wool industry alone. Timerite is a program which predictstheoptimaldateforsprayinginSpringtoachieveoptimal control of the pest the following Autumn.

WhenmanagingRLEM,thefirststepistocheckwhetheryour pastures have it. Once you’ve checked, it is important, before you spray, to understand the risk level your paddock hasfordamagenextautumn.IfyouhaveRLEMinSpringthen spraying on your paddock’s Timerite® date is the safest way to minimise the damage to pastures next Autumn. Entering your location (latitude and longitude) will enable the programtogenerateaSpringspraydateforyourproperty.A

dela

ide

& M

ount

Lof

ty R

ange

s N

RM

Boa

rd >

Bes

t pra

ctic

e la

nd m

anag

emen

t gui

delin

es fo

r sm

all g

razi

ng p

rope

rties

19. H

elpf

ul T

ools

106

20. Glossary

Adelaide &

Mount Lofty R

anges NR

M B



all grazing properties20. G

lossary

107

Allelopathic plants–Plantswhichcaninhibitthegrowth,survival,andreproductionofotherplants.

AMLR NRM Board– AdelaideandMtLoftyRangesNaturalResourcesManagementBoard

Biodiversity– Thedegreeofvariationoflifeformswithinagivenecosystem,biome,oranentireplanet. Biodiversity is a measure of the health of ecosystems.

Buffering capacity– TheabilityofasoiltoresistchangestopH(ameasureofsoilacidityandalkalinity).

Contour bank– Anearthembankmentwithashallowchannelononesidewhichfollowthecontouroftheland withadrainontheup-slopeside.Itisbuiltwithaslightgradient(1–3%only)sothatwatercan drain slowly without causing erosion.

Direct drilling– Thisinvolvessowingseedintoundisturbedsoilfollowingtheuseofaherbicidetocontrolweeds.

Dry matter pasture production– Theamountoffeedproducedbyapasture(byweight)oncethewatercontenthasbeenremoved.

Erosion– Naturalbreakdownandmovementofsoilandrockbywater,windorice.Theprocessmaybe accelerated by human activities.

Hembra– Femalealpaca

Hydrophobic– Unabletoabsorborbewettedbywater

Land– Whetherunderwaterornot,andincludesaninterestinlandandanybuildingorstructurefixed to the land.

Land capability– Theabilityofthelandtoacceptatypeandintensityofusewithoutsustaininglong-termdamage.

Land Class– Landclassesarebaseduponthelimitationsforagriculturalproduction.Landclass1is assessedashavingnosignificantlimitationswhileclass8isassessedashavingnovaluefor primary production.

Macho– Malealpacausedforbreeding

Native species– AnyanimalandplantspeciesoriginallyinAustralia.

Natural resources– Soil;waterresources;geologicalfeaturesandlandscapes;nativevegetation,nativeanimalsand othernativeorganisms;ecosystems.

Non wetting soils– Soilswhichdonotabsorbwaterduetothehyrophobicwaxeswhichdiffuseontothesurfaces of sand grains during heating, and particularly during wetting/heating/drying cycles.

NRM– NaturalResourcesManagement.Allactivitiesthatinvolvetheuseordevelopmentofnatural resources and/or that impact on the state and condition of natural resources, whether positively or negatively.

Owner of land– InrelationtolandalienatedfromtheCrownbygrantinfeesimple–theholderofthefeesimple; in relation to dedicated land within the meaning of the Crown Lands Act 1929 that has not been granted in fee simple but which is under the care, control and management of a Minister, body orotherperson–theMinister,bodyorotherperson;inrelationtolandheldunderCrownlease orlicence–thelesseeorlicensee;inrelationtolandheldunderanagreementtopurchasefrom theCrown–thepersonentitledtothebenefitoftheagreement;inrelationtoanyotherland–the Minister who is responsible for the care, control and management of the land or, if no Minister is responsible for the land, the Minister for Environment and Natural Resources.

Pasture– Grasslandusedfortheproductionofgrazinganimalssuchassheepandcattle.

PIRSA– PrimaryIndustriesandResourcesSouthAustralia(GovernmentofSouthAustralia).

ppm– Partspermillion.

SARDI– SouthAustralianResearchandDevelopmentInstitute,aDivisionwithinPIRSA.

