Labour Marginal Physical Product (MPP) of Labour The ... 1.pdf · Marginal Physical Product (MPP)...
Transcript of Labour Marginal Physical Product (MPP) of Labour The ... 1.pdf · Marginal Physical Product (MPP)...
LCEconomicswww.thebusinessguys.ie©
Labour
TherewardtoLabourasafactorofproduc;onisthewage.
MarginalPhysicalProduct(MPP)ofLabour
Aswecanseefromthegraphabove,theMPPcurveslopesupwardsatlowlevelsofoutputandthenstartstoslopedownwards.
1) TheMPPcurveslopesupwardsini;allyduetothebenefitsfromincreasedspecialisa;onoflabour.Asmoreworkersarehired,eachworkerconcentratesonperformingonespecifictaskonlyandassuch,increaseshisabilitytoperformthattask.Therefore,asextraworkersarehired,theMPPrises.
2) TheMPPcurveslopesdownwardsduetotheLawofDiminishingMarginalReturns.Asmorestaffisemployed,eachstaffmemberhas
Labour:isallhumaneffort,otherthanenterprise,whichisusedintheproduc;onofgoodsandservices.
TheMarginalPhysicalProductofLabour(MPPL):istheextraoutputgeneratedwhenanaddi;onalunitofLabourisemployed.
JonathanTraynor
!
MPPL
MPP
Quan;tyofLabour
LCEconomicswww.thebusinessguys.ie©
lessaccesstocapitalortheysimplygetineachother’swayandassuchaddi;onalworkerswouldbelessproduc;ve.AfallinMPP.
MarginalRevenueProduct(MRP)ofLabour
TheMRPcurveofLabourisexactlythesameshapeastheMPPcurve.ThisisbecausetheMRPcurveisMPPXMR.Itslopesupwardsini;allyduetothebenefitsfromincreasedspecialisa;onoflabourandthenslopesdownwardsduetotheLawofDiminishingMarginalReturns.ExactlyliketheMPPcurve.
Aswealreadyknowfromprevioushandouts,theMRPcurveofanyfactorofproduc;onisitsdemandcurve.ThisisalsotrueforLabour.Butmorespecifically,itisthedownwardslopingpartoftheMRPcurvethatisthedemandcurveforlabour.
SeeGraphOverleaf
TheMarginalRevenueProductofLabour(MRPL):theextrarevenueearnedwhenanaddi;onalunitoflabourisemployed
JonathanTraynor�2
!
MRPL
MRP
Quan;tyofLabour
LCEconomicswww.thebusinessguys.ie©
TheDemandCurveforLabour
AtwageW1,thereisquan;tyQ1ofLabourDemanded.
AtwageW2,thereisquan;tyQ2ofLabourDemanded.
WecanseethatthedemandcurveforLabourisdownwardslopingfromleWtoright.Thuswecansaythatthehigherthewagerate,thelowerthedemandforLabour(otherthingsbeingequal).
Anincreaseinwagerateslessenstheprofitabilitytotheemployeroftakingonaddi;onalworkers.ThereforeifthewagerateincreasesfromW1toW2,thequan;tyofLabourdemandedfallsfromQ1toQ2.
AswagesrisethedemandforLabourfalls.
AswagesfallsthedemandforLabourrises.
JonathanTraynor�3
Wage(€)
Quan;tyofLabour
DL
W1
W2
Q1Q2
LCEconomicswww.thebusinessguys.ie©
TheDemandforLabour
1) TheWageRate:Ifthewageratetheworkerisseekingishigherthantherevenuethattheworkergeneratesthenthisworkerwillnotbedemanded.
2) DemandforOutput:Ifdemandforthefirm’soutputincreasesthenthismayleadtoanincreaseddemandforlabour.
3) PriceofOtherFactorsofProducCon(includingcapital):Priortoemployingmorelabourthefirmwouldcomparethecostoftheaddi;onallabourwiththatofotherfactorsofproduc;onavailabletodeterminewhichisthemostcompe;;ve.
4) StateSubsidies:Ifthestatewerepayingsubsidiesforthehiringofaddi;onallabourthenthiswouldmakelabourmorecompe;;veandincreasedemand.
5) TaxaConRatesontheFirm’sProfits:Iftheprofitabilityofafirmisreducedbyhighertaxoncompanies'profitsthenthismayaffectafirm’sdecisiontohireaddi;onallabour.