SLMU– Soillandscapemappingunit(SLMU)isanareaofland(typically0.5to50km2inarea)with recognizable and repeating pattern of topographical features and a limited range of soil types.

Sodicity– Atermgiventotheamountofsodiumheldinasoil.Sodiumisacation(positiveion)thatisheld loosely on clay particles in soil.

Soil compaction– Aprocesswhereheavymachineryorlivestockcausealossofsoilstructure,resultinginairbeing displacedfromtheporesbetweenthesoilgrains.Plantrootsfinddifficultygrowingthroughthis densesoilwhichlackssufficientairandwater.

Soil types– Soiltypesaredeterminedbytherelativeproportionsofthesoilcomponents,sand,siltandclay.

Weaning– Younganimalsareremovedfromtheirmothersandnolongerrelyonthesupplyofhermilk.

Ade

laid

e &

Mou

nt L

ofty

Ran

ges

NR

M B

oard

> B

est p

ract

ice

land

man

agem

ent g

uide

lines

for s

mal

l gra

zing

pro

perti

es20

. Glo

ssar

y

108

21. Further Information

Adelaide &

Mount Lofty R

anges NR

M B



all grazing properties21.FurtherInform

ation

109

The following publications and websites were referred to when compiling this manual. They provide a useful source of information for those landholders who may wish to investigate particular topics in further detail. A list of local contacts is also provided.

21.1 References Alcock,D.(2007).Fullhandfeedingofsheep–quantities,PrimeFact347,NSW Department of Primary Industries

Auld,BA.&Medd,RW.(1999).Weeds,AnillustratedbotanicalguidetotheweedsofAustralia,Inkata Press

AustralianAlpacaAssociation(2002).Alpacas–commonquestionsandanswers,FactSheetAgdex466/00,Primary Industries and Resources SA

Burton, J. & Dowling, P. (2004). Pasture management for weed control, CRC Weed Management Systems

Caltabiano,T.(2007).Propertyresourcemanagementplanning-GuidelinesforLandholders–LandManagementandUse,Department of Natural Resources and Water, Queensland Government

Clements,B.et.al.(2009).RejuvenatingPerennialPastures,PrimeFact906,NSW Department of Primary Industries

Clements,B.et.al.(2003).TheGrazier’sGuidetoPastures,NSW Department of Agriculture

CreatingaSustainableFuture-AnIntegratedNaturalResourcesManagementPlanfortheAdelaideandMountLoftyRangesRegion,(2008)VolumesAtoD,Adelaide and Mt Lofty Ranges Natural Resources Management Board

Curnow,M.andOldham,C.(2007).FeedonOfferPhotoGallery,Australian Wool Innovation Ltd

Foyel,J.(1994).Hoofprints;amanualforhorsepropertymanagementSustainable Resources Group, Primary Industries and Resources SA

Garrett,BK.(1993).WholeFarmPlanning–PrinciplesandOptions,Victorian Department of Conservation and Natural Resources

Gettingstartedwithsimpletime-basedrotationalgrazing(2007).FactSheet,Meat and Livestock Australia

GrazingLivestock–asustainableandproductiveapproach,FactSheet,Adelaide and Mt Lofty Ranges Natural Resources Management Board

Herrmann, T. & Mitchell, G. (2002). Managing irrigated pastures in the Mt Lofty Ranges Primary Industries and Resources SA

Hinton,D.(1999).CattleManagementforNewFarmers,FactSheetAG0471,Victorian Department of Natural Resources and Environment

Hinton,D.(1999).SheepCareforNewFarmers,FactSheetAG0472,Victorian Department of Natural Resources and Environment

Hollier,C.(2003).SmallFarm:GettingtoknowpasturesAgriculture Note AG1053, Department of Primary Industries, Victoria

HorsekeepingonsmallpropertiesintheMtLoftyRanges,FactSheet,Adelaide and Mt Lofty Ranges Natural Resources Management Board

HorsekeepingonsmallpropertiesintheNorthernAdelaidePlains,FactSheet,Adelaide and Mt Lofty Ranges Natural Resources Management Board

IntensiveRotationalGrazing(2007).FactSheet,Meat and Livestock Australia

Liddicoat,C.&McFarlane,J.(2007).SaltlandPasturesforSouthAustralia,Department for Water Land and Biodiversity Conservation, SA

Managementoffoxesinruralareas,FactSheet,Adelaide and Mt Lofty Ranges Natural Resources Management Board

Managementofrabbitsinruralareas,FactSheet,Adelaide and Mt Lofty Ranges Natural Resources Management Board

ManagingSoilsforSustainableProduction,FactSheet,Adelaide and Mt Lofty Ranges Natural Resources Management Board

Maschmedt, D. (2002 unpubl.). Assessing Agricultural Land, Department of Water, Land and Biodiversity Conservation, Government of South Australia

McGregor,B.(2007).Aguidetothegrazingrequirementsoffibreandmeatgoats,FactSheetAG0998,Victorian Department of Primary Industries

McKernan,B.(2007)Fullhandfeedingofbeefcattle–quantities,PrimeFact295,NSW Department of Primary Industries

McLaren,C.(1997).DrySheepEquivalentsforcomparingdifferentclassesoflivestockFactSheetAG0590,Victorian Department of Primary Industries

Mickan,F.(2008).TheBlackheadedPastureCockchafer,Agriculture Note AG1364, Department of Primary Industries, Victoria

Pardy,M.&Weeks,A.(2008).RedleggedEarthMite,Agriculture Note AG0414, Department of Primary Industries, Victoria

PasturesonSmallProperties,FactSheet,Adelaide and Mt Lofty Ranges Natural Resources Management Board

PropertyManagementPlanning,FactSheet,Adelaide and Mt Lofty Ranges Natural Resources Management Board

Roberts, J. & Umina, P. (2008). Lucerne Flea Agriculture Note AG0415, Department of Primary Industries, Victoria

Safeguardryegrass–amajortoolinthefightagainstARGT,FactSheet,Urwin Hunter and Co, Seed Distributor

Simpson,P.andLangford,C.(1996).ManagingHighRainfallNativePastures,NSW Department of Primary Industries

Singh,A.PasturePic–Easyestimationofpasturedrymatterlevels(photostandardsreference),Bundaleer Pasture Group and Primary Industries and Resources SA

SoilandLandProgram(2007).RegionalLandResourceInformationforSouthernSouthAustralia.Government of South Australia. [DVD ROM].

SouthAustralianSoilConservationCouncil(2005).SoilConservationandLandManagementDirectionsfortheAgriculturalLandsofSouthAustralia,Department of Water, Land and Biodiversity Conservation, Government of South Australia

Surfacecoverforprotectionagainstwindandwatererosion,FactSheet89,Department of Water, Land and Biodiversity Conservation, Government of South Australia

Tacticalgrazingtomaximisepastureandanimalproductivity(2007).FactSheet,Meat and Livestock Australia

The Rural Living Handbook - A Guide for Rural Landholders of the Adelaide Plains, Mt Lofty Ranges and Fleurieu Peninsula (2011). Adelaide and Mt Lofty Ranges Natural Resources Management Board

vanGool,D.Angell,K.andStephens,L.(2000).StockingRateGuidelinesforRuralSmallHoldings,Agriculture Western Australia

Ade

laid

e &

Mou

nt L

ofty

Ran

ges

NR

M B

oard

> B

est p

ract

ice

land

man

agem

ent g

uide

lines

for s

mal

l gra

zing

pro

perti

es21.FurtherInformation

110

21.2 Helpful websitesAustralian Alpaca Association http://www.alpaca.asn.au/

Department of Primary Industries Victoriahttp://new.dpi.vic.gov.au/

Dorper Sheep Society of Australiahttp://www.dorper.com.au/cms/index.php

Environment Protection Authorityhttp://www.epa.sa.gov.au/

Feed Test – Analysing the nutritional value of your stock feed http://www.feedtest.com.au/

Healthy Soils for Sustainable Farms http://soilhealthknowledge.com.au/

Heritage Seedshttp://www.heritageseeds.com.au/

Horses. Land and Waterhttp://www.horseslandwater.com/

Meat and Livestock Australiahttp://www.mla.com.au/Home

Meat and Livestock Australia / National Livestock Identification Systemhttp://www.mla.com.au/Meat-safety-and-traceability/Livestock-identification

New South Wales Department of Primary Industries http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/

Seed Distributorshttp://www.seeddistributors.com.au/

Valley Seedshttp://www.valleyseeds.com/

21.3 Local contacts Adelaide and Mt Lofty Ranges Natural Resources Management BoardEastwood office205GreenhillRd.EastwoodSA5063T: 8273 9100E: [email protected]