6) PayrollTaxes:Iftherateofpersonaltaxa;onincreasesthenlabourmayseekahigherwagerateandthismakeslabourlesscompe;;ve.SimilarlyiftherateofPRSIonlabourincreasesthisisanaddi;onalcostforthefirm,whichmayreducetheirdemandforlabour.
7) AvailabilityofTechnology:Afirm’sdemandforlabourwillbeaffectedbytheavailabilityofnewtechnologies,par;cularlyifithelpstoreducecosts.
8) TradeUnionInvolvement:Ifaworkerisamemberoftradeunionthenthefirmmaynotemploythisworker.Thisappliespar;cularlytosomefirmsinIreland,whichoperatewithouttheinvolvementoftradeunions.
JonathanTraynor�4
LCEconomicswww.thebusinessguys.ie©
TheElasCcityoftheDemandforLabour
Theelas;cityofdemandforlabourdependsonthefollowing.
1) TheElasCcityofFactorSubsCtuCon:Theeasieritisforajobtobecarriedoutbyamachine,themorejobswillbelost.Thisisbecausemachineswillbesubs;tutedforlabourwhichisusuallyaresultofrisingwages.Howeversomejobscannotbeperformedbymachines,thereforeaswagesincreasesomeworkerswills;llcon;nuetobeemployedatthehigherwage.
2) TheElasCcityofSupplyofotherFactorsofProducCon:IfthesupplyofotherFactorsofProduc;onisrela;velyinelas;c,thenitwouldbecomeincreasinglydifficulttoreplaceLabourwithotherFactorsofProduc;on.So,eventhoughwagesarerising,thefirmisleWwithlieleop;onbuttocon;nuehiringlabourasthequan;tyofotherFactorsofProduc;onarenoteasilyincreased.
3) TheElasCcityofDemandfortheFinishedGood:IfthePriceElas;cityofDemand(PED)ofthegoodbeingproducedislow(i.e.thegoodisinelas;c),thenanincreaseinwagescanbepassedrela;velyeasilytotheconsumer.However,ifthegoodbeingproducedhasahighPED(i.e.thegoodiselas;c),producersmayseektofindlessLabourintensivemethodsofproducingthegoodasLabourcostsrise.
4) TheRaCoofLabourcoststoTotalCosts:IftheLabourcostsembodiedintheproduc;onofthegoodorserviceareasmallpropor;onofthetotalproduc;oncost,thenanincreaseinLabourcostswouldhavearela;velysmallimpactonthetotalcost.Inthiscasetheelas;cityofdemandforLabourwouldbylow(i.e.rela;velyunresponsivetochangesinwagerates).However,ifLabourcostsrepresentalargepropor;onoftotalcosts,anincreaseinLabourcostswouldhavealargeeffectontotalcostsandassuchtheelas;cityofdemandforLabourwouldbequitehigh(i.e.quiteresponsivetochangesinwagerates).
JonathanTraynor�5
LCEconomicswww.thebusinessguys.ie©
EconomicConsequencesofanIncreaseintheDemandforLabour
1) PressureonWageLevelstoRise:Employerswillbeforcedtoincreasewagelevelsinordertoaeractworkersintothoseareaswhereshortagesareoccurring.
2) LossofServices:Whereworkersarenotavailableitwillresultineitheradeteriora;onofservicesinthoseareasoratotallossofcertainservices.
3) LossofInvestment:Indigenousandforeignentrepreneursmayseesuchshortagesoflabourasadeterrenttoinves;ngandstar;ngabusiness.
4) InflaConaryPressures:Ifwagelevelsincreasesuchincreasesmaybepassedontothefinalconsumerintheformofhigherprices.
5) ImmigraCon:ShortagesoflabourintheIrishlabourmarketarereportedinterna;onally.FAShasaeemptedtoen;ceforeignworkerstoIreland.Thenumberofapplica;onsforrefugees’statushasalsoincreased.
6) DifficultyinKeepingWorkersinSomeSectors:Withlabourshortagesandtheaerac;venessofhigherpayinalterna;veemploymentscertainsectorsfinditincreasinglydifficulttoaeractworkerse.g.inthehotel,catering,tourismindustries.Mayrequirestateinterven;onforthere-trainingofworkerstofillsectorswithvacancies.
7) InabilitytoMaintainDevelopmentoftheState’sInfrastructure:Becauseoftheshortageofworkers,developingtheinfrastructureatthepacenecessarytosustaineconomicgrowthisnotpossibleandthismayaffectfutureinvestment.