Gawler office8AdelaideRd,GawlerSouthSA5118T: 8523 7700E:[email protected]

Lobethal office1AdelaideRd,LobethalSA5241T: 8389 5900E:[email protected]

Willunga office 5AldingaRd,WillungaSA5172T: 8550 3400E:[email protected]

http://www.amlrnrm.sa.gov.au/

Country Fire ServiceBushfireInformationHotline:1300362361

Mt Lofty Ranges Headquarters: 8391 1866

http://www.cfs.sa.gov.au

Department of Environment and Natural Resources T: 8204 1910http://www.environment.sa.gov.au/Home

Horse SAT: 8410 0423http://www.horsesa.asn.au/zeolite/zsection/2

Primary Industries and Resources SALenswood Horticultural CentreSwampRd,LenswoodSA5240T: 8389 8800http://www.pir.sa.gov.au/

Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA)T: 1800 477 722http://www.rspcasa.asn.au

State FloraBelair nursery: 8278 7777

Murray Bridge nursery: 8539 2105

http://www.stateflora.com.au

Trees for LifeT: 8406 0500http://www.treesforlife.org.au

Adelaide &

Mount Lofty R

anges NR

M B



all grazing properties21.FurtherInform

ation

111

21.4 Local government contacts Adelaide Hills CouncilT: 8408 0400E: [email protected]://www.ahc.sa.gov.au

Alexandrina CouncilT: 8555 7000E: [email protected]://www.alexandrina.sa.gov.au

Barossa CouncilT: 8563 8444E: [email protected]://www.barossa.sa.gov.au

City of MitchamT: 8372 8888E: [email protected]://www.mitchamcouncil.sa.gov.au

City of OnkaparingaT: 8384 0666E: [email protected]://www.onkaparingacity.com

City of PlayfordT: 8256 0333E: [email protected]://www.playford.sa.gov.au

City of Tea Tree GullyT: 8397 7444E: [email protected]://www.teatreegully.sa.gov.au

City of Victor HarborT: 8551 0500E: [email protected]://www.victor.sa.gov.au

District Council of Mallala T: 8527 0200E: [email protected]://www.mallala.sa.gov.au

District Council of Yankalilla T: 8558 0200E: [email protected]://www.yankalilla.sa.gov.au

Light Regional CouncilT: 8525 3200E: [email protected]://www.light.sa.gov.au

Town of GawlerT: 8522 9211E: [email protected]://www.gawler.sa.gov.au

Ade

laid

e &

Mou

nt L

ofty

Ran

ges

NR

M B

oard

> B

est p

ract

ice

land

man

agem

ent g

uide

lines

for s

mal

l gra

zing

pro

perti

es21.FurtherInformation

112

Appendix A. Rainfall Stations Across the Region

Adelaide &

Mount Lofty R

anges NR

M B



all grazing propertiesAppendixA.R

ainfallStationsAcrosstheRegion

113

Figure 143. Rainfall stations – numbers relate to Appendix B ‘Average annual rainfall across the region’. Map production: Science Resource Centre, Department of Environment and Natural Resources, June 2011

Ade

laid

e &

Mou

nt L

ofty

Ran

ges

NR

M B

oard

> B

est p

ract

ice

land

man

agem

ent g

uide

lines

for s

mal

l gra

zing

pro

perti

esAppendixA.R

ainfallStationsAcrosstheRegion

114

Appendix B. Average Annual Rainfall

Adelaide &

Mount Lofty R

anges NR

M B



all grazing propertiesA

ppendix B. Average A

nnual Rainfall

115

Table 35. Average annual rainfall for locations in the AMLR NRM Board region. Source: Science Resource Centre, Department of Environment and Natural Resources, June 2011

1980 to 2009 All Records

Station Number

Station Name Years of Data

Av. Annual rainfall mm

Years of Data


23005230072300923011230122301323018230212302323024230252302623028230342303923072230752307623078230792308123083230872309023095230962309823300233062330723309233182331923325233432335423355233562336023361233652337023704237052370723709

Adelaide (Glen Osmond)Lower LightMallalaNorth AdelaideOwenParafieldAirportAdelaide(TorrensIsland)RoseworthySalisburyAdelaide(Seaton)SmithfieldAdelaide (Pooraka)TwoWellsAdelaide AirportRhynie (Monta Flora)Adelaide(MagillTrainingCentre)Adelaide(Clapham)Port ParhamGawlerCouncilDepotDryCreekSaltworksBolivarTreatmentWorksEdinburgh RAAFReeves Plains (Parana Park)Adelaide (Kent Town)Hamley BridgeAdelaide(HopeValleyReservoir)Adelaide (Morphettville Racecourse)AngastonGreenockKapundaLyndochTanundaTarleeFreelingRosedale(TurretfieldResearchCentre)Kapunda(BagotWell)Riverton (Leaward)Hamley Bridge (Linwood)StKittsKapunda (Hamilton)Tarlee (Hazelton)Stockport(Clifton)Belair(StateFloraNursery)Birdwood Dept. of TransportBridgewaterCherryGardens

26212930262723282828303028303027242529282430303028302930303030303030302630302928292730252730

603382387497404438407440456460484462391435497637617334424417408415403544434590474549511484530532464483479478493450468567510473834694

1,030893

11683

125124806074

121134961111321275452384935

1014830373532

1243058

1261281481231411284611336414051444847

123117128108

627386401542424453434444466444473486399442499647608356468425425426406549428590459558531494557547470485468480509463480576512463777722

1,045923

Ade

laid

e &

Mou

nt L

ofty

Ran

ges

NR

M B

oard

> B

est p

ract

ice

land

man

agem

ent g

uide

lines

for s

mal

l gra

zing

pro

perti

esA

ppen

dix

B. A

vera

ge A

nnua

l Rai

nfal

l

116

1980 to 2009 All Records

Station Number

Station Name Years of Data


Years of Data


23710237132371823719237202372123722237232372523726237272372823730237312373323734237352373723741237422374323744237462375023751237522375323754237562375823761237832379923801238032380623808238102381223816238172382023823 2382423829238302383423839245092455524573

ClarendonPostOfficeEchungaGolfCourseGoolwa(AlexandrinaCouncilDepot)GumerachaHahndorfGolfClubHappyValleyReservoirSAWaterHarrogateYankalilla(InmanValley)KeynetonLobethalLongwoodMacclesfieldMeadowsCudleeCreek(Millbrook)Mount BarkerMount Bold ReservoirMountCompassMount PleasantNormanvillePortElliotCaravanParkVictorHarbor(RivingtonGrange)SecondValley(Poolamacca)Adelaide(TeaTreeGullyCouncil)UraidlaVictorHarborWilliamstownWillungaYankalillaWilliamstown(GlenGillian)Kersbrook (Mabenjo)Parawa(Sharon)Myponga ReservoirMeadows (Oakland Hills)LenswoodResearchCentreAshtonCo-opHermitage UpperYundiClelandConservationParkRockleigh (Black Heath)SecondValleyForestAldgateWilliamstown(SouthParaReservoir)HindmarshValley(Fernbrook)Hindmarshvalley(Springmount)WoodsideLonsdaleVictorHarbor(Berrima)Blackwood(Wittunga)DuttonEudunda (Moondah)Truro

272828262730292825262930293030292927302930302927223029283028292730302529232830213030302623252030293030

774768474762780666586733496888969676821837711797815616517483670602583

1,053528675604553701737927681783

1,0071,055639831966502909

1,062677866936710483739707446466505

1361281421361231351117593

12159

12312094

1497081

12913214199

122124116119128146115585567434142693733384031404174491193622308740

130

813806466797850633559749533888967731869858764766841669522500699609664

1,083536682646574687741945680830

1,0221,052645851989519954

1,077683862917804495747707444480494

The following maps illustrate the major soil groups found in the region and are broad representations based on soil landscapemappingunits(SLMU).Eachunitisanareaofland (typically 0.5 to 50 square kms in area) with recognisable topographic features and a limited range of soil types.

Sincethereareanumberofdifferentsoiltypeswithineachsoil group, the name given to each soil group is determined by the dominant soil type.

Whilethesemapscanbeausefulguidetodetermine the likelihood of a particular soil type being present on a property, the only certain way to know what soils exist, is to examine the soil on site. Often cuttings can expose soilprofiles,orlandholderscanuseaninexpensivehandheldaugertoraisethevarioussoilhorizons.Ifnecessaryprofessional assistance can be sought to characterise the properties of the soil and gain a better understanding of what restrictions there may be to plant growth, and how best to manage that soil.