JonathanTraynor�6
LCEconomicswww.thebusinessguys.ie©
TheSupplyofLabour
ItisimportanttorealizethatwhenwearetalkingabouttheSupplyofLabour,wemeanthenumberofmanhoursthatwillbemadeavailableatagivenwagerate.
AboveweseethestandardLabourSupplycurve,(thereareexcep;onstothiswhichwewilldiscusslater).FromthegraphwecanseethatthesupplyofLabourisposi;velyrelatedtothewagerate.IfwagesrisefromW1toW2,thenthequan;tyofLaboursupplied(thenumberofmanhours)risesfromQ1toQ2.
JonathanTraynor�7
Wage(€)
Quan;tyofLabour
W1
W2
Q1 Q2
SL
LCEconomicswww.thebusinessguys.ie©
TheSupplyofLabourDependson
1) TheSizeofthePopulaCon:Thelargerthepopula;onofacountry,themorelikelytheyaretohaveagreatersupplyofLabourastherearemorepeopleavailableforwork.Thesmallerthepopula;onthemorelikelyitistohaveasmallerlaboursupply.NOTE:Immigra;onandemigra;ontrendsaffectthesizeofthepopula;on.
Thelargerthepopula;onthegreatertheLabourForce
LabourForce=Employed+Unemployed
2) TheAverageLengthoftheWorkingWeekandHolidayEnCtlements:Themorehours,onaverage,thatpeopleworkinaweekthegreaterthesupplyoflabour.Thegreatertheamountofholidayen;tlementsgiventoeachworker,thelowerthesupplyofLabour.
3) ParCcipaConRate:Thehigherthepar;cipa;onrate,thegreaterthesupplyofLabour.Thelowerthepar;cipa;onratethelowerthesupplyofLabour.
TheParCcipaConRate
ThePar;cipa;onRateisinfluencedbythefollowing
1) TheAgeofReCrementandSchoolLeaving:Ifthere;rementageisraisedthenthePar;cipa;onRateisincreased.Similarly,iftheschoolleavingageisraised,thenthenumberofpeopleleavingschooltotakeupfullemploymentwouldfall,causingthePar;cipa;onRatetofall.
2) LawsandCultureregardingMarriedWomenintheWorkplace:Iftrendschangeortaxa;onlegisla;onisalteredwhichmakeitmoreaerac;veformarriedwomentore-enterorremainintheworkplacethenthePar;cipa;onRatewillincrease.
LabourForce:TheLabourforcecomprisesthosewhoareseekingwork(unemployed)andthosewhoarecurrentlyinwork(employed)
ParCcipaConRate:Thepar;cipa;onrateisthepropor;onofthepopula;onwhoareinthelabourforce.
JonathanTraynor�8
ParCcipaConRate =LabourForce
WorkingAgePopulaCon
LCEconomicswww.thebusinessguys.ie©
3) TheStateoftheEconomy:Whentheeconomyishealthy,therearemorejobsavailable.Peoplewhomightotherwisenottakeupemployment,aremorelikelytotakeupemploymentwhichincreasesthePar;cipa;onRate.
DiscusstheFactorsthatInfluencetheSizeoftheIrishLabourForce
1) WagelevelswithintheEconomy:Higherwagelevelsactasanincen;veformorepeopletosupplylabour.However,wagereduc;onsreducethesupplyoflabour.
2) PopulaCon:Ireland’spopula;onhasincreasedwithmoreci;zenswithintheworking-agebracket.Thesizeofthelabourforceincreases,e.g.Irelandhasasmallerpopula;onthanFranceresul;nginasmallerlabourforce.
3) ParCcipaConRate:Thenumberofpeoplewillingtoworkwithinthe16-65agegroupshasincreased.Morewomenworking/peoplewhooncere;redarewillingtotakeuppart-;meemployment.
4) RatesofIncomeTaxwithintheEconomy:Inthepastareduc;oninincometaxratesactedasanincen;veforpeopletojointheworkforce.Inthe2009budgetthenew‘IncomeLevy’couldnowactasadisincen;vetoworkandnega;velyaffectthesizeofthelabourforce.
5) LabourMobility:TheworkforceinIrelandhasbecomemoreoccupa;onallymobile,therearelessbarriersinplacepreven;ngthemovementofworkers.WithEUenlargement,thefreemovementoflabourisincreasing.TherecentdownturnintheIrisheconomymayseemanyimmigrantsmovinghomeandanincreaseinemigra;onofIrishci;zens.
6) GovernmentPolicies:Thegovernmenthasmovedtoeaserestric;onsontheentryofimmigrantstoIrelandaimingtoliberaliseentryrequirementsintocertainoccupa;ons.E.g.pharmacies;hospitalconsultants.
JonathanTraynor�9
LCEconomicswww.thebusinessguys.ie©
DifferentLabourSupplyCurves
TheLabourSupplycurveisgenerallyconsideredtobeupwardslopingfromleWtoright.Thismeansthatasthewagerateincreases,thenumberofhourssuppliedincreasesandviceversa.
However,thereareexcep;onstothiscurvewhichweshallnowtakealookat.
Inextremecases,ifwageratescon;nuetorise,workerswouldreducethenumberofhoursoflabourtheysupply.Thisisduetothefactthat,aswageratesreachveryhighlevels,workersachievealevelofwealththattheyarecomfortablewithandstarttoprefermoreleisure;metomoremoney.Thereforeaswageratescon;nuetorise,lesshoursofLabouraresupplied.Seegraphoverleaf.
JonathanTraynor�10
Wage(€)
Quan;tyofLabour
W1
W2
Q1 Q2
SL
LCEconomicswww.thebusinessguys.ie©
TheBackwardBendingSupplyCurve
Aswecanseefromthegraphabove,ini;allyincreasesinthewageratecauseanincreaseinthequan;tyofLaboursupplied.HoweveraWeracertainpoint(W1),anyincreaseinwagescausesafallinthequan;tyofLaboursupplied.
JonathanTraynor�11
Wage(€)! SL
W1
Quan;tyof
Labour(Hours)
LCEconomicswww.thebusinessguys.ie©
MinimumWageSupplyCurves
TradeUnionsexistinmanyLabourmarketsandhavebeensuccessfulinnego;a;ngaminimumwagefortheirmembers.Aminimumwageisanhourlyratebelowwhichnolabourwilllegallybesupplied.Wecanseefromthegraphbelowthat,atanywageratebelowtheminimumwage,(WMIN),noLabourissupplied.Thenattheminimumwage40hoursaresupplied.AnyincreaseintheLaboursuppliedaWerthe40hourswouldrequireincreasesinthewagerate(i.e.over;me).ThisiswhatcausesthesupplycurvetoslopeupwardsagainaWerthe40hours.
Aswecanseefromthegraphabove,thesupplyofLabourjumpsfrom0hoursto40hoursperweekoncetheminimumwage(WMIN)ispaid.Followingthat,ifthefirmwishesforitsemployeestoincreasethesupplyofLabour,theymustincreasethehourlywage(toWOT)forthoseextrahours.
JonathanTraynor�12
Wage(€)
Quan;tyof
Labour(Hours)
WMIN
SL
40 50
WOT
0
LCEconomicswww.thebusinessguys.ie©
HowtheWageRateisDetermined
Likemostthingsineconomics,thewagerateisdeterminedbytheintersec;onoftheSupplycurveforLabourandtheDemandcurveforLabour.
Assaidbefore,theSupplycurveforLabourisusuallyupwardslopingfromleWtorightbecause
1) AnincreaseinwageswillencouragemorepeopletojointheLabourForce(increasedPar;cipa;onRate)
2) AnincreaseinwagesusuallyresultsinthosealreadyintheLabourForcesupplyingmoreLabour.
TheDemandCurveforLabour(MRPL)isdownwardslopingfromleWtorightbecause
1) TheLawofDiminishingReturns:thisstatesthatasextraunitsofavariablefactorofproduc;onareaddedtoasetsizedfixedfactorofproduc;on,eventuallyapointwillbereachedwhentheextraoutputcausedbythelastunitofthevariablefactoremployedbeginstodecline.
2) Companiesfacingadownwardslopingdemandcurvehavetolowerpriceinordertosellmoreoutput,representedbyadownwardslopingMRcurve.
NowthatweunderstandtheshapeofeachthedemandandsupplycurvesforLabour,wecandrawthembothonthesamegraph.
JonathanTraynor�13
LCEconomicswww.thebusinessguys.ie©
WageDeterminaConinaFreeMarket
Afreemarketisamarket(i.e.acombina;onofdemandandsupply)wheretherearenotradeunionrestric;ons,noemployerrestric;onsandnogovernmentrestric;ons.