Descriptions of the major soil types in the region are given in chapter 6.

Rainfall station numbers are also provided to enable landholders to obtain average annual rainfall data for some locations (refer to Appendix B).

Appendix C. Grid Maps of Regional Soil Groups

Adelaide &

Mount Lofty R

anges NR

M B



all grazing propertiesAppendixC

.GridM

apsofRegionalSoilG

roups

117

Figure 144. Wild Horse Plains Soil Groups. Map production: Science Resource Centre, Department of Environment and Natural Resources June 2011

Ade

laid

e &

Mou

nt L

ofty

Ran

ges

NR

M B

oard

> B

est p

ract

ice

land

man

agem

ent g

uide

lines

for s

mal

l gra

zing

pro

perti

esAppendixC.G

ridMapsofRegionalSoilG

roups

118

Figure 145. Owen Soil Groups. Map production: Science Resource Centre, Department of Environment and Natural Resources June 2011

Adelaide &

Mount Lofty R

anges NR

M B




.GridM

apsofRegionalS

oilGroups

119

Figure 146. Linwood Soil Groups. Map production: Science Resource Centre, Department of Environment and Natural Resources June 2011

Ade

laid

e &

Mou

nt L

ofty

Ran

ges

NR

M B

oard

> B

est p

ract

ice

land

man

agem

ent g

uide

lines

for s

mal

l gra

zing

pro

perti

esAppendixC.G


roups

120

Figure 147. Kapunda Soil Groups. Map production: Science Resource Centre, Department of Environment and Natural Resources June 2011

Adelaide &

Mount Lofty R

anges NR

M B




.GridM

apsofRegionalS

oilGroups

121

Figure 148. Dublin Soil Groups. Map production: Science Resource Centre, Department of Environment and Natural Resources June 2011

Ade

laid

e &

Mou

nt L

ofty

Ran

ges

NR

M B

oard

> B

est p

ract

ice

land

man

agem

ent g

uide

lines

for s

mal

l gra

zing

pro

perti

esAppendixC.G


roups

122

Figure 149. Two Wells Soil Groups. Map production: Science Resource Centre, Department of Environment and Natural Resources June 2011

Adelaide &

Mount Lofty R

anges NR

M B




.GridM

apsofRegionalS

oilGroups

123

Figure 150. Freeling Soil Groups. Map production: Science Resource Centre, Department of Environment and Natural Resources June 2011

Ade

laid

e &

Mou

nt L

ofty

Ran

ges

NR

M B

oard

> B

est p

ract

ice

land

man

agem

ent g

uide

lines

for s

mal

l gra

zing

pro

perti

esAppendixC.G


roups

124

Figure 151. Angaston Soil Groups. Map production: Science Resource Centre, Department of Environment and Natural Resources June 2011

Adelaide &

Mount Lofty R

anges NR

M B




.GridM

apsofRegionalS

oilGroups

125

Figure 152. Virginia Soil Groups. Map production: Science Resource Centre, Department of Environment and Natural Resources June 2011

Ade

laid

e &

Mou

nt L

ofty

Ran

ges

NR

M B

oard

> B

est p

ract

ice

land

man

agem

ent g

uide

lines

for s

mal

l gra

zing

pro

perti

esAppendixC.G


roups

126

Figure 153. Kersbrook Soil Groups. Map production: Science Resource Centre, Department of Environment and Natural Resources June 2011

Adelaide &

Mount Lofty R

anges NR

M B




.GridM

apsofRegionalS

oilGroups

127

Figure 154. Mount Pleasant Soil Groups. Map production: Science Resource Centre, Department of Environment and Natural Resources June 2011

Ade

laid

e &

Mou

nt L

ofty

Ran

ges

NR

M B

oard

> B

est p

ract

ice

land

man

agem

ent g

uide

lines

for s

mal

l gra

zing

pro

perti

esAppendixC.G


roups

128

Figure 155. Adelaide Soil Groups. Map production: Science Resource Centre, Department of Environment and Natural Resources June 2011

Adelaide &

Mount Lofty R

anges NR

M B




.GridM

apsofRegionalS

oilGroups

129

Figure 156. Uraidla Soil Groups. Map production: Science Resource Centre, Department of Environment and Natural Resources June 2011