Ifwearetryingtodeterminethewagerateinafreemarketwesimplyusethedemandandsupplycurvesthatwehavejustdiscussed.
Thegraphaboveshowshowthewagerateisdetermined.
IfW1istheprevailingwageratethenQ1manhoursoflabourwillbesuppliedbutQ2manhourswillbedemanded,resul;nginanexcessdemand(i.e.LabourShortages).ThiswilldrivethewagerateuptowardstheequilibriumwagerateWEQ.
IfW2istheprevailingwagerate,thenQ1willbedemandedandQ2willbesupplied,resul;nginanexcesssupplyofLabour(i.e.Unemployment).
TheEquilibriumwagerateisthewagethatensuresthatthedemandforLabourequalsthesupplyofLabour.JonathanTraynor�14
Wage(€)
Quan;tyof
Labour(Hours)
SL
DL
W1
W2
WEQ
Q1 QEQ Q2
LCEconomicswww.thebusinessguys.ie©
WagesinaMarketwithRestricCons(NotaFreeMarket)
MinimumWage
Assaidpreviously,atradeunionmaysuccessfullyargueforaminimumwageinordertotrytoprotectitsmembersinterests.
IftheminimumwageissetatWMIN,thennoLabourwillbesuppliedbelowthiswageandassuchthepor;onofthesupplycurveABnolongerapplies.
However,unbeknownsttomostpeople,minimumwagescauseunemployment.
ThisisbecausehigherwagesreducesthedemandforLabourandassuchtheemployerwillhirelessworkersthenhewouldhavebeenwillingtohireatawagebelowtheminimumwage.
Ifwelookatthegraphoverleaf,weseethatpeoplewouldbewillingtosupplyLabourataratebelowtheminimumwage,(representedbythepor;onofthegraphAB).Iftheminimumwagewasnotenforcedthequan;tyofLabourbothdemandedandsuppliedwouldbe,(thisisthequan;tyofLabourthatwouldemployedinafreemarket).Howeverbecauseoftheminimumwageonly(thequan;tydemandedduetotheminimumwage)isdemanded,resul;nginunemployment.JonathanTraynor�15
Wage(€)
Quan;tyof
Labour(Hours)
WMIN
SL
DL
QFMQMW
A
B
LCEconomicswww.thebusinessguys.ie©
EconomicAdvantagesofReducingtheNaConalMinimumWage
1) LowerLabourCosts:Resul;ngincon;nuedproduc;onandreducedriskofbusinessclosure.
2) LowerSellingPrices:Withproduc;oncostsfallingthismayleadtolowerconsumerpricesandincreasedcompe;;on
3) IncreasedDemand:Thelowerwagerateleadingtolowerpricesmayleadtoincreaseddemandandhencegreaterdemandforworkers.Indigenousjobsareprotectede.g.jobsinthetourismsector.
4) InvestmentSCmulus:Reducedcostsmayleadtoincreasedinvestmentbyentrepreneurs/increasedforeigndirectinvestment.
5) ReducedRiskofRe-locaCon:Irishwagelevelsmayfallmoreintolinewithothercountriesandthismayresultinlessfirmsconsideringre-loca;ngtocountriesoutsideIreland.
EconomicDisadvantagesofReducingtheNaConalMinimumWage
1) ReducedStandardofLiving:Workerswillnowreceivelowerincomeandsotheirstandardoflivingwillfall
2) ReducedAggregateDemand:Lowerincomeswillreducespendingandsothedemandforgoodsandservicesmayfallresul;nginunemployment/lessVATreceipts.
3) ImpactonGeneralWageLevels:Thisreduc;onmayindicatetoemployersthatallwagelevelsshouldfallandthismayresultinapossiblereduc;oninstandardoflivingamongtheen;reworkforce.
4) WorkersonLowerIncomesSufferMost:Ifthereduc;onisconfinedtothoseontheminimumwageratethentheburdenisnotbeingsharedequallywithintheworkforce,whichisnotequitable.
5) DiscourageEmployment:Thereduc;onmaynotencouragepeopletojointheworkforce/itmayleadtoagreaterpar;cipa;onintheblackeconomy.
JonathanTraynor�16
LCEconomicswww.thebusinessguys.ie©
RestricCngtheLabourSupply
Aswecanseefromthegraphbelow,thereisaninwardshiWinthesupplycurveofLabour.Thisiscausedbyeitheraprofession(doctors,lawyersoraccountants)oratradeunionac;velyreducingthesupplyofitsmembersinordertoincreasethewageearnedbythesemembers.Thisisanexampleofthetradeunionorprofessionac;nglikeamonopolyandserngthequan;tysupplied.Itisthemarketthatsetstheprice(i.e.thewage).
Aswecanseefromthegraphoverleaf,byrestric;ngthesupplyofLabour(fromS1toS2)aprofessionortradeunioncanincreasethewageofitsmembers(fromW1toW2).
JonathanTraynor�17
Wage(€)
Quan;tyof
Labour(Hours)
DL
S1
S2
Q1Q2
W2
W1
LCEconomicswww.thebusinessguys.ie©
ATradeUnionorProfessioncanachievetheseRestricConsby
1) Se[ngmoreDifficultExams:Manyprofessionslikeaccoun;ngandlawrequireallstudentstositprofessionalexams.IfTheLawSocietyofIrelandincreasedthedifficultyoftheseexamsthenlesspeoplewouldentertheprofession.
2) LimiCngPlacesatCollege:Inthe80’sthegovernmentlimitedthenumberofplacesincollegeformedicineinordertosavemoneyontheireduca;on.Thisuninten;onallyreducedthenumberofdoctorsinthecountryresul;ngineachofthemearningahigherwage.
3) LongerTrainingPeriods:InIrelandittakesaboutthreeandahalfyearsforanaccoun;ngstudenttobefullyqualified.Ifthistrainingperiodwasincreased,thesupplyofaccountantsinIrelandwouldfallresul;ngineachaccountantearningahigherwage.
Whentheprofessionortradeunionsetsthequan;tysuppliedratherthantheprice(thewagethattheyarewillingtoworkfor)thereisnounemploymentunliketheminimumwageexample.
TheEfficiencyofLabour
TheefficiencyofLabourdependsonthefollowing
1) EducaConorQualificaCons:Thebeeerthequalityofeduca;on,trainingorqualifica;onsaeainedbytheworkerthemoreefficientorproduc;vetheymaybe.
2) DegreeofSpecialisaCon:Byconcentra;ngonperformingasingletaskworkersbecomefasterandmoreskillfulandthereforearemoreefficient.
3) InnateTalentoftheWorker:Someworkersmaypossessinnate/naturaltalentsmakingthemhighlyefficient.
4) ClimaCcCondiCons:Ifaplaceofworkistoohotortoocoldthenthismayaffecttheworkersproduc;vity.
5) QualityoftheOtherFactors:Thebeeerthequalityoftheotherfactorswhichtheworkerusesthenthemoreefficienttheworker.
6) ManagementExperCse:Goodmanagerscangetthebestoutoftheirworkforce,leadingtoefficiencies,improvedstaffmo;va;on,leadingtoincreasedoutput.
7) AvailabilityofOtherFactors:Efficiencymaybeimprovediftheworkerhasagreaterquan;tyofotherfactorsofproduc;onavailableforuse.
JonathanTraynor�18
LCEconomicswww.thebusinessguys.ie©
8) CommitmentoftheWorker:ifworkersarehighlymo;vatedandcommieedtoworkthentheywilloperatemoreefficiently
9) LivingCondiConsoftheWorkforce:Ifworkersarehealthy,wellnourishedandhavedecentaccommoda;onthentheywillworkinamoreefficientmanner.
WhyaresomeJobsBe^erPaidthenOthers
1) MRP:ThemainreasonthatanyjobisbeeerpaidthanothersisthedifferenceineachworkersMRP.AworkersMRPisbasicallythevalueofwhattheworkerearnsforthefirm.ThehighertheworkersMRP,themorethefirmcanpayhim.E.g.Aninvestmentbankerearnsthebankmoremoneythanaclerk.
2) DifferentSkills:Theskillsaeachedtodifferentjobsvaryandpayiscommensuratewiththelevelofskillinvolved.E.g.Adoctorreceiveshigherpaythananurse.
3) Training:Workerswhoundergolongerperiodsoftrainingwillreceivehigherlevelsofpay.E.g.Anursewhotrainsandbecomesmorespecializedwillreceivehigherlevelsofpay.
4) EducaConalQualificaCons:Generallywagelevelsrecognizetheeduca;onalqualifica;onsachievedbytheworker.E.g.AteacherwithaMastersdegreereceivesahigherallowancethanateacherwithanhonoursdegree.