Ade

laid

e &

Mou

nt L

ofty

Ran

ges

NR

M B

oard

> B

est p

ract

ice

land

man

agem

ent g

uide

lines

for s

mal

l gra

zing

pro

perti

esAppendixC.G


roups

130

Figure 157. Mount Torrens Soil Groups. Map production: Science Resource Centre, Department of Environment and Natural Resources June 2011

Adelaide &

Mount Lofty R

anges NR

M B




.GridM

apsofRegionalS

oilGroups

131

Figure 158. McLaren Vale Soil Groups. Map production: Science Resource Centre, Department of Environment and Natural Resources June 2011

Ade

laid

e &

Mou

nt L

ofty

Ran

ges

NR

M B

oard

> B

est p

ract

ice

land

man

agem

ent g

uide

lines

for s

mal

l gra

zing

pro

perti

esAppendixC.G


roups

132

Figure 159. Echunga Soil Groups. Map production: Science Resource Centre, Department of Environment and Natural Resources June 2011

Adelaide &

Mount Lofty R

anges NR

M B




.GridM

apsofRegionalS

oilGroups

133

Figure 160. Myponga Soil Groups. Map production: Science Resource Centre, Department of Environment and Natural Resources June 2011

Ade

laid

e &

Mou

nt L

ofty

Ran

ges

NR

M B

oard

> B

est p

ract

ice

land

man

agem

ent g

uide

lines

for s

mal

l gra

zing

pro

perti

esAppendixC.G


roups

134

Figure 161. Willunga Soil Groups. Map production: Science Resource Centre, Department of Environment and Natural Resources June 2011

Adelaide &

Mount Lofty R

anges NR

M B




.GridM

apsofRegionalS

oilGroups

135

Figure 162. Cape Jervis Soil Groups. Map production: Science Resource Centre, Department of Environment and Natural Resources June 2011

Ade

laid

e &

Mou

nt L

ofty

Ran

ges

NR

M B

oard

> B

est p

ract

ice

land

man

agem

ent g

uide

lines

for s

mal

l gra

zing

pro

perti

esAppendixC.G


roups

136

Figure 163. Waitpinga Soil Groups. Map production: Science Resource Centre, Department of Environment and Natural Resources June 2011

Adelaide &

Mount Lofty R

anges NR

M B




.GridM

apsofRegionalS

oilGroups

137

Figure 164. Victor Harbor Soil Groups. Map production: Science Resource Centre, Department of Environment and Natural Resources June 2011

Ade

laid

e &

Mou

nt L

ofty

Ran

ges

NR

M B

oard

> B

est p

ract

ice

land

man

agem

ent g

uide

lines

for s

mal

l gra

zing

pro

perti

esAppendixC.G


roups

138

Adelaide &

Mount Lofty R

anges NR

M B



all grazing properties

139

Notes

Ade

laid

e &

Mou

nt L

ofty

Ran

ges

NR

M B

oard

> B

est p

ract

ice

land

man

agem

ent g

uide

lines

for s

mal

l gra

zing

pro

perti

es

140

Notes

Printed on 100% recycled Australian paper, made from pre- and post-consumer waste.

November 2011

Disclaimer:LandManagementAdvisoryServiceanditsemployeesdonotwarrantormakeany representation regarding the use, or the results of the use, of the information contained herein as regards toitscorrectness,accuracy,reliability,currencyorotherwise.LandManagementAdvisoryServiceanditsemployees expressly disclaim all liability or responsibility to any person using the information or advice.

© Land Management Advisory Service Thisworkiscopyright.InformationprovidedinelectronicorhardcopyformbyLandManagementAdvisoryServicetotheBoardwillremaintheintellectualpropertyoftheFederalGovernmentorthepartyholding the original intellectual property. Unless permitted under the Copyright Act 1968(Cwlth),nopartmay be reproduced by any process without prior written permission from the Federal Government.

The Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges Natural Resources Management Board’s Coast and Marine division and Land Management Program are supported through funding from the Australian Government’s Caring for our Country initiative.

Land class system for grazing · 2017-06-30 · netting, a single electric offset wire is often...

Documents

Transcript of Land class system for grazing · 2017-06-30 · netting, a single electric offset wire is often...