5) NatureandCondiConsoftheJob:Thesemayvarybetweenjobsandpaylevelswillreflectthis.E.g.Dangerousworkandunsociablehoursreceivehigherpaythanasafeninetofivejob.
6) NegoCaCngStrengthoftheWorkersTradeUnion:Ifaworkerisamemberofastrongtradeunion,thistradeunionmaysuccessfullyargueawageinlinewiththatworkersMRP.
7) TradiConA^achedtoCertainJobs:Ithasbeenpossibleforthoseinvolvedintheselfgoverningprofessionsi.e.thoseinthelegaloraccountancyprofessionstomaintainhighlevelsofpaybecauseofthetradi;onwhichisaeachedtothoseprofessions.
8) PossessionofInnateTalents:Somepeoplepossesscertaintalentsandhencemaybeabletoearnveryhighincomes.E.g.Sportsstars,actorsorsingers.
9) GenderBias:Despitelegisla;on,abiasexistsinthepaymentofwomenintheIrishworkforce.WomenworkersinIrelandearnroughly80%oftheirmalecounterparts.
JonathanTraynor�19
LCEconomicswww.thebusinessguys.ie©
MarginalCostofLabour
Ifthefirmwishestohiremorelabouritmustincreasethewageinordertoaeractmoreworkers.Butthefirmmustpayallworkersdoingthesameworkequalamounts.Therefore,thefirmstotalwagebill(TotalCostofLabour)increasesbynotjustthewageofthenewemployeebutalsobytheincreaseinwagesfortheworkersthatitwasalreadyemploying.
MethodforAnsweringQuesCons
1) YoucalculatetheTotalcostofLabourbeforetheextraworkerwashired.ThisisTotalCost1(TC1)
2) YoucalculatetheTotalCostofLabouraWertheextraworkerwashired.ThisisTotalCost2(TC2)
3) Youtaketheansweryougotinpoint1awayfromtheansweryougotinpoint2ANDTHISISYOURMarginalCostofLabour.
TC2-TC1=MCL
EXAMPLE1
Afirmwishestoaeractmorelabour.Inordertoincreaseitslabourforcefrom5to6employees,thefirmmustincreasetheweeklywageratefrom€400to€440peremployee.Calculatethefirm’smarginalcostoflabour.Showyourworkings.
ANSWER1
1) 5X€400=€2,000
2) 6X€440=€2,640
3) €2,640-€2,000=€640
4) MarginalCostofLabour=€640
EXAMPLE2
Afirmwishestoaeractmorelabour.Inordertoincreaseitslabourforcefrom7to8employeesthefirmmustincreasetheweeklywageratefrom€250to€300perworker.Calculatethefirm’smarginalcostoflabour.Showallyourworkings.
MarginalCostofLabour:Istheaddi;ontoTotalCostofLabourfromhiringoneextraworker.
JonathanTraynor�20
LCEconomicswww.thebusinessguys.ie©
ANSWER2
1) 7X€250=€1,750
2) 8X€300=€2,400
3) €2,400-€1,750=€650
4) MarginalCostofLabour=€650
NominalWagesV’sRealWages
Sofarthroughoutthishandoutwehavebeendiscussingwages,butmorespecificallywehavebeendiscussingwhatarecallednominalwages.
E.g.€1000perweek.
Nominalwagesdonottakeintoaccountthepriceofgoodsandservicesintheeconomy.Thisdoesnottellushowwealthyapersonisaswealthisdefinedbywhatyoucanbuy.Thereforeweneedatypeofwagethattakespricesintoaccount.
Realwagestakeintoaccountthepriceofgoodsandservicesintheeconomyandtherateofinfla;on(therateatwhichpricesareincreasing).
Realwagesareconsideredtobemoreimportantinwagenego;a;ons.Thisisduetothefactthatrealwagesaccuratelyindicatehowmanygoodsandservicespeoplecanbuywhichisthedefini;onofwealth.
Remember,nominalwagescanriseand,inrealterms,peoplecans;llbegerngpoorer.Ifpricesarerisingfasterthantheriseinnominalwages,thenrealwagesarefallingandassuchpeoplearegerngpoorer.
NominalWages:ReferstothemoneyearnedaWeracertainperiodofworkwhichisexpressedinstandardcurrencyunits.
RealWages:referstothepurchasingpowerofmoneyearned.
JonathanTraynor�21